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Reference218 sections

UK CAA CAP 1535 - The Skyway Code (Pilot Guide)

Reproduced for study. Always verify against the official GACAR at gaca.gov.sa.

Ask Captain Adel about this

VERSION 4

Launch

Published by the Civil Aviation Authority,

Civil Aviation Authority,

Aviation House,

Gatwick Airport South,

West Sussex,

RH6 0YR.

You can copy and use this text but please ensure

you always use the most up to date version and

use it in context so as not to be misleading, and

credit the CAA.First Published, May 2017

Version 2, May 2019

Version 3, March 2021

Version 4, November 2023

Enquiries regarding the content of this

publication should be addressed to:

GA@caa.co.uk – please use subject line

‘Skyway Code’.

For the latest version of this document and

details of changes included in Version 4 please

visit www.caa.co.uk/skywaycode .

For best results when viewing on a tablet, save

the Skyway Code to your device. Then download

the Adobe Acrobat reader app from the Google

Play or Apple App stores and open the Code up

with the reader app.

Graphic design and layout by The Surgery.

www.ineedsurgery.com .i

02CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

The Skyway Code / NotesUse the buttons above and right to

navigate through the document and

look out for blue links in the text

content for further actions.iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

CONTENTS

Contents 03

Quick menu 04

Foreword 05

Introduction 06

Pre-ﬂight checklist 07

Pilot 08

Aircraft 09

Pre-ﬂight planning 09

UK Comms Info 10

Flight Information Regions 11

Lower Airspace Radar Services 12

Frequency Monitoring Codes 13

UK VOLMET Frequencies 14

Frequency Reference Cards 14

Key Regulations 15

Assimilated law 16

Air Navigation Order 2016 18

What applies to my ﬂying? 19

Finding Regulations 20

Operating and licensing rules 21

Specialised Operations 26

Pre-ﬂight preparation 29

Introduction 30

Pre-ﬂight information 31

Meteorology 33

Planning the route 42

Aerodrome planning 47

Mass and balance 48

Aircraft performance 51

Fuel management 55

Flight plans 56

Airspace 57

Essential Rules of the Air 58

Visual and Instrument Flight Rules 65

Airspace classiﬁcations 69

Airspace hazards and restrictions 70

UK Flight Information Services 80

Controlled airspace operations 85

Transponder use 90

Altimeter setting procedures 91Aerodrome operations 93

Aerodrome communications 94

Arrival and departure procedures 97

Visual communications and signage 108

Marshalling signals 114

Safer Flying 120

Pilot ﬁtness 121

Aeronautical decision making 123

Threat and error management 126

Airmanship 127

Safety resources 127

Maintaining skills 128

Staying in control 129

Avoiding collisions 130

Avoiding airspace infringements 134

Emergencies 136

Key principles 137

Mayday or Pan call format 137

Distress and Diversion Cell (D&D) 138

Lost 139

Loss of communications 139

Electrical failure 139

Engine failure 140

Fire 142

Ditching 142

Incident and accident reporting 143

Interception procedures 149

T ables and codes 153

Crosswind component 154

Morse code 155

Distance, weight and volume 156

Abbreviations 157

International ﬂight 161

Foreign requirements 162

VFR ﬂight plans 163

Documents 165

Customs, immigration and police 165

Non-ICAO compliant aircraft or

pilot licences 166

Finding out more 167

Airspace 168

Safety 169

Regulatory 170

03CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

The Skyway Code / ContentsiKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

QUICK MENU

04CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

The Skyway Code / MenuPRE-FLIGHT CHECKLIST

UK COMMS INFOi

KEY REGULATIONS

PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

AIRSPACE

AERODROME OPERATIONS

SAFER FLYING

EMERGENCIES

TABLES AND CODES

INTERNATIONAL FLIGHTiKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

FOREWORD

The Skyway Code was written for everyone who operates in the General

Aviation environment, whether student pilot or seasoned professional. Even

those yet to take their ﬁrst lesson will ﬁnd it good introductory reading.

Whilst the focus is on powered ﬂying, most is relevant to the entire GA

community. Promoting mutual understanding of the diﬀerent aviation

activities makes the skies safer for all.

It is now more than six years since the

launch of the ﬁrst Skyway Code . The original

was a signiﬁcant endeavour to produce

and involved reviewing numerous pages

of regulation and safety guidance. The

format has proved popular, with over 30,000

downloads from the website and many printed

copies sold through third party vendors.

Particularly with changes to regulation, it

is sometimes a struggle to keep the many

CAA publications ﬂying in the tight formation

they should. More than three years have

passed since the UK’s departure from the

EU, and whilst this has brought few changes

for day-to-day ﬂying, it has raised points

of detail in need of explanation. Version 4

underlines our commitment to key documents

being fresh and informative for readers.

The Skyway Code is as much about safety

guidance as regulations. Version 4 incorporates a

revised section on ‘Safer Flying’, with emphasis

on human factors. It also sits alongside

recent work to revitalise the longstanding

GA ‘Safety Sense Leaﬂets’, which delve into

greater detail on a range of important topics.New and revised publications, no matter how

good they may be, will only do so much by

themselves. The messages and practices

within need promotion and application. As

winter 2023 approaches, we continue to work

with community partners on safety initiatives

and reﬂect on how to best assist GA pilots

with managing the risks of their ﬂying.

I would like to acknowledge and thank the

many CAA staﬀ and external stakeholders

who have contributed to the Skyway Code

over the last six years. Even pointing out

the most minor of editorial issues makes

it a better read for everyone, and your

feedback on Version 4 is always welcome.

Michael MacDonald

Head of General Aviation

The Skyway Code / Introduction 05CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023 iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

INTRODUCTION

For corrections or updates to content see

www.caa.co.uk/skywaycode iKEEP UP TO DATEThe Skyway Code provides General Aviation pilots involved in non-

commercial and ﬂight training operations with practical guidance on the

safety and regulatory topics relevant to their ﬂying. Pilots of all aircraft

categories, powered or unpowered, should ﬁnd it useful.

The primary focus is:

£Flight under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) .

£Guidance on key regulations for GA.

£ Version 4 reﬂects the latest requirements and best practice.SAFE AIRCRAFT

OPERATIONSSAFE USE OF

AIRSPACE

Readers should note the Skyway Code is guidance only and not a deﬁnitive statement of the law – in some places the legal

text has been paraphrased for the purposes of clarity and explanation. UK Aviation Regulations are available at caa.co.uk/

uk-regulations/ . More information on key CAA policy guidance and documents may be found in section 11 – Finding out more.

The Skyway Code / Introduction 06CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023 iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

01.PRE-FLIGHT

CHECKLIST

08 Pilot >

08 Aircraft >

09 Pre-ﬂight planning >Including:CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

07 The Skyway Code / Pre-ﬂight checklistPre-ﬂight check…iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight…

PRE-FLIGHT CHECKLIST

The checklist is a quick reference that supplements the more detailed

information provided in later pages. You are encouraged to adapt for your

own needs. Click on the arrows to ﬁnd out more:

£ Licence and rating , valid and carried. Including photo ID*

for Part-FCL licences.

£Medical certiﬁcate or declaration valid and carried.

£90 day rule compliant (if carrying passengers).

£Current to ﬂy under rules for club or group.

£ Fit to ﬂy – in good physical and mental health.

£Passengers briefed.

£Airworthy condition.

£ Certiﬁcate of Airworthiness or Permit to Fly valid, supported by a

valid Airworthiness Review Certiﬁcate or Certiﬁcate of Validity.

£Aircraft Equipment (including survival) appropriate and operative.

£Fuel and oil adequate for the ﬂight and any foreseeable diversion.

£ Mass, balance and performance within limits for aircraft and

aerodromes.

£Documents required onboard.

£Insurance valid.

£Pre-ﬂight inspection complete.PILOT

AIRCRAFT

*Should be passport or driving licence.CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

The Skyway Code / Pre-ﬂight checklist 08iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

£NOTAMs checked for route, destination and alternate aerod romes.

£Route planned.

£Weather conditions checked and suitable.

£Charts current and reviewed.

£Moving map device current and route programmed.

£Destination and alternate aerodromes planned and adequate.

£Prior permission obtained for aerodromes (if applicable).

£Border Force and/or Special Branch notiﬁed (if applicable).

£ Overnight weather checked for high winds, frost or snow

(if aircraft to be left outside).

£Flight plan ﬁled (required for international ﬂight).PRE-FLIGHT

PLANNING

Chart updates, AIP , AICs and NOTAMs are available at

www.nats.aero/do-it-online/ais/

Subscribe to Skywise email notiﬁcations

for the latest regulatory news and

alerts – skywise.caa.co.ukPRE-FLIGHT CHECKLIST

Have you assessed the risks of the ﬂight?

Use the PAVE checklist.!

Pilot, Aircraft, en Vironment, External pressures – see p.123 for more details.

UK Airspace restrictions are available on

08085 354802CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

The Skyway Code / Pre-ﬂight checklist 09iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

UK COMMS

INFOi

02.11 Flight Information Regions >

12 Lower Airspace Radar Services >

13 Frequency Monitoring Codes >

14 UK VOLMET Frequencies >

14 Frequency Reference Cards >Including:CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

10 The Skyway Code / UK Comms InfoUK Comms InfoiKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

UK COMMS INFO

London FIS – all frequencies H24, SFC-FL195

Scottish FIS – all frequencies H24, SFC-FL245 except 119.875 available 0800-2000 local time SFC-FL55NORWAY FIR

ENOR

SHANWICK

OCEANIC FIR

EGGX

SHANWICK

OCEANIC FIR

EGGXSHANNON FIR

EIRN

BREST FIR

LRRRPARIS FIR

LFFFLONDON FIR

EGTTBRUSSELS FIR

EBBUAMSTERDAM FIREHAA128.675

134.200125.700119.875

124.500119.875

123.775127.275SCOTTISH

Control/Information

LONDON

InformationFlight Information Regions

London and Scottish Information can provide a ‘ Basic Service ’ to all civil aircraft in UK airspace. Subject

to capacity, other services such as opening ﬂight p lans or weather information are also available. Not e

London/Scottish Information are not equipped with s urveillance (radar). Any transponder code assigned

is for the awareness of other ATC units. For more d etails of UK Flight Information Services, see p. 80.

The Skyway Code / UK Comms Info 11CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023 iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

LOSSIEMOUTH*

LEUCHARS

NEWCASTLE

TEESSIDE

LEEMING*

WARTON*

VALLEY*

SHAWBURY*

133.150HUMBERSIDE

WADDINGTON

CONINGSBY*

MARHAM*

BRIZE NORTON

CARDIFF

EXETER

128.980 BOURNEMOUTH

119.480NEWQUAY

CULDROSE*

134.050PLYMOUTH

MILITARY WEST*

121.250PLYMOUTH

MILITARY EAST*

124.150YEOVILTON*

127.350BOSCOMBE

DOWN*

126.700FARNBOROUGH

SOUTHEND

130.780 FARNBOROUGHNORWICH

119.355 EAST MIDLANDS

Lower Airspace Radar ServicesUK COMMS INFO

Lower Airspace Radar Service (LARS) units provide UK Flight Information Services (UK FIS) to aircraft

outside controlled airspace up to and including FL100. Hours of operation will vary and service is

always subject to ATC capacity. For more details of UK FIS, see p. 80. Full details of LARS are found in

ENR 1 .6 of the AIP – search for ‘Lower Airspace Radar Service’ within the ENR 1 .6 pages.

* - weekdays only

The Skyway Code / UK Comms Info 12CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023 iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

EAST MIDLANDS

SOUTHEND

FARNBOROUGH

LONDON

GATWICK

7012LONDON

HEATHROWLONDON

CITY

THAMES

0012LONDON

STANSTED

7013LONDON

LUTON

0013 OXFORD

4517 3727NORWICH

***WARTON

3660GLASGOW

PRESTWICKNEWCASTLE

3737EDINBURGH

LEEDS

BRADFORD

2677BELFAST

ALDERGROVE

BELFAST/

CITY

BOURNEMOUTH

0011SOUTHAMPTON

7011BRISTOL

CARDIFF119.100

130.850129.530

134.580121.205

119.480 120.230 126.825130.780

132.700129.550

125.250LIVERPOOL

**5060 5067

MANCHESTER

118.580**

BIRMINGHAM

125.650125.090134.180119.355

HAWARDEN

4607*

120.055ABERDEEN/

DYCE

119.155FMC area incorporates the RMZ.

Entry to RMZ requires compliance with

EGNR AD 2.22.3.

Solo student pilot code with Mode C

required.*

***FMC Area.Controlled

Airspace

Coverage.

Brize Zone - If within Oxford FMC and

within 5nm of Brize Norton CTR pilots

can choose to monitor Brize LARS

124.275 with SSR code 3727.FMC boundary co-ordinates are

published in the AIP for each of the

relevant aerodromes in AD 2.22 Flight

Procedures section.Frequency Monitoring CodesUK COMMS INFO

Frequency Monitoring Codes (FMC) should be selected on your aircraft’s transponder while

monitoring the applicable ATC frequency, without ha ving established radio communication.

Remember to return your transponder to the appropri ate conspicuity code (VFR – 7000, IFR –

2000) when no longer monitoring the relevant freque ncy.

The chart below is based on ENR 6-80 in the AIP.

The Skyway Code / UK Comms Info 13CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023 iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

UK VOLMET frequencies

Frequency Reference Cards UK COMMS INFO

VOLMET is a continuous radio broadcast of aerodrome METAR reports. This can be useful for in-ﬂight

weather updates.

Frequency reference cards are designed to

accompany the UK VFR charts. They include

aerodrome frequencies, as well as many useful

enroute ones.

They are downloadable from the VFR Charts page

of the NATS AIS website.Main 135.375 South 128.6 North 126.6 Scottish 125.725

Amsterdam Birmingham Durham Tees Valley Aberdeen

Brussels Bournemouth East Midlands Belfast Aldergrove

Dublin Bristol Humberside Edinburgh

Glasgow Cardiﬀ Isle of Man Glasgow

London Gatwick Exeter Leeds Bradford Inverness

London Heathrow Jersey Liverpool London Heathrow

London Stansted London Luton London Gatwick Prestwick

Manchester Norwich Manchester Stornoway

Paris Charles

de GaulleSouthampton Newcastle Sumburgh

Southend

Civil Aviation

AuthorityCAUTION: Please be aware that when printing these cards that the scale bars may be inaccurate.Users should check their printed copy against the chart prior to use.0510

40NA

UTICAL MILESNA

UTICAL MILES

SCALE 1:500,000

UTICAL MILESNA

UTICAL MILES

15SCALE 1:250,000D001..........................................

D003, D004, D006A, D007,

D007A, D007B, D008, D008A....

D008B, D009 & D009A

D006..........................................

D021, D023, D031, D036,

D037, D038, D039, D040

✽D026............................................

D118..........................................

D120, D122A, D122B & D122C......

✽D123, ✽D124, .............

✽D125, ✽D126 & D128

✽D127........................................

D129...............................................

D201A, D201B, ✽D201C, ✽D201D

✽D201F , D201G, D201H, D201J

D202A, D202B, D202C& D202D

✽D207............................................

✽D307............................................

A Alpha

B Brav o

C Charlie

D Delta

E Echo

F Foxtrot

G Golf

H Hotel

I IndiaJ Juliett

K Kilo

L Lima

M Mike

N No vember

O Oscar

P Papa

Q Quebec

R RomeoS Sierra

T Tango

U Unif orm

V Victor

W Whiskey

X X-ra y

Y Yankee

Z ZuluA

ZLONDON MAIN 135.375

LONDON NORTH 126.600

LONDON SOUTH 128.600

DUBLIN 127.005VOLMET FREQUENCIES:

SAFETYCOM FREQUENCY 135.480UK FREE-FALL PARACHUTE DROP ZONE ACTIVITY.

The Nominated Air Traffic Service Units (NA TSU) and relevant si te

frequencies to be used are listed below. See UK AIP ENR 1.1 and ENR 5.5.

Pilots are advised to assume the Drop Zone is active if no information can be

obtained.UK FREE-FALL PARACHUTE DROP ZONE ACTIVITY.

The Nominated Air Traffic Service Units (NA TSU) and relevant si te

frequencies to be used are listed below. See UK AIP ENR 1.1 and ENR 5.5.

Pilots are advised to assume the Drop Zone is active if no information can be

obtained.

DROP ZONE NATSU Aerodrome Freq.

Becc les Norwich App 119.355** A/G 120.380

Bodmin Newquay App 133.405 A/G 120.330

Boscombe Down Boscombe Zone 126.700 TWR 130.750

Chalgrove Benson Zone 120.900* A/G 125.410

Chatteris London Information 124.600 A/G 129.905

Chiltern Park Benson Zone 120.900* A/G 134.030

Dunkeswell Exeter Radar 128.975* A/G 123.480

Hinton-in-the-Hedges Brize Radar 124.275 A/G 119.455

Keevil Brize Radar 124.275

Langar East Midlands App 134.180** A/G 129.905

Lashenden/Headcorn Headcorn Radio 122.210

Middle Wallop Boscombe Zone 126.700 TWR 118.600

Netheravon Salisbury Operations 122.750 A/G 128.300

Old Sarum London Information 124.750 A/G 123.205

Perranporth Newquay App 133.405 A/G 119.755

Peterborough/Sibson Marham ATC 124.150** A/G 120.330

Redlands Brize Radar 124.275 A/G 129.830

South Cerney Brize Radar 124.275 A/G 129.905

Swansea Cardiff App 119.150* A/G 119.705

Tilstock Shawbur y Zone 133.150* A/G 118.105

Weston on the Green Brize Radar 124.275 A/G 133.650

If unab le to establish

contact outside times* London Information 124.750

** London Information 124.600DANGER AREA CROSSING SERVICE (DACS) is availab le for certain Danger

Areas. The relevant areas (identified on the chart by the prefix †) and Unit

Contact Frequencies to be used are shown below. For a vailability of the

services see UK AIP ENR 5.1. Areas whose identification numbers are

prefix ed with an asterisk (✽) contain airspace subject to byelaws which

prohibit entry during periods of activity. See UK AIP ENR 1.1.

OUTSIDE TIMES * LONDON INFORMATION 124.750 or

** LONDON INFORMATION 124.600

LOWER AIRSPACE RADAR SERVICE (LARS) (See UK AIP ENR 1.6)CULDROSE APP 134.050; Outside times

DAAIS via LONDON INFO 124.750

PLYMOUTH MIL 121.250; Outside times

SWANWICK MIL via LONDON INFO 124.750

CULDROSE APP 134.050; Outside times

DAAIS via LONDON INFO 124.750

PLYMOUTH MIL 121.250; Outside times

SWANWICK MIL via LONDON INFO 124.750

PLYMOUTH MILITARY 124.150

PEMBREY RANGE 122.750; Outside times

LONDON INFORMATION 124.750

BOSCOMBE ZONE 126.700

SALISB URY OPERATIONS 122.750;

Outside times DAAIS via ATIS 130.150

BOSCOMBE ZONE 126.700; Outside times

LONDON INFORMATION 124.750

OXFORD APP 125.090

ABERPORTH RADAR 119.650 or WEST

WALES RADAR on 127.090

HOLBEACH RANGE 122.750

DONNA NOOK RANGE 122.750

D001, D003, D004, D006, D006A,

D007, D007A, D007B, D008, D008A,

D008B, D009, D009A, D011A, D011B,

D011C, D012, D013, D014, ✽D015,

D017, D021, D023, ✽D026, D031............. LONDON INFORMATION 124.750

D036......................................................... LONDON INFO 124.750/124.600

or SOUTHAMPTON or JERSEY ATSUs

D037, D038, D039 & D040....................... LONDON INFO 124.750/124.600

✽D044...................................................... L YDD INFORMATION 120.705**

✽D061...................................................... EXETER APP 128.975*

D064B, D064C, D110, ✽D113A,

✽D113B, ✽D115A & ✽D115B.................. LONDON INFORMATION 124.750

✽D117 & D118......................................... PEMBREY RANGE 122.750*

D119.......................................................... YEOVIL TON APP 127.350*

D120, D122A, D122B & D122C................ BOSCOMBE ZONE 126.700

✽D123, ✽D124, ✽D125 & ✽D126............. Via ATIS 130.150 or Tel: 01980 674739

✽D127...................................................... BOSCOMBE ZONE 126.700*

✽D128....................................................... Via ATIS 130.150 or Tel: 01980 674739

D129......................................................... BRIZE ZONE 119.000

✽D130, ✽D132,

D133 & D133A.......................................... FARNBOROUGH APP 125.250**

✽D136, D138, ✽D138A, D138B, ✽D138C SOUTHEND APP 130.780**

D139......................................................... LONDON INFORMATION 124.600

✽D141...................................................... L YDD INFORMATION 120.705**

D147, D203, D211 & D216....................... LONDON INFORMATION 124.750

D201A, D201B, ✽D201C, ✽D201D,

D201F , D201G, ✽D201H, ✽D201J

D202A, D202B, D202C & D202D.............. WEST WALES INFORMATION 122.150

D206, D215 & D305.................................. LONDON INFORMATION 124.600

✽D207...................................................... HOLBEACH RANGE 122.750**

✽D208...................................................... LAKENHEATH ZONE 128.900

D213......................................................... COVENTRY INFORMATION 123.825**

✽D304 & D314......................................... MANCHESTER APP 118.580

✽D307...................................................... DONNA NOOK RANGE 122.750**DANGER AREA ACTIVITY INFORMATION SERVICE (DAAIS) is availab le for

certain Dang er Areas shown on the chart (identified on the chart by the

prefix §). The Nominated Air Traffic Service Units (NATSU) to be used are

shown below. See UK AIP ENR 1.1. Areas whose identification numbers are

prefix ed with an asterisk (✽) contain airspace subject to byelaws which

prohibit entry during periods of activity. See UK AIP ENR 1.1.

Pilots are ad vised to assume that a Danger area is active if no reply is

received from the appropriate NATSU.LISTENING SQUAWKS (For SSR Operating Procedures see UK AIP ENR 1.6)

Code Monitor

Birmingham 0010 123.980

Bournemouth 0011 119.475

Bristol 5077 125.650

Brize Norton 3727 124.275

Cardiff 3636 119.150

Doncaster Sheffield 6170 126.230

East Midlands 4572 134.180

Farnborough LARS W est 4572 125.250

Hawarden 4607 120.055

Liverpool 5060 119.855

London City/Thames 0012 133.450

London Gatwick 7012 126.825

London Luton 0013 129.550

London Stansted 7013 120.625

Manchester 7366 118.580

Oxford 4517 125.090

Southampton/Solent 7011 120.230

Southend 5050 130.780

Boscombe Down 126.700 Farnborough North 132.800

Bournemouth 119.475 Marham 124.150

Brize Norton 124.275 Newqua y 133.405

Cardiff 119.150 Norwich 119.355

Coningsby 119.200 Plymouth Mil West 121.250

Culdrose 134.050 Plymouth Mil East 124.150

East Midlands 134.180 Shawbury 133.150

Exeter 128.975 Southend 130.780

Farnborough West 125.250 Valley 125.225

Farnborough East 123.225 Waddington 119.500NOTAM briefings: www.ais.org.uk

Preflight Information Bulletins (PIB):

www.nats.aero/do-it-online/pre-flight-information-bulletins

AIS Information Line: Details of Restricted Areas (Temporary), Airspace

Upgrades, Emergency Restrictions of Flying and Red Arrow flights:

+44(0)1489 887515. Pilots are advised to call this number for up to the

minute briefings prior to all flights.

AIS Duty Officer: +44(0)1489 612488/612489 (H24)

VALIDITY OF AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION

Aeronautical information on this card includes relevant changes notified

by UK AIP AMENDMENTS published up to AIRAC 03/2019 (28 Feb 2019).

Updates to the VFR c harts are currently available at:

www.ais.org.uk.

Users are requested to refer corrections to this

document to:vfrcharts@nats.co.ukNOTAM briefings: www.ais.org.uk

Preflight Information Bulletins (PIB):

www.nats.aero/do-it-online/pre-flight-information-bulletins

AIS Information Line: Details of Restricted Areas (Temporary), Airspace

Upgrades, Emergency Restrictions of Flying and Red Arrow flights:

+44(0)1489 887515. Pilots are advised to call this number for up to the

minute briefings prior to all flights.

AIS Duty Officer: +44(0)1489 612488/612489 (H24)

VALIDITY OF AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION

Aeronautical information on this card includes relevant changes notified

by UK AIP AMENDMENTS published up to AIRAC 03/2019 (28 Feb 2019).

Updates to the VFR c harts are currently available at:

www.ais.org.uk.

Users are requested to refer corrections to this

document to:vfrcharts@nats.co.uk

The Skyway Code / UK Comms Info 14CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023 iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

KEY

REGULATIONS

16 Assimilated law >

18 Air Navigation Order 2016 >

19 What applies to my ﬂying? >

20 Finding Regulations >

21 Operating and licensing rules >

26 Specialised Operations >Including:

03.CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

15 The Skyway Code / Key RegulationsKey RegulationsiAirspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

KEY REGULATIONS

Assimilated law

On 1st January 2021 most existing European aviation regulation transferred into UK law. Such regulatio n

formed part of the ‘retained EU law’, as establishe d by the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018.

Aircraft that were previously ‘EASA aircraft’ there fore continue to be subject to similar requirements to

those in force while the UK was a member of the EU. From 1st January 2024 retained EU law is known

as ‘assimilated law’, in accordance with the Retain ed EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Act 2023.

The distinction between ‘EASA ’ and ‘non-EASA ’ aircr aft continues in UK law for the time being. From

January 2021 the terms were replaced with ‘Part 211’ and ‘non-Part 21’ aircraft respectively. Part 21

aircraft are regulated under the assimilated law an d non-Part 21 aircraft under the Air Navigation Ord er

(ANO) 2016.

The transposition of the EU aviation regulations al so shifted the associated institutional responsibil ities

from the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EAS A) and the European Commission to the CAA and

Department for Transport.

The UK may elect to maintain parity with some futur e European regulatory changes. This is not

automatic, and the assimilated law remains based on the versions in force on 31st December

2020. Changes to the assimilated law will be subjec t to the UK legislative process, including public

consultation where appropriate.

Version 4 of the Skyway Code reﬂects the legal position as of November 2023. Fo r details of

consultations and changes please subscribe to Skywise Alerts and monitor the CAA website.

UK BASIC REGULATION

UK Regulation (EU) 2018/1139 is known as the UK ‘Basic Regulation’. It is the assimilated version

of the EASA Basic Regulation. The Basic Regulation is the high-level primary legislation that sets out

the essential regulatory requirements for areas such as personnel, aircraft and operations. The Basic

Regulation also makes provision for more detailed regulations covering the diﬀerent functional of

areas of aviation. The regulations made under the UK Basic Regulation are referred to collectively as

the ‘Implementing Rules’.

UK AIRCREW REGULATION

Requirements for the licensing of aircrew are contained in UK Regulation (EU) 1178/2011 , known as

the UK Aircrew Regulation. The Regulation contains several annexes, including Part-FCL and Part-

MED. Part-FCL contains the requirements and privileges for ﬂight crew licences and ratings. A licence

issued in accordance with UK Part-FCL is known as a Part-FCL licence. Part-MED contains medical

certiﬁcation requirements.

1The term ‘Part 21 aircraft’ derives from the Initial Airworthiness Regulation, UK Regulation (EU) 748/2012

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Assimilated lawKEY REGULATIONS

UK AIR OPERATIONS REGULATION

Operational requirements for Part 21 aircraft are contained in UK Regulation (EU) 965/2012 , known

as the UK Air Operations Regulation.

General aviation pilots are primarily concerned with the Part-NCO annex of the Air Operations

Regulation. Part-NCO contains pilot responsibilities, operational rules and aircraft equipment

requirements. It is applicable to non-commercial and ﬂight training operations with ‘other-than-

complex motor-powered’ Part 21 aeroplanes and helicopters.

‘Complex motor-powered’ aeroplanes and helicopters comply with more extensive requirements

that are outside the scope of the Skyway Code . ‘Complex’ is as deﬁned in the 2008 EASA Basic

Regulation:

SAILPLANE AND BALLOON REGULATIONS

Operational and licensing rules for Part 21

sailplanes and balloons became applicable in

2019. These regulations continue in the UK as

assimilated law:

>Balloons – UK Regulation (EU) 2018/395

>Sailplanes – UK Regulation (EU) 2018/1976The requirement to hold a pilot’s licence in

accordance with the assimilated law is currently

deferred until 30th September 2025. Before

this date, it is acceptable to ﬂy a Part 21 balloon

under the privileges of an ANO licence, or a Part

21 sailplane with the appropriate British Gliding

Association (BGA) certiﬁcate.

Non-Part 21 gliders and balloons will continue

to be regulated by the ANO 2016. Aeroplanes Helicopters

Maximum certiﬁcated take-oﬀ

mass exceeding 5700 kg Maximum certiﬁcated take-oﬀ

mass exceeding 3175 kg

Certiﬁcated for a maximum passenger

seating conﬁguration of more than 19Certiﬁcated for a maximum passenger

seating conﬁguration of more than 9

Certiﬁcated for operation with a

minimum crew of at least two pilotsFor operation with a minimum

crew of at least two pilots

Equipped with at least one turbojet engine

or more than one turboprop engine-

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UK CONTINUING AIRWORTHINESS

REGULATION

Continuing airworthiness and maintenance

requirements for Part 21 aircraft are contained

in UK Regulation (EU) 1321/2014 , known as

the UK Continuing Airworthiness Regulation.

Most owners or operators of Part 21 light

aircraft will be concerned with the Part-ML

annex of the regulation. More information about

Part-ML is available in the Airworthiness Code

and the Part-ML pages of the CAA website.

UK STANDARDISED EUROPEAN

RULES OF THE AIR

The UK Standardised European Rules of the

Air (UK SERA) is contained in UK Regulation

(EU) 923/2012 . Several amendments have been

made to the assimilated version of SERA since

1st January 2021 and these are highlighted

throughout the Skyway Code where applicable to

GA operations. The requirements of SERA apply

to all aircraft in UK airspace2.ACCEPTABLE MEANS OF COMPLIANCE

Acceptable Means of Compliance (AMC)

and Guidance Material (GM) is designed

to assist the reader in understanding and

complying with regulations. AMC sets

out the more detailed means by which

compliance may be achieved. GM typically

assists in understanding the meaning and

interpretation of an implementing rule.

AMC is sometimes referred to as ‘soft law’.

To provide uniform implementation, the

CAA has decided that AMC will constitute

a means by which the requirements

in the applicable assimilated law can

be met. However, compliance may be

demonstrated by other means as well.

AMC and GM are either published

separately from the associated regulation,

or in some cases may be provided within a

consolidated document.

Air Navigation Order 2016

The Air Navigation Order 2016 (ANO

2016) is a Statutory Instrument, made under

the powers of the Civil Aviation Act 1982.

The current ANO came into force in 2016

and contains high-level safety regulations

applicable to all aircraft in UK airspace and

persons involved in aircraft operations.

The ANO also sets out detailed regulations for

the airworthiness and operation of non-Part 21

aircraft and associated personnel licensing. Pilot

licences issued under the ANO are sometimes

referred to as ‘national’ licences.RULES OF THE AIR 2015

The UK Rules of the Air Regulation 2015 is

made under the ANO. The Regulation contains a

small number of rules that are additional to those

in SERA. It applies to all aircraft in UK airspace.

The requirements relevant to GA are highlighted

throughout the Skyway Code .Assimilated lawKEY REGULATIONS

2SERA and the UK Rules of the Air 2015 also apply to UK registered aircraft outside UK airspace, but only to the extent that

compliance does not conﬂict with the rules of the state in which the aircraft is ﬂying

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Aircraft Licensing Operational

Part 21 Aeroplanes and Helicopters Part-FCL Part-NCO

Non-Part 21 Aeroplanes,

Helicopters and GyroplanesANO 2016 – Part

6 & Schedule 8ANO 2016 – Part

5 & Schedule 5

Part 21 Sailplanes Part-SFCL1Part-SAO

Non-Part 21 Gliders2BGA CertiﬁcateANO 2016 – Part

5 & Schedule 5

Part 21 Balloons Part-BFCL1Part-BOP

Non-Part 21 BalloonsANO 2016 – Part

6 & Schedule 8ANO 2016 – Part

5 & Schedule 5

Note 1 : A Part-SFCL (sailplanes) licence or Part-BFCL (balloons) licence is required by September 2025.

Note 2 : Non-Part 21 gliders do not require a statutory pilot’s licence. Pilots are encouraged to hold a certiﬁcate from the British

Gliding Association (BGA). Foot-launched hang gliders and paragliders (including self-propelled) comply with the ANO

rules applicable to non-Part 21 gliders.PART 21 VS NON-PART 21 AIRCRAFT

Part 21 aircraft would have been ‘EASA

aircraft’ while the UK was still a member

of the EU. Most modern factory built

aircraft (other than microlights and

gyroplanes) are considered Part 21 .

Non-Part 21 aircraft are regulated by the UK Air

Navigation Order (ANO) 2016. Vintage and ex-

military aircraft, amateur built aircraft, microlights,

gyroplanes are normally non-Part 21 . Such

aircraft will have a certiﬁcate of airworthiness

or permit to ﬂy issued under the ANO 2016,

unless exempt from airworthiness certiﬁcation.

Foot-launched aircraft such as hang gliders,

paragliders and self-propelled hang or

paragliders are also non-Part 21 . A full

description of the non-Part 21 criteria can

be found in the CAA GA webpages .PART-FCL VS ANO LICENCES

Part-FCL pilot licences are issued under the

UK Aircrew Regulation and are required to

ﬂy Part 21 aeroplanes and helicopters. Part-

FCL licences, issued while the UK was still

a member of EASA, continue to be valid on

UK-registered Part 21 aircraft. A Part-FCL licence

may also be used to ﬂy a non-Part 21 aircraft

of an equivalent aircraft category and class. To

ﬂy a non-Part 21 aircraft requiring a type rating,

you need a UK licence issued under the ANO.

Licences issued under the ANO may only

be used to ﬂy non-Part 21 aircraft, with the

exception that you may use an ANO licence

to ﬂy a Part 21 aircraft under Part-NCO and

within the privileges of the following ratings:

Single Engine Piston (SEP), Simple Single

Engine Aeroplane (SSEA), Self-Launching Motor

Glider (SLMG) or Touring Motor Glider (TMG).What applies to my ﬂying?KEY REGULATIONS

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Finding RegulationsKEY REGULATIONS

UK regulations can be found at caa.co.uk/uk-regulations :

>For the assimilated law see Aviation Safety > Basic Regulation, the Implementing Rules and UK

CAA AMC GM CS .

>For the Civil Aviation Act 1982 and associated regulations see Aviation Safety > Civil Aviation Act

1982, the ANO 2016, the Rules of the Air 2015, and the DG Regulations 2002

Within the UK Basic Regulation and Implementing Rules section, the regulations are separated into

functional area such as Initial Airworthiness, Continuing Airworthiness, Air Operations or Aircrew.

AVIATION REGULATORY LIBRARY

The Aviation Regulation Library contains the consolidations of individual regulations, Acceptable

Means of Compliance (AMC), Guidance Material (GM) and Certiﬁcation Speciﬁcations (CS).

Both web-based and PDF document versions are available. Note these consolidations are produced by

the CAA, reference should be made to legislation.gov.uk for the oﬃcial legal text.

Regulation Title UK Reg (EU) reference Link to web page (html)

Acceptance of third-country certiﬁcation of pilots 2020-723 Website

Additional Airworthiness 2015-640 Website

Aerodromes 139-2014 Website

Aircrew 1178-2011 Website

Air Operations 965-2012 Website

ATM ANS provision of services 2017-373 Website

ATCO Air Traﬃc Controllers 2015-340 Website

Balloons 2018-395 Website

Continuing Airworthiness 1321-2014 Website

Initial Airworthiness 748-2012 Website

Sailplanes 2018-1976 Website

Standardised Rules of the Air (SERA) 923-2012 Website

Surveillance Performance Interoperability 1207-2011 Website

TCO-Third Country Operators 452-2014 Website

UAS 2019-945 Website

UAS 2019-947 Website

UK ACAS Regulation 1332-2011 Website

CAA PUBLICATIONS

Throughout the Skyway Code reference is made to various Civil Aviation Publications (CAPs). CAPs

can be found online via caa.co.uk/[capnumber] – for example caa.co.uk/cap413.

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Operating and licensing rulesKEY REGULATIONS

PILOT QUALIFICATIONS

For licensed ﬂying activities, you are required

to have a valid:

>Licence;

>Rating; and

>Medical certiﬁcate or declaration.

Licences and ratings

The following applies to both Part-FCL and

UK ANO:

> Licences are non-expiring. There is no

periodic administrative requirement

to gain a new licence document.

>Changes to details such as name or address

must be notiﬁed to the CAA, so that an

updated licence document can be issued.

For types of ﬂying that do not require a

statutory pilot’s licence, you should refer to the

guidance on qualiﬁcations from the relevant

governing body or association such as the

British Gliding Association (BGA) or British Hang

Gliding and Paragliding Association (BHPA).Ratings endorsed on the licence for a particular

aircraft must remain valid in order to ﬂy. They

are either assigned by class, such as ‘single

engine piston’ (SEP) or for helicopters or larger

aeroplanes, by type, such as ‘PA46’. Ratings

are issued with a validity period: in order to

keep a rating valid it must be revalidated or

renewed. The only exception to this is the Light

Aircraft Pilot’s Licence (LAPL) which has a

system of endorsements and ‘rolling validity’

rather than ratings. There are also ratings that

add additional privileges to that of the basic

licence, such as a night or instrument rating.

Certiﬁcate of Revalidation records the ongoing

validity of individual ratings endorsed on the

licence. An examiner or authorised instructor

must sign the Certiﬁcate of Revalidation on

the licence when certifying the revalidation

or renewal of a rating. The examiner or

authorised instructor must also notify the CAA

of the revalidation or renewal by completing

and submitting the appropriate form.

Revalidation of a rating refers to the action taken

to further extend its validity while within the

existing validity period. Depending on the rating,

this is normally achieved by an examiner (or in

some cases a specially authorised instructor)

either reviewing whether the appropriate ﬂying

experience has been obtained within the validity

period or conducting a proﬁciency check ﬂight. ! Key info

Key diﬀerences between the requirements for Part 21 and non-Part 21 aircraft are highlighted

where applicable:

ANO

Part 21Only applicable to non-Part 21 aircraft

Only applicable to Part 21 aircraft

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Renewal refers to the reactivation of a rating

after it has expired. For the renewal of ratings

on Part-FCL licences, you will have to undergo

an assessment to determine whether any

refresher training is necessary, before conducting

a proﬁciency check ﬂight with an examiner.

Diﬀerences and familiarisation training

refers to training that must be undertaken to

ﬂy diﬀerent variants of aircraft within the same

class or type. A variant may be an aircraft within

a class (for example SEP) with additional features

such as retractable undercarriage or variable pitch

propeller, or diﬀerent models of aircraft within

a class or type that are suﬃciently diﬀerent

from each other to require training. Diﬀerences

training requires practical training on the aircraft,

whereas familiarisation may only consist of

gaining additional theoretical knowledge.

Medical and ﬁtness to ﬂy

You are required to hold a valid medical

certiﬁcate, or if ﬂying non-commercially and

only within the UK, a medical declaration is

suﬃcient for most light aircraft, within certain

limitations. More details of medical options for

private pilots can be found at www.caa.co.uk/ga .

>You must also be ﬁt to ﬂy on a particular

ﬂight. You must not be suﬀering

from any illness or fatigue that might

endanger the safety of the ﬂight.

See p.1 21 for guidance on pilot ﬁtness.

Carrying passengers

> 90 day rule : In order to carry passengers,

you must have completed within the

previous 90 days, three take-oﬀs and landings

as sole manipulator of the controls in the

same type or class to be used on the ﬂight.

If carrying passengers at night, one of those

takeoﬀs and landings must also have been at

night, unless you hold an instrument rating. > If ﬂying on a UK ANO PPL or NPPL,

you may ﬂy with one other person who

is also a pilot qualiﬁed on class or type,

without having met the requirements

of the 90 day rule. The other person

must be informed of the fact that you

are not current to carry passengers

and you must make it clear you are the

pilot in command. This is known in the

ANO as the ‘recent experience exception’.

Note : Balloons have alternative passenger currency

requirements.

Flight at night or under IFR

>Unless you have a night rating, you are not

permitted to ﬂy at night. In the UK, night

is considered the period from 30 minutes

after sunset to 30 minutes before sunrise.

>Unless you have an Instrument or Instrument

Meteorological Conditions (IMC) rating, you

are not permitted to ﬂy under Instrument

Flight Rules (IFR). You must remain within

the VFR or Special VFR (as applicable)

minima for the airspace you are ﬂying in.

Flying on a foreign licence

Pilots wishing to ﬂy a UK-registered Part 21

aircraft require a UK issued Part-FCL licence

or validation. As of 31st December 2022,

licences issued by EASA member states are

no longer valid to ﬂy UK-registered aircraft.

The holder of a valid and appropriate foreign

ICAO licence may ﬂy UK-registered non-Part

21 aircraft on non-commercial operations,

without an individual licence validation.Operating and licensing rulesKEY REGULATIONS > PILOT QUALIFICATIONS

ANO

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PILOT IN COMMAND RESPONSIBILITIES

The following section based on:

>Part-NCO for Part 21 aeroplanes

and helicopters; and

>Chapter 2 of Part 5 and Schedule 5 of

the ANO 2016 for non-Part 21 aircraft.

Pilots of Part 21 gliders and balloons

should refer to the Part-SAO and Part-

BOP regulations respectively.

As pilot in command it is your responsibility

to ensure the relevant requirements are

met before and during the ﬂight.

Responsibilities and conduct of the ﬂight

> The general safety of the ﬂight

and those onboard;

> Complying with the regulations applicable to

the ﬂight, both of the state of registry and

the state in which the ﬂight takes place;

> Deciding whether to initiate, continue

or terminate the ﬂight, taking into

account its ongoing safety;

> Determining whether you are ﬁt to

ﬂy and not suﬀering from any illness,

fatigue or other condition that will

impair your performance and might

render you unsafe to ﬂy; and

> Deﬁning the roles and duties of the

aircraft’s crew, including who is the PIC.Prior to a ﬂight you must be satisﬁed that:

> The ﬂight can be safely made,

taking into account the available

information about the intended route

and aerodromes to be used; and

> That all facilities, including operating sites and

navigation aids that are required for the ﬂight,

are adequate for the intended operation.

Before making any take-oﬀ, approach or

landing you must be satisﬁed that:

> The weather at the operating site

and general condition of the take-oﬀ,

approach or landing area would not

prevent a safe departure or arrival.

Procedures

> You must operate the aircraft in

accordance with its aircraft ﬂight

manual (AFM) and/or conditions of its

permit to ﬂy (as applicable); and

> Procedures must be in place for any

reasonably foreseeable emergency.

Weather conditions

> You must only commence or continue a VFR

ﬂight if the information available indicates

that at the place of departure, along the route

and at the intended destination, conditions

will be at or above VFR minima; and

> There is an alternative course of

action available should the weather

conditions prevent the completion

of the ﬂight as planned.Operating and licensing rulesKEY REGULATIONS

! Key info

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Fuel

> You must ensure suﬃcient fuel, oil,

coolant or ballast (depending on the type

of aircraft) is carried for the intended ﬂight

and a safe margin for contingencies.

> For aeroplanes and helicopters under

Part-NCO, minimum fuel reserves

are also required for VFR ﬂight.

>Aeroplanes:

> By day, if remaining within sight

of the aerodrome and returning

to that aerodrome – 10 mins

> By day – 30 mins

> At night – 45 mins

>Helicopters:

>20 mins

Aircraft and equipment

>You must ensure the aircraft is airworthy;

> Equipment required for the ﬂight

is ﬁtted and serviceable;

> Any load is properly secured and

would not prevent an emergency

evacuation of the aircraft; and

> The aircraft’s mass and balance will

remain within the permitted range

for the entirety of the ﬂight. Use of Oxygen

> You and other members of the crew must

use oxygen continuously whenever the cabin

altitude exceeds 10,000 ft for more than

30 minutes or any time above 13,000 ft.

> Passengers must use oxygen

any time above 13,000 ft.

> Notwithstanding the above, Part-NCO

gives the PIC ﬂexibility to determine

oxygen needs depending on how a lack

of oxygen may aﬀect the crew and/or

passengers. This may allow ﬂight above

10,000 ft without oxygen; however

such a determination could also result

in oxygen being used below 10,000 ft.

Survival equipment

> You must determine what survival equipment

would be necessary to facilitate the survival

of those in the aircraft, should a forced

landing on either land or water occur; and

> Whether it is necessary for occupants

to wear life jackets. If you are ﬂying

outside of gliding distance of land, you are

required to carry one for each occupant.

> Aeroplanes and helicopters are

required to have an Emergency

Locator Transmitter (ELT). In aircraft

up to six seats, a Personal Locator

Beacon (PLB) may be carried instead.Operating and licensing rulesKEY REGULATIONS > PILOT IN COMMAND RESPONSIBILITIES

Info: Aircraft equipment

For full aircraft equipment requirements refer to either:

Part-NCO (IDE) for Part 21 aircraft ; or

Schedule 5 of the ANO for non-Part 21.iPart 21

Part 21

ANOPart 21

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Seating

> You must ensure at all times while in ﬂight,

at least one pilot is at the controls of the

aircraft with their seatbelt fastened; and

> Except in the case of balloons, all passengers

are seated with their seatbelts fastened

during taxi, take-oﬀ, landing and any other

time when necessary for their safety.

Carriage of documents

> For non-Part 21 aircraft ﬂying within

the UK, there are no document

carriage requirements other

than charts for navigation.

>When exercising the privileges of

a Part-FCL licence you must carry

the licence document and photo

ID with you at all times. This should

be a driving licence or passport.

> For Part 21 aircraft, aeroplanes

and helicopters under Part-NCO,

you must always carry:

> Aircraft ﬂight manual;

>Current charts;

>Interception procedures;

> Flight plan details (if one

has been ﬁled); and

> Minimum Equipment List (if

you operate with one).

>For international ﬂights there are

more extensive requirements, the

details of which can found in the

‘International Flight’ chapter on p.1 61.

Passenger brieﬁng

> You must ensure passengers are

briefed on the emergency equipment

and procedures for the ﬂight; and

> If required for the ﬂight, the use

of oxygen equipment.

See also the sections on Safer Flying

and Emergencies .VFR MOVING MAPS

The CAA promotes the use of VFR moving

map devices for both pre-ﬂight planning and

in-ﬂight navigation. Devices and any ﬂight

planning software must be kept updated,

since there are frequent changes to airspace

boundaries and other aeronautical information.

It is more eﬀective to input the route and review

all the relevant aeronautical information on

the VFR moving map device prior to the ﬂight,

rather than simply switching it on when you

go ﬂying. The CAA also recommends pilots

review and carry a paper chart, in case the

device should fail. For more information on

the use of VFR moving map devices, see SSL

29, available at www.caa.co.uk/safetysense .

Y ou should be familiar with the use of your

VFR Moving Map device and not allow

it to become an in-ﬂight distraction.? Guidance

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AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION

PUBLICATION

The oﬃcial source of aeronautical information is

the state Aeronautical Information Service (AIS) .

AIS publishes the Aeronautical Information

Publication (AIP) . This contains information

of a permanent nature that is relevant to air

navigation. The AIP conforms to international

standards and is updated every 28 days.

>The UK AIP is available via

the NATS AIS website .

> Most European AIPs can be found in the

European Aeronautical Database (EAD)

database – search for this online.

The AIP is split into:

> GEN – General operational, legal

and administrative information;

>ENR – Enroute airspace; and

> AD – Aerodromes, with entries for all

licensed or certiﬁcated ones in the UK.

There are also AIP supplements which contain

temporary changes to the AIP , normally of a long

duration. These are available alongside the AIP .AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION CIRCULARS

AICs are notices relating to safety, navigation,

technical, administrative or legal matters not

included in the permanent information found in

the AIP . AICs can be obtained from the same

website as the AIP and are organised into

ﬁve categories depending on the subject:

>White – Administrative;

> Yellow – Operational, including ATS

facilities and requirements;

> Pink – Safety topics;

> Mauve – UK Airspace Restrictions; and

>Green – Maps and charts.

Yellow and Mauve are most relevant

for pre-ﬂight planning.

Brieﬁng Sheets

Brieﬁng Sheets are published by the CAA

to notify temporary items of operational

signiﬁcance which for safety reasons

are deemed necessary to promulgate

outside the AIC publication schedule.

Brieﬁng Sheets contain comprehensive text

and/or graphics about the subject matter and

which may typically be activated by NOTAM,

or expand on a subject notiﬁed by NOTAM.

Where applicable the NOTAM and Brieﬁng

Sheet are also announced via the CAA

Skywise notiﬁcation platform.Pre-ﬂight informationPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

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Pre-ﬂight informationPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

NOTAMS

NOTAMs are notiﬁcations of temporary

information (usually of less than 90 days

duration), or permanent information

not yet included in the AIP .

> The AIS site is the oﬃcial source of NOTAMs

in the UK. Use of the ‘aerodrome brief’,

‘narrow route brief’ and/or ‘point brief’

functions will help reduce the number

of irrelevant NOTAMs displayed.

>As an aid to ﬂight preparation and situational

awareness, you are recommended to also

use applications that allow NOTAMs to be

overlaid on a graphical chart. The AIS website

also incorporates a NOTAM map feature.

>You should always check the dates and times

(which will be in UTC) of the AIP and AIC/

NOTAMs to determine whether they are

relevant to the time at which you are ﬂying.

You must check NOTAMs on the day of the

ﬂight – sometimes they may come out at

short notice.RESTRICTED AIRSPACE (TEMPORARY)

Restricted airspace (temporary) (see p.74 for

depiction) may be established around large air

displays or other signiﬁcant public gatherings.

Under the Restriction of Flying Regulations, entry

to such airspace may be prohibited or restricted.

This will normally be detailed in a ‘Mauve’

AIC. Read these AICs carefully to make sure

you understand the nature of the restriction.

>Infringements of RA(T)s cause risk and

disruption to the events they are intended

to protect. This may include major

airshows featuring high performance

military aircraft such as the Red Arrows.

>Relevant RA(T)s will be listed in NOTAMs.

If an RA(T) looks like it may impact on

your intended ﬂight, review the relevant

AIC which will give more detail.

>An additional way to check for RA(T)s is the

AIS information line on 08085 354802 – this

provides a recorded message detailing

the restrictions in eﬀect on the day. ! Key info

Restricted Areas (Temporary) are

used to protect major airshows

and other large public events.

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MeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Normal weather forecasts may be used

for general planning. Within a few days of

the intended ﬂight, surface pressure charts

give a useful indication of likely conditions.

Conduct a detailed review of aviation

weather forecasts prior to the ﬂight.

The Met Oﬃce is the CAA designated source of

aviation weather information in the UK and

provides the following free products through the

Aviation Brieﬁng Service :

>Surface pressure charts;

>UK charts F214 (Winds aloft) and

F215 (Signiﬁcant weather);

>Near Europe charts F414 (Winds aloft)

and F415 (Signiﬁcant weather);

>TAFs and METARs;

>Satellite and rainfall imagery;

>GAMETs; and

>UK SIGMETs.

Pilot resource portal

The Met Oﬃce provides a knowledge resource

section to help pilots understand aviation

products and apply Threat and Error Management

principles and basic meteorology, available at

metoﬃce.gov.uk . There is also a useful guide

to weather information available for download,

known as ‘GetMet’ . Met apps

There is a range of apps and software that provide

aviation weather information and integration into

the ﬂight planning process.

Always check the source data and understand

whether information has been provided by a

human forecaster or derived from weather models

that may be unveriﬁed.

Surface pressure charts

Surface pressure charts become relevant around

four days prior to the ﬂight. They indicate the

possible movement of weather fronts and surface

pressure distribution. Y ou should know which

conditions are associated with the diﬀerent

directions from which air masses approach the

UK. For example during the summer, air from

Europe tends to be dry but hazy, whereas air from

the Atlantic tends to bring rain and low cloud.

Warm front

Cold front

Stationary front

Occluded frontChart Key

980Centre of low

pressure areaCentre of high

pressure area

Info: You can register to

access weather forecasts

for free at metoﬃce.gov.uki

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AREA SURFACE VIS AND WX CLOUD 0 CValid 020800 to 021700 Z FEB 17 Fronts/zones valid at 021200 Z

Issued by Met Office ExeterForecast Weather below 10000 FT

F215 Contact telephone 0370 900 0100

at 020250 ZXXX means above chart upper limitAll heights in 100s of feet above mean sea level

Cloud amount (Oktas)

FEW: 1-2 SCT: 3-4

BKN: 5-7 OVC: 8 Speed of movement in KT

Hill FG implies VIS <200 M FZ precipitation implies MOD / SEV ICE

MOD / SEV TURB

TS / CB implies GR

+ +

E20 KT30 KT

10 KT25 KT

10 KT30 KT5 KT

10 KTA

A1B

BB1

B1C

25 KT

Outlook Until 022359 Z: SIMILARMeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Metform 215

Metform 215 (F215) provides a forecast of in-ﬂight weather conditions below 10,000 ft. It covers

the British Isles for a 9-hour period centred on a ﬁxed time. It is designed for use as either an

area or route forecast. F415 is the version for near Europe.

The chart shows the forecast position, direction and speed of surface fronts and pressure

centres at the ﬁxed time shown in the chart’s title box. Abbreviations used can be found in the

Tables and Codes chapter (see p.1 57).

Visibility and weather. Time of issue = 2nd day

of month at 0250 UTC Key 0 degree isotherm; in this case

6,000 ft – 8,000 ft. Validity period = 0800 to 1700

UTC on 2nd day of the month

(February 2017). Time of front/

zone positions = 1200 UTC.Zones of distinct weather

are enclosed by continuous

scalloped lines, each zone

being identiﬁed by a letter. Cloud cover, type and level above mean sea level. In this

case there are two sets of clouds reported, one on each

line. On the second line 020-030/040 indicates a base of

between 2,000 ft and 3,000 ft with tops of 4,000 ft. XXX

denotes tops above 10,000 ft. Symbols for associated ice

or turbulence are also included.

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MeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Metform 214

This provides forecast upper winds and temperatures. F414 provides the same for near Europe.

The top of the box

gives the position of

the ‘spot’ – which

is normally at the

intersection of the

nearest LAT/LONG

lines.

The four columns

(left to right) cover:

> Altitude in 1,000s

of feet

> Wind direction

> Wind speed

> Temperature

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MeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > AVAILABLE INFORMATION

GAMET

GAMETs (General Aviation METeorological forecasts) are an abbreviated plain text forecast designed

for low level general aviation users who operate over the UK. GAMETs replaced AIRMETs following

a review undertaken by the Met Oﬃce and the CAA. The GAMET forecast is produced four times a

day, divided into four regions of the UK.

Forecast region – in

this example, the SE

of the UK, and issue

time.

Summary of any

expected hazardous

conditions.Graphical reference

of area of forecast.

Summary of

synoptic situation.

Height above sea

level of freezing

level.

Detailed forecast

of conditions within

the region covered

by the forecast,

often split into

‘zones’.Period of forecast

validity.

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MeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Spot wind and

temperature

forecasts for

representative

locations.

Regional outlook

for the following 6

hours.

UK outlook for the

following 24 hours.

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MeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > AVAILABLE INFORMATION

TAFs and METARs

Full details of abbreviations used in TAFs and

METARs are available in the Tables and Codes

chapter (see p.1 57).

>TAFs are forecasts; METARs are

reports of the actual weather.

>24 or 30 hour TAFs are often produced

for larger aerodromes. These will give

an indication as to when particular

weather will be present and when it is

expected to change. Look at several

in the relevant area to build a better

picture of the likely weather situation.

>If there is uncertainty in the forecasts,

for example if the time of a change in the

weather cannot be conﬁdently predicted,

or there are periods where ‘PROB30’ or

‘PROB40’ are used, examine the overall

weather situation more thoroughly.

>TAFs/METARs give the cloud base

in relation to the ground level at the

reporting aerodrome – take account

of that when comparing them to the

planned altitude of your route.

>Looking at TAFs/METARs on a map

presentation rather than a list will make it

easier to build a weather picture. The Met

Oﬃce website includes this feature.

Example TAF:

EGHI 121954Z 1221/1223 34008KT 9999 SCT025

TEMPO 1221/1223 8000 PROB30 1221/1223

3000 BR MIFG

>121954Z refers to the time of issue –

1954 UTC on 12th day of the month;

>1221/1223 refers to period of the

forecast – 2100 UTC to 2300 UTC

on 12th day of the month; >34008KT is the wind – blowing

from 340º at 8 kts;

>9999 is the visibility – when visibility is

quoted as 10 km or more, it is reported as

‘9999’. When lower than 10 km, it will be

reported as the actual visibility in metres.

>SCT025 is the cloud cover. In this case

‘SCT’ means coverage of 3 to 4 oktas

(eighths) of the sky. ‘025’ means 2,500

ft above aerodrome level (AAL). Unless

the cloud is cumulonimbus or towering

cumulus, the type is not reported.

>TEMPO means (within the given time

period) a condition of a temporary nature.

So in this case the visibility is expected

to temporarily reduce to 8000 m at some

point between 2100 UTC and 2300 UTC.

>PROB30 means 30% probability of the

following conditions occurring. Only

PROB30 and PROB40 are used in the

UK. So in this case there is a 30%

probability that between 2100 UTC and

2300 UTC the visibility might be 3000 m

in mist (BR) and shallow fog (MIFG).

A METAR uses a similar format, with a time

of report at the beginning rather than a validity

period. METARs are normally updated every

half an hour, although may be updated more

frequently if the weather changes signiﬁcantly in

a short period of time.

SIGMETs

SIGMET – ‘Signiﬁcant Meteorological

Information’ is a special weather advisory of

severe weather phenomena that might aﬀect

the safety of all aircraft in the area, such as

severe thunderstorms, mountain waves, icing

or turbulence.

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MeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

AIRFRAME ICING

If you enter visible moisture when the outside

air temperature is 0 ºC or less, ice may form on

the aircraft. Ice has a very detrimental eﬀect

on aircraft performance, so must be avoided,

unless the aircraft is approved for ﬂight in icing

conditions. The worst airframe icing will normally

occur between 0 ºC and –15 ºC.

Always remove any frost, ice or snow from the

aircraft before ﬂight. Ensure the pitot probe and

static ports are clear of contamination.

ENGINE ICING

The most signiﬁcant icing risk to GA aircraft

equipped with carburettor engines is ‘carb icing’.

It is caused by the lowering of the pressure

(and therefore temperature) in the aircraft’s

carburettor as the fuel air mixture is drawn

through the venturi and towards the throttle

valve. As the temperature lowers, the water

vapour in the fuel air mixture will condense and

freeze, preventing delivery of the mixture to

the engine.Carb icing often forms outside visible moisture,

particularly when the relative humidity is high. It

is more likely to occur at lower power settings,

although under some conditions it can occur at

any power setting.

You should refer to the Aircraft Flight Manual

(AFM) for your aircraft for speciﬁc details of carb

icing and the use of the carb heat function to

prevent it.

Fuel injected engines do not suﬀer in the same

way, although it is possible to get ice forming

around air intakes, potentially restricting air ﬂow

into the engine. Use of the ‘alternate air’ function

may be necessary to ensure suﬃcient air ﬂow to

the engine.

-20 -10 020% 40% 60%80%100% Relative HumidityFOG/CLOUD

+10 +20 +30 +40-20-100 Dewpoint ºC+10+20+30

Approximate

upper limits

of dewpoint

Air Temperature ºCWorld Wide

NW Europe

Serious icing – any power

Moderate icing – cruise power

Serious icing – descent power

Light icing – cruise or descent

powerCarb icing riskPiston Engine Icing

JUNE 23

PISTON ENGINE ICING

SAFETY SENSE

SSL 14

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MeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

MAKING THE WEATHER DECISION

You should have a good understanding

of the overall weather conditions before

you go ﬂying and particularly how the

weather may evolve during the ﬂight.

You should understand the conditions associated

with common weather features, including:

>Warm and cold fronts;

>High and low pressure systems; and

>Thunderstorms.

VFR minima

For operations in class G airspace, the VFR

minima may allow an in-ﬂight visibility as low

as 1,500 m, provided you remain clear of cloud.

The cloud height is often the limiting factor – in

conditions of 1,500 m visibility, the cloud height

would normally force you to ﬂy dangerously low.

The legal minima (see p.66) are not a

good reference point for decision making

because safe VFR ﬂight normally ceases

to be possible long before the visibility is

that poor. They are limits not targets.

Above 3,000 ft AMSL, there are circumstances

in which VFR ﬂight is permitted without sight

of the surface. However, if you do not hold an

instrument rating (IR) or IMC rating, you must

not enter the clouds and you must be certain of

being able to descend visually at your destination.Cloud base and ceiling

>‘Cloud ceiling’ refers to the lowest

cloud that covers more than half the

sky – so broken (BKN) or overcast (OVC)

cover constitutes a cloud ceiling.

>‘Cloud base’ refers to the lowest

visible cloud, so includes few (FEW)

or scattered (SCT) cloud.

Consider the possible cloud base and ceiling

at diﬀerent stages of the ﬂight and how it

will impact your ability to remain in VMC.

How low is too low?

Consider the following factors:

>What is the purpose of the ﬂight?

>What are the terrain and obstacles

like along the route?

>Is the weather getting better or worse

in the direction you are going?

>What will it be like at your destination?

Remember to compare the cloud height ﬁgures

at aerodromes with nearby terrain. TAFs and

METARs give cloud levels in height above

aerodrome elevation. A 1,500 ft cloud ceiling

could be shrouding the tops of nearby hills. ? Guidance

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? GuidanceMeteorologyPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > MAKING THE WEATHER DECISIO N

VFR ﬂight with a cloud ceiling of 1,500 ft

or less above ground level (AGL) requires

particular attention to terrain and obstacles.

Flight below 1,000 ft AGL is normally only

suitable for circuits around the aerodrome or

local ﬂying in areas you are familiar with.

Going any signiﬁcant distance at low level,

even with reasonable visibility below cloud,

is likely to involve close encounters with hills,

radio masts, wind turbines and other hazards.

You may also meet military aircraft practicing

their low level ﬂying – for which military pilots

are specially trained. You must also ensure you

do not breach the low ﬂying rules (see p.5 9).

Visibility

Even if the cloud ceiling is high enough, you still

need suﬃcient in-ﬂight visibility to control the

aircraft visually, navigate and avoid other aircraft.

The F215 chart and TAFs/METARs will give an

indication of surface visibility, but actual in-ﬂight

visibility can only be judged while in the air. VFR ﬂight when the surface visibility is

being reported as less than 5 km is not

recommended. You are unlikely to have a

clear horizon to control the aircraft, and

navigating visually will be diﬃcult.

Be aware that during periods of warm and

high pressure weather, the visibility is often

poor due to haze, especially towards the

sun. During the winter, low sun can also

dramatically reduce forward visibility.

Wind

Consider the wind conditions. If signiﬁcant

crosswinds are anticipated for take-oﬀ or landing,

ensure you are conﬁdent with the correct

technique. If in doubt, practice with an instructor.

High winds aloft are not inherently hazardous,

but winds above 35 kts or so are often indicative

of bumpy conditions – maintaining accurate

height and heading may be challenging. It

is also important to take account of strong

headwinds when calculating fuel requirements. ? Guidance

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Planning the routePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

PILOTS LOG

It is recommended to produce a Pilot’s Log

(‘PLOG’), either electronically or on paper. A

PLOG should consist of information such as:

>Headings, distances and times

for each route leg

>Radio frequencies

>Planned altitudes

>Safety altitudes

>Fuel plan

If using a VFR moving map device or

electronic ﬂight planning software, the

format may diﬀer from a paper PLOG,

however the basic information should be

similar and readily available in ﬂight.

All calculations should be gross

error checked for mistakes, such as

confusion of 030º vs 300º or similar.

Always ensure the PLOG reﬂects the

latest winds aloft information.

Plotting your route on a paper VFR chart may

assist you in noting additional hazards. If your

moving map device fails in-ﬂight (for example

due to overheating or a depleted battery),

a plotted chart will be a useful backup. HAZARDS AND AIRSPACE

>Select the most appropriate radio frequency

for each stage of the ﬂight. Consider the use

of UK Flight Information Services (UK FIS).

>Note potential hazards such as aerodromes,

danger areas, parachute zones or glider sites.

>Note the altitudes to which the

relevant hazards are applicable, for

example glider cable launches.

>Some of the busiest GA aerodromes

in the UK do not have an Air Traﬃc

Zone (ATZ). Anticipate the traﬃc you

may encounter in the vicinity.

>Details of Danger and Restricted areas

are listed in the notes of the UK VFR

charts. A Danger Area Crossing Service

(DACS) or information via telephone may

be available to facilitate safe passage.

>More details of airspace hazards

can be found in the Airspace chapter

(see p.70-7 9) and in the ENR

section of the AIP.

>VFR traﬃc may congregate around

prominent visual landmarks, Visual

Reference Points (VRPs) or navigation

beacons creating a collision hazard. Planning

to ﬂy around them can reduce the risk,

although watch out for nearby airspace.G

/2.5 G/2.5 G

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Planning the routePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

ALTITUDE SELECTION

The risk of airborne conﬂict may be reduced

by avoiding ‘whole number’ cruising altitudes

such as 3,000 ft, and instead selecting more

random ones like 4,200 ft or 5,400 ft.

Consider the weather, terrain and airspace

when selecting an altitude. Flying higher

may provide advantages such as:

>Better view for navigation;

>Greater range in the event

of an engine failure;

>Traﬃc density may reduce with altitude;

>Less turbulence;

>Improved true airspeed and fuel burn; and

>Improved radio reception.

Maximum elevation ﬁgure

On the VFR chart the large digits in each

box created by the lat/long lines, known

as the ‘maximum elevation ﬁgure’

(MEF) , represent the higher altitude of:

>The highest obstacle in the box; or

>The highest terrain +300 ft. The derivation of the MEF is that obstacles

less than 300 ft above ground level are not

always captured in aeronautical data – hence

the addition of 300 ft if there are no other

obstacles in the box that are 300 ft or higher.

If there are obstacles of more than 300 ft these

will be captured and they can be assumed

to be the highest points in that area. They do

not have any additional margin included.

Safety altitude

The MEF should alert you to the highest

obstacle in the vicinity of your route, although

you should also study the area at least 5

NM either side of your planned track to ﬁnd

the most relevant terrain and obstacles.

There is no requirement for VFR ﬂight

to have a safety altitude, however it is

appropriate to add a 500 ft or 1,000 ft

margin over the highest obstacle or terrain

in the vicinity of your planned track.

If you are qualiﬁed to ﬂy under IFR, consider

planning the ﬂight as such from the outset

– if you encounter IMC, you will already

have a terrain safe altitude or level.

32= 3,200 ft? Guidance

? Guidance

Note safety altitudes below which you will not

descend due to weather without reversing

course or diverting.

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VFR cruising levels

The Standardised Rules of the Air (UK SERA)

specify VFR cruising altitudes for ﬂight above

3,000 ft AGL – the principle being that you

ﬂy at a particular altitude or level, depending

on your direction. VFR cruising levels are not

mandatory in the UK and in busy airspace,

randomisation of cruising altitudes may be safer.

In some European states VFR cruising levels

are mandatory, check the AIP of the applicable

state. VFR levels start at FL35/3,500 ft and

escalate every 1,000 ft thereafter. IFR levels

start at 2,000 ft and also escalate every 1,000 ft.

When ﬂying in class E airspace (for example in

Europe), mandatory cruising levels are the means

by which IFR and VFR traﬃc are separated.

Descent planning

An eﬀective rule of thumb is to allow

3 NM for every 1,000 ft of height you

need to lose. So a descent from 10,000

ft would take approximately 30 NM.

This assumes ground speed x ﬁve = approximate

required rate of descent. So if travelling at 100

kts ground speed, around 500 ft/min is the

required rate of descent and equates to an

approximatively three degree descent angle.VFR CRUISING LEVELS

IFR CRUISING LEVELSPlanning the routePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > ALTITUDE SELECTION

MAGNETIC TRACK

359º

*FL:

60FL:

..000º

180º 179ºIFRMAGNETIC TRACK

359º

*FL:

65FL:

..000º

180º 179ºVFR

* If below the transition altitude (see p. 92), the levels should be

ﬂown as altitudes, ie 3,500 ft, 4,500 ft and so on.

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Planning the routePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

PLAN TO AVOID INFRINGEMENTS

When ﬂying near controlled airspace (CAS),

there are a number of steps you can take

to avoid becoming one of the hundreds

of pilots that infringe CAS every year.

For more information please see the section

on Infringements in the ‘Safer Flying ’ section.

Study your route and options carefully, noting

the boundaries of controlled airspace. Vertical

limits often vary over a short distance and

are not as obvious as horizontal ones.

The CAA encourages GA pilots to

request a transit of CAS if appropriate.

Y ou should also have a backup plan in

case the desired transit is unavailable.

If intending to remain clear of CAS, mark a route

on your chart or moving map device that clearly

avoids it – ad hoc navigation around edges

and corners will result in too much attention

being focused inside the cockpit or towards the

ground, at the expense of your lookout scan.

The CAA recommend a margin of 2 NM

or 200 ft vertically, when remaining clear

of CAS, Danger or Restricted Areas, ATZs

or similar airspace - known as ‘Take 2’.

If ﬂying close to controlled airspace, plan to

contact the relevant ATC unit and request

a UK FIS. This will make ATC aware of your

presence and if you do infringe, the impact

can be mitigated more eﬀectively. As an alternative to requesting a UK FIS,

using a Frequency Monitoring Code (FMC)

will improve situational awareness and

allow ATC to contact you in the event of a

possible infringement. See p.1 3 for details.

Identify the most relevant QNH to use during

each phase of the ﬂight. The regional altimeter

pressure setting (RPS) will normally underread

you actual altitude, carrying the risk of vertical

infringement. It is recommended to use a relevant

aerodrome QNH instead. During the notiﬁed

hours of all CTRs, CTAs, TMAs (and the areas

below them), the airspace does not form part

of the altimeter setting region for the RPS.

It is not recommended to use IFR

waypoints for VFR navigation. They are often

located on the boundaries of controlled

airspace or as part of instrument approach

or departure procedures – potentially

generating a conﬂict or infringement risk.

It is better to create user waypoints that coincide

with recognisable geographical features, this will

improve situational awareness in the event of a

loss of GNSS signal or moving map device failure.

If conducting general handling in the local

area you may not always be focused on your

position. To mitigate the risk of infringement:

>Determine altitudes that you must

not go above (or below, as the case

may be) to avoid infringing;

>Pick prominent ground features to

orientate yourself around or mark points

beyond which you must not go; and

>Always include ‘airspace’ in any ‘HASELL ’ or

similar checks before conducting manoeuvres.?

?Guidance

Guidance

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Planning the routePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

TRANSIT OF CAS

Prior planning will increase your chances

of obtaining a transit of CAS:

>Have a plan B in the event that

a transit is unavailable.

>For CTRs, check for preferred VFR

routes. These may be published in the

relevant aerodrome AIP entry under

AD 2.22 – Flight Procedures.

>Note any Visual Reference Points (VRP)

near the airspace – ATC may ask you to

report your position at or relative to a VRP . >Consider the possible traﬃc ﬂows within the

airspace. Crossing at right angles to the main

runway and close to the overhead may avoid

conﬂict with aerodrome traﬃc, since you will

be above it. At lower levels, airliners normally

descend at a slower rate than they climb.

>Plan the point at which to request the

transit – 10 minutes prior to the boundary

is reasonable. ATC may ask you for an

ETA at the zone boundary, so calculate

this on your PLOG. Consider creating user

waypoints in your VFR Moving Map device.

>Be prepared to be given a diﬀerent route

or altitude to the one you requested.

Know the hazards and features of your plan B – for example towns or landmarks near the boundaries of controlled airspace or

ATZs that you may have to cross or avoid. Often overﬂying with suﬃcient vertical clearance is an eﬀective avoidance.

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Aerodrome planningPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

INFORMATION

Details of aerodromes are found within the

AD section of the AIP , including information

on runway characteristics, air traﬃc services

and opening hours. The AIP only includes

licensed or certiﬁcated aerodromes.

Details of some unlicensed aerodromes can be

found in commercially available ﬂight guides.

The information provided for unlicensed

aerodromes, particularly runway distances and

obstacles, will normally be less detailed than for

a licensed or certiﬁcated aerodrome, and may

not have been veriﬁed. Always apply caution

when conducting performance calculations.

At a licensed or certiﬁcated aerodrome, it

can normally be assumed that there will not

be any hazardous obstacles in the approach

or departure paths. However this cannot

be assumed for unlicensed aerodromes.

Particularly for smaller strips, a brieﬁng from

the owner or operator of the site is essential.

LOCAL HAZARDS AND PROCEDURES

There is considerable variation in the local

rules and procedures for diﬀerent aerodromes.

Procedures may be in place to limit

environmental impact and/or accommodate

diﬀerent aircraft speeds in the circuit pattern.

Understand the local environment. Common

diﬀerences include circuit height and direction,

noise abatement procedures and the level of

air traﬃc service provided. A mix of traﬃc, for

example helicopters, gliders or parachuting will

require speciﬁc procedures for safe operation. When visiting an unfamiliar aerodrome,

you should consider/enquire about:

>Is prior permission (PPR) by telephone

required?

>Are there any speciﬁc local operating

procedures that should be followed?

For example, if the aerodrome is close

to or inside controlled airspace.

>Surface type and condition. If grass,

is it long, wet and/or soft?

>How much useable length is there

for take-oﬀ and landing?

>Are there any obstacles around the

runway that might require consideration?

Power cables, winch launching or trees

are common ones. At some sites take-

oﬀ and/or landing is only possible in one

direction due to obstacles or terrain.

>What is the prevailing wind, are there

any buildings or obstructions that might

create unusual turbulence on approach?

>Are there any noise abatement procedures

or noise sensitive areas to be avoided?

>Any other hazards that you need to be aware

of? For example, surfaces near the runway

that may be unsuitable for aircraft movement.

For more information on ﬂying into small

airstrips, see the ‘Strip Sense’ safety sense

leaﬂet at www.caa.co.uk/safetysense .

Y ou should conduct a similar exercise for any

alternate aerodromes you may need. Considering

alternate aerodromes is often overlooked

in GA ﬂying, however doing so will give you

increased conﬁdence to divert should weather

conditions or other circumstances change.? Guidance

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Mass and balancePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

It is illegal to operate an aircraft outside its permitted mass and balance range and doing so

risks poor performance and control diﬃculties. The mass of the aircraft must also be known for

performance calculations.

The AFM or equivalent document for your aircraft will contain tables and/or graphs for calculating the

total mass of the aircraft and its centre of gravity (CG) position. The ﬁgures must be speciﬁc to your

airframe rather than generic ones for the aircraft type.

There are various types of tables or graphs, but they all use the concept of diﬀerent loading positions

for the aircraft, for example ‘front seats’, ‘rear seats’ or ‘baggage compartment’.

Item Mass (kg)Arm

(metres aft of datum)Moment

(kg metres)

Empty aircraft 700 2.22 1,554

Front seats 160 2.05 328

Rear seats 70 2.98 208.6

Baggage compartment 15 3.63 54.45

Fuel 100*2.41 241

T otals 1045 2386.05

The table above is a typical example

of how to calculate a C of G position

for a light aircraft. To complete the

calculation use the following process:

>Multiply the mass of each loading

point (including the empty mass) in the

‘Mass’ column by its distance from

the datum in the ‘ Arm’ column. Place

the result in the ‘Moment’ column; >Add together all of the masses and

add together all of the moments;

>Divide the total moments by the total mass.

This generates a centre of gravity position. * In order to convert the volume of fuel on board into a mass, you need to know the fuel’s speciﬁc gravity. Avgas is typically 0.72

kg/litre and Jet A-1 0.82 kg /litre.

Moment (2386.05)

Mass (1045)C of G (2.28)? Key info

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Mass and balancePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

2.102.132.162.192.22

Centre of gravity2.25 2.28 2.31 2.34 2.37 2.40

FWD LIMIT 2.10AFT LIMIT 2.40

2.16 2.22 2.28 2.34 2.40

C.G. LOCATION – METRES AFT DATUM2.19 2.25 2.31 2.37MASS

C.G. ENVELOPE

AIRPLANE MASS – KGUTILITY CATEGORYNORMAL CATEGORYTo determine that the CG and mass combination is within limits, place it on the envelope graph –

below is an example for a typical light aircraft.

In this case, the mass and centre of gravity is well within the permitted range. However, note that

the mass is not within the utility category area of the graph, so certain manoeuvres may not be

permitted. Check the AFM for more details.

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Mass and balancePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

Some AFMs use a ‘loading graph’ type

depiction which avoids having to multiply the

individual masses and distances together.

Be familiar with the details in your aircraft.

GUIDANCE

When considering the mass and balance of your

aircraft, take account of the following factors:

>Know approximately how much your

aircraft can carry before approaching

mass and balance limits – avoid planning

to carry unrealistic loads. In most light

aircraft it is not possible to ﬁll both the fuel

tanks and the seats. If in doubt, always

perform a mass and balance calculation.

>Sense-check calculations. Electronic ﬂight

planning applications make the process

of calculating mass and balance very

quick, but they are only as good as the

information entered. Be suspicious if you

seem to be able to load more than normal. >Account for everything – when adding up the

mass of the aircraft make sure you account

for everything onboard. Miscellaneous

items such as bags should be included in

whichever loading point they are closest to.

>Passenger mass – ensure you know the

mass of your passengers, including clothing

and other accessories they may be carrying.

>Stay within limits throughout the ﬂight – on

some aircraft it is possible to go outside

of limits by burning fuel, for example if

you start with a very forward centre of

gravity. Run calculations for both takeoﬀ

and landing. Note any diﬀerences between

maximum take-oﬀ mass and landing mass.

>Permitted manoeuvres – some aircraft are only

permitted to carry out certain manoeuvres

when within a narrower range of mass and

centre of gravity positions. For example, an

aircraft might have separate limits for aerobatic

and normal ﬂight. Be familiar with your AFM.

Electronic ﬂight planning software can be

programmed with the mass and balance

information for your aircraft, however it

must have the correct parameters entered.

Run a few practice calculations against

the AFM before using them for real.50 100 120

MomentPilot & front passenger

Fuel

Rear passengers

Baggage

140 150 200 (kg.m)200(kg)

0LOADING GRAPH

? Guidance

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Aircraft performancePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

USEABLE RUNWAY LENGTHS

Declared runway lengths for the purpose

of performance calculations can be

found in an aerodrome’s AIP entry.

>T ake-oﬀ run available (TORA) is the length

of the runway surface that the aircraft can

use during the ground run of the take-oﬀ.

>T ake-oﬀ distance available (TODA)

includes the TORA plus any ‘clearway’

distance inside the aerodrome boundary

within which the aircraft may safely climb.

>Accelerate stop distance available

(ASDA) is the length of the runway

surface available for the take-oﬀ run, plus

any ‘stopway’ the runway may have. The

stopway is not normally designed to support

the regular movement of aircraft, however

it may be used to bring the aircraft to a

stop in the event of an aborted take-oﬀ.

>Landing distance available (LDA) is the

runway length available for landing.Unlicensed aerodromes normally only

publish the total length of the runway

surface, not all of which will necessarily

be usable, especially for landing.

You will need to make a judgement

on the basis of local assessment as to

what the usable lengths of the runway

surface will be for your aircraft.

Use the AFM for your aircraft to determine

performance requirements. The calculated

ﬁgures from the AFM should never be

greater than the distances available. You

are also recommended to use the safety

factors speciﬁed on the next page.

RunwayStopwayASDALDATORATODAClearway? Guidance

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Aircraft performancePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

TAKE-OFF AND LANDING PERFORMANCE

It is acceptable to operate your aircraft

with a good working knowledge of it’s

performance, without necessarily conducting

calculations for every take-oﬀ or landing.

It is essential to perform a calculation if there

are signiﬁcant changes from your normal

operating mass or environmental conditions:

>Extra weight such as a high fuel

load, another person or baggage;

>Higher temperature;

>Lower pressure;

>Higher aerodrome elevation;

>The surface is wet and/or slippery; or

>Shorter runway and/or diﬀerent

surface from normal.The AFM should be consulted for determining

the take-oﬀ and landing performance

ﬁgures. The ﬁgures will normally have been

achieved using a new aircraft and a proﬁcient

pilot. In practice you should anticipate the

aircraft underperforming these ﬁgures.

Careful note should be made of any criteria

used in the ﬁgures. For example, if it quotes

the distances being achieved with ‘maximum

braking’ or ‘full power prior to brake release’

you should take account of the fact that you

may not do so under normal circumstances.

For a given day you should take the

relevant conditions and apply them using

the aircraft’s AFM graphs. The table below

gives an approximate indication as to the

changes to performance you should expect

for the diﬀerent variables. The ﬁgures could

also be used if very minimal performance

data was available for the aircraft.

Performance changes

For every T ake-oﬀ distances Landing distances

10% weight increase x 1 .2 x 1 .1

1,000 ft increase in elevation x 1 .1 x 1 .05

10 ºC increase in temperature x 1 .1 x 1 .05

Tailwind component 10% of lift-oﬀ speed x 1 .2 x 1 .2

2% of Slope (uphill) x 1 .1 -

2% of Slope (downhill) - x 1 .1

Note: If calculating multiple factors, they should be multiplied together, for example 1.2 x 1.1.? Guidance

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Aircraft performancePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > TAKE-OFF AND LANDING PERFO RMANCE

Most take-oﬀ, climb and landing graphs use a

‘reference line’ system to reach a performance

ﬁgure for the given conditions. Y ou must be

familiar with the graphs applicable to your aircraf t.

The graphs normally work left to right and

commence with a vertical line that starts at the

outside air temperature for the day in question:

Draw the line up from the relevant

temperature until it meets the reference

line for the pressure altitude. Interpolate

as necessary between the lines.

Pressure altitude refers to the altitude

displayed with 1013 hPa set on the altimeter.

Y ou must translate the aerodrome elevation

into a pressure altitude, by calculating the

altimeter reading with 1013 hPA set. For

example, if the elevation is 500 ft and the

QNH is 1000 hPa, it would display 851 ft with

1013 hPa set – (assuming 27 ft per hPa). Once at the correct pressure altitude, draw

a line horizontally from that point, across

to the next section of the graph (usually

mass). Draw another vertical line originating

from the applicable take-oﬀ mass.

Follow the reference line (interpolate

between the lines as necessary) until it

intersects with the vertical line originating

from the take-oﬀ mass. This sets the point

from which to draw the next horizontal

line towards the last section of the

graph, usually the wind component.

Using the same method as before,

follow the reference lines to the

applicable wind component.

On the example graph, both takeoﬀ run

(ground roll) and distance are indicated.

Some AFMs separate the take-oﬀ run and

distance into diﬀerent graphs. Understand

the diﬀerence between the two ﬁgures.

-40 -30 -20 -10

OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE ºC

REF LINE 4750 lb

REF LINE ZERO WIND

GROUND ROLL

REF LINE

TAIL WIND

HEAD WIND

8000PRESSURE ALTITUDE ft

MASS lb WIND COMPONENT ktTAKE-OFF DISTANCE ft

0 10ISA TEMP

20 30 40 4500 4000 3500 3000 0 5 10 15 203500

2500POWER 2800 rpm 40 IN MAP

FLAPS UP

RUNWAY PAVED, LEVEL DRY SURFACE

LIFT-OFF 79 kt IAS

OBSTACLE AT 79 kt IAS

COWL FLAPS HALF OPENOAT 21ºC

PRESSURE ALTITUDE 2000 ft

TAKE-OFF MASS 3969 lb

HEAD WIND COMPONENT 9 kt

TAKE-OFF GROUND ROLL 1350 ft

TAKE-OFF DISTANCE OVER 50 ft OBSTACLE 1650 ft

500ASSOCIATED CONDITIONSTake-Off – Normal Procedure

EXAMPLE1

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Aircraft performancePRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION > TAKE-OFF AND LANDING PERFO RMANCE

CLIMB PERFORMANCE

It is not recommended to ﬂy if

under the prevailing conditions, the

aircraft will climb at less than:

>500 ft/m for a typical single

piston engine aircraft; or

>150 ft/m in the event of engine

failure on a twin.

If an aircraft only achieves 500 ft/m in

the initial climb, turbulence and imperfect

technique may further reduce performance

– risking a stall and loss of control.It may be beneﬁcial to know your climb

gradient, as well as your rate of climb. This

can be calculated approximately by:

The aircraft’s ‘Vy’ speed gives best rate of climb.

‘Vx’ gives best angle of climb, it is slower than

Vy and gives a better climb gradient for obstacle

clearance.Safety factors

Condition T ake-oﬀ Landing

Dry grass (up to 20 cm) x 1 .2 x 1 .15

Wet grass (up to 20 cm) x 1 .3 x 1 .35

Wet paved surface - x 1 .15

Soft ground or snow x 1 .25 x 1 .25

General safety factors*x 1 .33 x 1 .43

* Note : You should apply this after the application of the other applicable factors.Once you have calculated the aircraft’s take-oﬀ and landing performance, it is recommended

you add the following safety margins to cover any degraded performance, imperfections in

surface condition or pilot technique. Some factors (for example grass) may be stated in the

aircraft’s AFM, in which case use the ones for your aircraft. The general safety factors are

similar to those that are required to be applied by commercial air transport operators. It is

not recommended to operate if the factored distances required exceed those available.

Rate of climb (ft/m)

Ground speed (kts)Climb gradient (%)

? Guidance

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Fuel managementPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

Fuel burn and range ﬁgures can be found in

the AFM. You should have a good working

knowledge of your aircraft’s fuel burn at diﬀerent

power settings.

The amount of fuel reserve carried should be

proportionate to the nature of the intended ﬂight.

For example, if not leaving the aerodrome circuit

it is acceptable to land with less fuel than when

ﬂying to another destination.

Part 21 aircraft are required to have certain fuel

reserves (see p.24) . Reserves are not speciﬁed

for non-Part 21 aircraft other than ‘suﬃcient’,

although you are not recommended to land with

less than 30 minutes fuel for a VFR ﬂight.

For longer ﬂights or if carrying reduced fuel due

to mass and balance, pay particular attention to

the following factors:

>Fuel burn during the climb. For example, if

heavy and in conditions of a high density

altitude, climbs will take longer and burn

more fuel;

>Selection of cruising altitude and resultant

true airspeed;

>Winds aloft and ground speed; and

>Diversion options if fuel burn is higher than

anticipated. Incorporate fuel burn into your PLOG calculations

and/or ﬂight plan on your VFR Moving Map

device. Regularly check anticipated fuel burn

against actual.

On most GA piston engines, the fuel/air mixture

control can be leaned for cruise at any altitude.

Leaning is an important element of engine and

fuel management. Know the AFM procedure for

your aircraft.

Fuel gauges in most GA aircraft are not

suﬃciently reliable for the purposes of ﬂight

planning or pre-ﬂight conﬁrmation of fuel

onboard. Physically examining the fuel levels

with a method appropriate to the aircraft (such

as a dipstick) is the best way of assessing the

fuel onboard. However in ﬂight, low fuel gauge

readings should never be ignored.

A fuel totaliser (if ﬁtted) is a useful indicator of

fuel burn. However, for the purpose of calculating

fuel remaining it is dependent on the initial

fuel level being correct. It only measures fuel

consumed by the engine rather than the content

of the fuel tanks and would not detect a leak.

Several GA accidents have been caused by

misconﬁguration of aircraft fuel systems – if the

aircraft has multiple fuel tanks and selectors,

you must understand how to conﬁgure and

manage them correctly.? Guidance

? Guidance

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Flight plansPRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION

! Key info

A ﬂight plan is the transmission of information

to air traﬃc service units (ATSU) regarding the

intended route of a particular ﬂight or portion

of a ﬂight.

Flight plans are either:

>Full ﬂight plans, which are ﬁled

through the Aeronautical Fixed

Telecommunication Network (AFTN); or

>Abbreviated ﬂight plans, which may

be passed by radio or telephone.

FULL FLIGHT PLAN

Details of how to ﬁle a full VFR ﬂight plan

using the AFPEx system are contained in the

‘International Flying’ chapter (see p.1 63).

Most ﬂight planning applications also oﬀer

integrated ﬂight plan ﬁling and guidance

on AFTN addressing. A full ﬂight plan

may be ﬁled for any ﬂight, but it is a

requirement for ﬂying internationally. It

is also recommended to ﬁle one if:

>Flying over water, more than 10

NM from the UK coastline;

>When ﬂying to the Scottish Highlands

and Islands aerodromes; and

>Over other sparsely populated areas where

search and rescue might be diﬃcult.

ABBREVIATED FLIGHT PLAN

An abbreviated ﬂight plan is essentially the

passing of information to an ATSU for a particular

portion of your ﬂight either by telephone or over

the radio. For example this might be on departure

from an aerodrome or when requesting a

clearance to cross controlled airspace.Unlike a full ﬂight plan, an abbreviated ﬂight

plan will not be transmitted to any other ATSU.

REQUIREMENT FOR A FLIGHT PLAN

You are required to ﬁle a ﬂight plan

in the following circumstances:

>Any ﬂight across international borders, unless

otherwise prescribed by the relevant states;

>Any ﬂight that is subject to an air traﬃc

control service – for example entering

controlled airspace or departing from

a controlled aerodrome; and

>When leaving the vicinity of

an aerodrome at night.

The practice commonly known as ‘booking

out’1 would fulﬁl the requirement to submit

an abbreviated ﬂight plan for the purposes

of leaving the vicinity of the aerodrome at

night. If there is no ATSU to receive your

details, you should ﬁle a full ﬂight plan.

For the purposes of transiting controlled

airspace an abbreviated ﬂight plan is

normally acceptable.

Prior to the European Rules of the Air (SERA)

coming into force, there was a requirement

under the UK Rules of the Air 2007 to ‘give

notice’ of a landing or departure to the relevant

aerodrome authorities. This procedure was

commonly known as ‘booking in/out’. The rule no

longer exists, however it is still common practice

at aerodromes in the UK to report details such as

persons onboard and fuel endurance to the

aerodrome authorities, prior to departure.! Guidance

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AIRSPACE

58 Essential Rules of the Air >

65 Visual and Instrument Flight Rules >

69 Airspace classiﬁcations >

70 Airspace hazards and restrictions >

80 UK Flight Information Services >

85 Controlled airspace operations >

90 T ransponder use >

91 Altimeter setting procedures >Including:

05.CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

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Essential Rules of the Air

The ‘Rules of the Air’ must be followed by all aircraft when in ﬂight; they

provide for the safe interaction between airspace users and the protection

of third parties on the ground. In this section we have brought together the

key regulations relevant to VFR operations.AIRSPACE

As pilot in command you are responsible

for ensuring your aircraft remains in

compliance with The Rules of the Air.

The rules are set out in ICAO Annex 2

and legally applied in the UK through:

>UK Standardised Rules of the Air (UK SERA) ;

>The UK Rules of the Air

Regulations 2015 ; and

>General permissions issued by the

UK, where SERA permits national

discretion over certain requirements.! Key info

FINDING REGULATIONS

The Aviation Regulatory Library contains the version of

SERA applicable in the UK.

UK speciﬁc general permissions or exemptions relevant

to SERA can be found in ORS4 – www.caa.co.uk/ors4 .

For more information about the UK’s implementation of

SERA see www.caa.co.uk/sera .

The UK Rules of the Air Regulations 2015 can be found

at www.legislation.gov.uk or in the CAA’s consolidation,

CAP 393 – www.caa.co.uk/cap393 .For the version of SERA applicable within the

EU, look on www.easa.europa.eu/regulations .

The European AIS Database (EAD)

contains links to European AIPs.iEUROPEAN RULES

The European SERA apply throughout the

airspace of EU member states, with some

national diﬀerences. State-speciﬁc variations

can normally be found in the ENR section of

the relevant AIP: ENR 1 .2 - Visual Flight Rules,

ENR 1 .7 - Altimeter Setting Procedures and ENR

1 .8 - Regional Supplementary Procedures.

You must always comply with both the rules

applicable from the aircraft’s state of registry

and those of the state in which you are ﬂying,

whichever is more limiting. In the case of a

conﬂict of requirements, the rules of the state

in which you are ﬂying take precedence.

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RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PILOT-IN-COMMAND

Section 2 of Part-SERA speciﬁes that:

>The PIC shall have the ﬁnal

authority as to the disposition of

the aircraft while in command;

>The PIC is always responsible for

operation of the aircraft in accordance with

SERA, regardless of whether they are

manipulating the controls. The PIC may

depart from the rules in SERA if absolutely

necessary in the interests of safety; and

>Before a ﬂight the PIC shall be familiar with

all available information appropriate to the

intended operation. Preﬂight action for ﬂights

away from the vicinity of an aerodrome,

and for all IFR ﬂights, shall include careful

study of available weather reports and

forecasts, considering fuel requirements

and an alternative course of action if the

ﬂight cannot be completed as planned.Use of Psychoactive Substances

No person whose function is critical to the

safety of aviation (safety-sensitive personnel)

shall undertake that function while under the

inﬂuence of any psychoactive substance,

by reason of which human performance is

impaired. No such person shall engage in

any kind of problematic use of substances.Essential Rules of the AirAIRSPACE

RULES FOR THE PROTECTION OF THIRD PARTIES

These rules are to protect people or property on the ground from aircraft operations. See Section 3

of SERA for more details.

Negligent or reckless operation

>Do not ﬂy in a manner that would

endanger either people or property.

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RULES FOR THE PROTECTION OF THIRD PARTIES

Low ﬂying and congested areas

>Unless necessary for taking oﬀ or

landing, do not ﬂy closer than 500 ft to

any person, vessel, vehicle or structure.1

There are some UK-speciﬁc exceptions to

the above that permit certain manoeuvres

(other than take-oﬀ or landing) to be

conducted closer than permitted under

the general 500 ft rule. These include:

>Practising approaches at an aerodrome,

but without intending to land;

>Helicopters practising manoeuvres within

the boundaries of an aerodrome, provided

they do not come within 60 meters of a

person, vessel, vehicle or structure that

is outside the aerodrome boundary;

>Picking up or dropping of towing

apparatus at an aerodrome;

>Gliders hill soaring; or

>If permission has been issued by the

CAA for speciﬁc circumstances or

events – such as for an air display.

Full details can be found in the ORS4 section

within the CAA website www.caa.co.uk/ors4 .

>Unless necessary for taking oﬀ or

landing, do not overﬂy congested areas

or open-air assemblies of people below a

height that in the event of an emergency

occurring, would permit a landing to

be made without causing a hazard to

people or property on the ground.Essential Rules of the AirAIRSPACE

500 ft500 ft

1 The standard rule under ICAO is for a VFR ﬂight to not ﬂy

below 500 ft above ground level , unless taking oﬀ or landing.

When ﬂying abroad be aware that this requirement may apply.

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Essential Rules of the AirAIRSPACE > RULES FOR THE PROTECTION OF THIRD PARTIES

>Unless necessary for taking oﬀ or landing,

when ﬂying over congested areas or open

air assemblies of people, you must not

ﬂy lower than 1,000 ft above the highest

obstacle within 600 m of the aircraft.

There are some UK-speciﬁc general

permissions that allow aircraft to ﬂy

below 1,000 ft above the highest

obstacle within 600 m of the aircraft:

>If following a speciﬁc route published in

the AIP (for example the low level VFR

routes near Manchester and Liverpool

airspace) and complying with the speciﬁc

conditions associated with that route;

>Flying under a Special VFR clearance; or

>A balloon that becomes becalmed

while over a congested area and is

compelled to land as a result.

You must still be able to land in the event

of an emergency without causing hazard

to people or property on the ground.

Full details can be found in the ORS4 section

within the CAA website www.caa.co.uk/ors4 .The UK Rules of the Air Regulations

2015 also specify that you must not:

>Take-oﬀ or land within a congested area,

unless either at an aerodrome and in

accordance with procedures in the AIP ,

or at a site other than an aerodrome with

the speciﬁc permission of the CAA;

>Take-oﬀ or land within 1,000 m of an open

air assembly of more than 1,000 people,

unless at an aerodrome and in accordance

with procedures notiﬁed by the CAA,

or at a site other than an aerodrome in

accordance with procedures notiﬁed by

the CAA and with the written permission

of the organiser of the assembly;

>Carry out aerobatic ﬂights

over congested areas; or

>Carry out test or experimental ﬂying over

congested areas in an aircraft that does not

have a valid certiﬁcate of airworthiness.

There are speciﬁc procedures for balloons

taking oﬀ and landing in congested areas.

Full details can be found in the ORS4 section

within the CAA website www.caa.co.uk/ors4 .

Notes:

Aircraft on a national permit to ﬂy may be addition ally restricted from ﬂying over congested areas by the conditions of their permit.

‘Congested area’ in relation to a city, town or set tlement, is any area which is substantially used fo r residential, industrial,

commercial or recreational purposes.

‘Notiﬁed’ means set out with the authority of the C AA in a document published by or under an arrangeme nt entered into with the

CAA and entitled ‘United Kingdom Notam’ or ‘United Kingdom Aeronautical Information Publication’.

1,000 ft600 m

In the event of an engine failure, single

engine aircraft should be able to glide

clear of any congested areas. You should

not rely on being able to land in parks or

other open spaces within congested areas,

since there may be people on them.? Guidance

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RULES FOR THE PREVENTION OF COLLISIONS

The following rules are primarily to avoid collisions between aircraft.

Proximity of aircraft

>Do not intentionally ﬂy close to other

aircraft so as to cause a collision hazard.

This does not preclude formation

ﬂying agreed between the PIC of

each aircraft prior to ﬂight.

SERA.3135 contains rules applicable to

formation ﬂights.

Rights of way in the air

>If approaching another aircraft head on,

such that there is a risk of collision, both

aircraft shall turn right to avoid each other.

>If converging with another aircraft,

the aircraft that has the other

on its right must give way.

If viewing the situation from above, this could

be thought of as “on the right, in the right” .Essential Rules of the AirAIRSPACE

Head-on: Alter course to right

Converging: On the right, in the right? Guidance

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Essential Rules of the AirAIRSPACE > RULES FOR THE PREVENTION OF COLLISIONS

When aircraft of diﬀerent categories

are converging, priority should be

aﬀorded in the following order:

>Powered, heavier-than-air, aircraft (for

example aeroplanes or helicopters), must

give way to airships, gliders and balloons;

>Airships must give way to

gliders and balloons;

>Gliders must give way to balloons; and

>Powered aircraft must give way to aircraft

that are towing other aircraft or objects.

There was previously a requirement in the

UK Rules of the Air that if following a line

feature such as a road, railway or coastline,

you must ﬂy to the right of that feature.

This is no longer a mandatory rule,

however it is still considered good practice,

particularly if following the coast.

>When one aircraft is overtaking another,

the aircraft being overtaken has right

of way. Overtaking aircraft shall pass

to the right, and keep clear of the other

aircraft until the manoeuvre is complete.

An overtaking situation exists when an

aircraft is approaching from behind another

aircraft, and is within an angle of 70º from

either side of its extended centre line.

Sailplanes may pass to either the left or

right, but the principle that the aircraft being

overtaken has right of way remains the same.

Balloons

Gliders

Airships

Aircraft

towing

Powered

aircraft1

70º

Over t Overtak e to right? Guidance

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Aircraft landing

& taking oﬀ

Aircraft

Vehicles

towing aircraft1

4Essential Rules of the AirAIRSPACE > RULES FOR THE PREVENTION OF COLLISIONS

>An aircraft in ﬂight, or operating on

the ground or water, shall give way

to aircraft that are landing or in the

ﬁnal stages of an approach to land.

When two aircraft are approaching an

aerodrome for landing, the one at a lower

height shall have priority. This rule should

not be used to cut in front of another

aircraft that is already established on

ﬁnal approach. Powered aircraft shall

give way to gliders when landing.

>If an aircraft is compelled to land due to an

emergency, other aircraft must give way.

>An aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring

area of an aerodrome shall give way to

aircraft taking oﬀ or about to take oﬀ.

Rights of way on the ground

>If approaching another aircraft head on, such

that there is a risk of collision, both aircraft

shall stop and turn right to avoid each other.

>If converging with another aircraft, the

aircraft that has the other on its right must

give way. ‘On the right, in the right. ’

>When one aircraft is overtaking another,

the aircraft being overtaken has right

of way. On the ground, overtaking

aircraft may pass to the left or right.

>Emergency vehicles proceeding to the

assistance of an aircraft in distress have

priority over all other surface traﬃc.

>Vehicles and vehicles towing aircraft

must give way to aircraft.

>Vehicles must give way to vehicles

that are towing aircraft.Landing: Blue aircraft gives way

Vehicles

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Under the Rules of the Air, all ﬂying is

conducted in accordance with either the:

>Visual Flight Rules (VFR); or

>Instrument Flight Rules (IFR).

VISUAL FLIGHT RULES

You may ﬂy under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) when

in ‘visual meteorological conditions’ (VMC). Flying

under VFR essentially means you may ﬂy and

manoeuvre as you wish, subject to the Rules of

the Air and clearance to enter controlled airspace.

The principle of VFR ﬂight is that you have enough

ﬂight visibility to control the aircraft by visual

references and avoid collisions with other aircraft . VMC minima primarily correspond to the

amount of visibility and clearance from cloud

required to avoid other traﬃc in diﬀerent

classiﬁcations of airspace. For example

in Class E airspace, the cloud separation

requirements are designed to prevent IFR traﬃc

encountering VFR traﬃc in proximity to cloud.

Full details of the airspace classiﬁcations used

in the UK can be found on p.6 9. The table

below details the SERA VMC minima. For

more information see Section 5 of SERA.Visual and Instrument Flight RulesAIRSPACE

SERA VMC MINIMA

A VFR ﬂight not permitted.

1,500 m 5 kmFL100/10,000 ft AMSL (depending on the transition altitude)1,500 m 8 km1,000 ft

1,000 ft

*Class D exception: Under the following circumstances you may ﬂy ‘clear of cloud’ in class D airspace, without complying with

the speciﬁc cloud separation distances: by day at or below 3,000 ft AMSL, in sight of the surface and at 140 kts IAS or less. 5

km visibility is still required, except for helicopters for which 1,500 m is required. Note this is a UK diﬀerence from Part-SERA as

applies in the EU.! Key info

ENR 1.2 of the AIP contains more

details on the VFR and IFR. For UK

permissions issued under SERA, see

www.caa.co.uk/ors4 .i

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Visual and Instrument Flight RulesAIRSPACE > SERA VMC MINIMA

3,000 ft AMSL

Clear of cloud

In sight of

surface1,000 ft

5 km*

1,500 m 5 kmFL100/10,000 ft AMSL (depending on the transition altitude)1,500 m 8 km1,000 ft

1,000 ft

Altitude band Airspace class Flight visibility Distance from cloud

At and above 10,000 ft AMSL/FL100 A B C D E F G 8 km1,500 m horizontally

1,000 ft vertically

Below 10,000 ft AMSL/FL100 and

above 3,000 ft AMSL, or above 1,000 ft

above terrain, whichever is the higherA B C D E F G 5 km1,500 m horizontally

1,000 ft vertically

At and below 3,000 ft AMSL,

or 1,000 ft above terrain,

whichever is the higherA B C D** E 5 km1,500 m horizontally

1,000 ft vertically

F G 5 km* Clear of cloud

and with the

surface in sight

VFR is not permitted in class A airspace, inclusion of VMC minima is for reference only.

*Class G exception: In UK class G airspace the 5 km requirement may be reduced to 1,500 m, if ﬂying by day, in sight of t he surface

and at 140 kts IAS or less.

**Class D exception: Under the following circumstances you may ﬂy ‘clea r of cloud’ in class D airspace, without complying with the

speciﬁc cloud separation distances: by day at or be low 3,000 ft AMSL, in sight of the surface and at 1 40 kts IAS or less. 5 km visibility

is still required, except for helicopters for which 1,500 m is required. Note this is a UK diﬀerence f rom Part-SERA as applies in the EU.

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In addition to the VMC minima, VFR ﬂights

must also comply with the following:

>A VFR ﬂight may not take-oﬀ or land at an

aerodrome within a control zone (CTR),

or enter the aerodrome traﬃc zone or

circuit when the reported conditions

at that aerodrome are less than:

>cloud ceiling of 1,500 ft; or

>ground visibility of 5 km.

This applies to CTRs of all airspace

classiﬁcations. If these conditions are

not met, you may request a Special

VFR clearance instead (see p.68) .

>Unless authorised, VFR ﬂights

may not operate above FL195 or at

transonic or supersonic speeds.

>SERA contains VFR cruising levels. These

are not mandatory in the UK, but may be

required in other states when operating more

than 3,000 ft above ground level (AGL).VFR at night

Under SERA, a state may permit VFR ﬂight

at night. See ENR 1 .2 of the relevant AIP

for more details. VFR at night in the UK is

permitted under the following conditions:

>The in-ﬂight visibility and cloud separation

requirements are the same as by day,

except that the reduced visibility minima of

1,500 m in class G airspace is not permitted.

>The cloud ceiling must be 1,500 ft or more.

>In airspace classes B-G, when at or

below 3,000 ft AMSL, or 1,000 ft above

terrain, whichever is the higher, you

must be in sight of the surface.

>Y ou must not ﬂy below:

>500 ft above the ground or water, or 500

ft above the highest obstacle within a

150 m (500 ft) radius of the aircraft; and

>1,000 ft above the highest obstacle

within a 600 m radius of the aircraft

when over the congested areas of

cities, towns or settlements or an

open-air assembly of persons.

>If leaving the vicinity of the aerodrome, a

ﬂight plan must be submitted. This may be

an abbreviated plan submitted to an ATSU.

>You must make use of an air traﬃc service if

it is available.MAGNETIC TRACK

359º

*FL:

65FL:

..000º

180º 179ºVFRVisual and Instrument Flight Rules

Enroute obstacles that are 150 m (490 ft) or

more above ground level must be lit at night.

This is normally by a steady red light on the

highest point.

* If below the transition altitude, the levels should be ﬂown as

altitudes, ie 3,500 ft, 4,500 ft and so on. ? GuidanceAIRSPACE > SERA VMC MINIMA

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Visual and Instrument Flight Rules

Special VFR

Special VFR (SVFR) is a provision that allows

ﬂight in a control zone (CTR), when weather

conditions are below VMC minima, but

without having to comply with the IFR. SVFR

ﬂights are subject to the ATC separation

from IFR ﬂights and other SVFR ﬂights.

The minimum permitted conditions for a pilot

to accept a SVFR clearance from ATC are:

>Clear of cloud and in sight of the surface;

>In ﬂight visibility of not less than 1,500 m,

or 800 m in the case of a helicopter; and

>140 kts or less indicated airspeed.

Additionally, in order for ATC to issue a clearance

to take oﬀ or land at an aerodrome within

the control zone, the reported conditions at

that aerodrome must not be less than:

>Ground visibility of 1,500 m, or 800 m

in the case of a helicopter; or

>Cloud ceiling of 600 ft.

Special VFR at night

Under SERA, Special VFR at night may be

permitted by individual states. Special VFR at

night is permitted in the UK. For other states,

consult ENR 1 .2 of the relevant AIP .

SVFR is permitted in the local ﬂying areas

(LFA) of certain aerodromes, without an

individual SVFR clearance from ATC. This

arrangement may apply when a GA aerodrome

is located within the CTR of a larger airport.

The associated SVFR minima may diﬀer

from standard. Details should be published

in the relevant aerodrome (AD) AIP entry.INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES

You must ﬂy under IFR if conditions are below

the VMC minima for the airspace (unless in a CTR

and in receipt of a SVFR clearance). In the case of

class A airspace, ﬂight must always be conducted

under IFR. In order to ﬂy under IFR you must

hold a valid instrument ﬂying qualiﬁcation.

The IFR require you to:

>Except when necessary for take-oﬀ

or landing, ﬂy at a level at least 1,000

ft (2000 ft in mountainous areas)

above the highest obstacle located

within 8 km (5 NM) of the aircraft.

>When ﬂying outside controlled

airspace, ﬂy in accordance with the

IFR cruising levels. In the UK these

apply above 3,000 ft AMSL.

* If below the transition altitude, the levels should be ﬂown as

altitudes, such as 3,000 ft, 4,000 ft and so on. ? GuidanceMAGNETIC TRACK

359º

*FL:

60FL:

..000º

180º 179ºIFRAIRSPACE > SERA VMC MINIMA

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Airspace classiﬁcationsAIRSPACE

The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO ) deﬁnes classiﬁcations of airspace A to G. Classes

A, C, D, E and G are notiﬁed in UK airspace. The ta ble below explains the characteristics of the

airspace classiﬁcations, as implemented in the UK.

AWhere Most airways; London/Manchester TMAs.

Flight Rules IFR only, VFR ﬂight not permitted.

Clearance ATC clearance required.

Air T raﬃc Service Air Traﬃc Control service for all ﬂights.

Separation Separation provided between all ﬂights.

CWhere Mostly above FL195 and some airways.

Flight Rules IFR and VFR permitted. VFR is not normally permitted above FL195.

Speciﬁc arrangements for glider operations in Temporary Reserved Areas apply.

Clearance ATC clearance required.

Air T raﬃc Service Air Traﬃc Control service for all ﬂights.

Separation Separation provided between IFR ﬂights and between IFR ﬂights and VFR ﬂights.

VFR ﬂights are provided with traﬃc information. Traﬃc avoidance advice is available

on request to VFR ﬂights on other VFR ﬂights.

DWhere Most aerodrome CTRs and CTAs. Some TMAs and lower levels of selected airways.

Flight Rules IFR and VFR ﬂight permitted. SVFR permissible in CTRs.

Clearance ATC clearance required.

Air T raﬃc Service Air Traﬃc Control service for all ﬂights.

Separation Separation provided between IFR ﬂights, between SVFR ﬂights, and between

IFR and SVFR ﬂights. VFR ﬂights are not provided with separation but are

provided with traﬃc information. Traﬃc avoidance advice is available on request

to IFR ﬂights on VFR ﬂights and to VFR ﬂights on IFR and other VFR ﬂights.

EWhere Scottish airways and some CTAs.

Flight Rules IFR and VFR ﬂight permitted.

Clearance ATC clearance not required for VFR ﬂight, pilots encouraged to contact ATC.

Air T raﬃc Service Air Traﬃc Control Service provided to IFR ﬂights and UK Flight Information Services

(see p.80) (FIS) are available to VFR ﬂights.

Separation Separation provided between IFR ﬂights. VFR ﬂights are not required to receive

an Air Traﬃc Service and are not provided with separation. IFR ﬂights may receive

information on known VFR traﬃc.

GWhere Areas not classiﬁed as controlled airspace.

Flight Rules IFR and VFR ﬂight permitted.

Clearance ATC clearance not required.

Air T raﬃc Service UK FlS (see p.80) may be available. All traﬃc may receive Basic or Traﬃc

services. IFR traﬃc may additionally receive a Deconﬂiction service.

Separation No separation provided. Traﬃc information or collision avoidance may be received

in accordance with the UK FIS service provided.

AAL10 FL45+

CTA 4500’-FL245C

CTR 2500’-3500’D

TMA 2000’-6000’E

FL55-FL235G

A speed limit of 250 kts IAS applies when below 10,000 ft AMSL in class D, E, F and G.

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE

There are many diﬀerent users of uncontrolled

airspace, powered or unpowered, civil or

military, GA or commercial air transport.

They all have diﬀerent operational needs, but

share a common interest in ﬂying safely. All

users should ﬂy in a manner that minimises

hazard and inconvenience to others.

The following section describes some of the

main airspace hazards and restrictions GA pilots

should be aware of and how they are depicted

on VFR charts. For more information review the

VFR chart legend and the ENR section of the AIP.

AERODROME TRAFFIC ZONES

An aerodrome traﬃc zone (ATZ)

is a cylindrical block of airspace,

established around an aerodrome.

>2 NM when the longest runway

is 1,850 m or less; or

>2.5 NM when the longest runway

is more than 1,850 m.

The details of how to operate correctly

within an ATZ when landing or departing

at an aerodrome are addressed in the

‘ Aerodrome Operations’ chapter (see p.9 7). It is acceptable to cross an ATZ during enroute

ﬂight, provided you comply with Rule 11 of the

Rules of the Air 2015 . Announce your intentions

on the applicable radio frequency and do not

conﬂict with aerodrome circuit traﬃc. If the

aerodrome provides an air traﬃc control service,

permission is required to enter the ATZ.

UK AIP , ENR 2.2 lists the hours during which

Rule 11 applies to ATZs at military aerodromes.

AERODROMES WITHOUT ATZ

Some aerodromes without an ATZ are denoted

on the chart with an outer circle around the

aerodrome symbol and a letter ‘T’ or ‘U’.

The ‘T’ indicates intensive use for training

ﬂights. The ‘U’ means unusual activity such

as aerobatics or formation ﬂying takes place.

It is preferable to avoid overﬂight of these

aerodromes. If passing nearby, consider making

contact on the applicable radio frequency.

Standard

dimensions

of an ATZ

2,000 ft

2 or 2.5 NM

2 NM ATZ shown with

aerodrome symbolT U? Guidance

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE

MILITARY AIR TRAFFIC ZONES

A military air traﬃc zone (MATZ) is not controlled

airspace to civilian aircraft. However, a MATZ

may contain high performance military aircraft

and before entering, it is strongly recommended

to make contact with the relevant ATC unit.

A MATZ will contain an ATZ within it, for

which the normal rules for an ATZ apply.

Crossing a MATZ

If you wish to cross a MATZ, you should contact

the relevant ATSU prior to entry and

request a ‘MATZ penetration service’ with

your proposed route. 10 minutes ﬂying time

before the MATZ boundary is reasonable.

The controller may ask if you can adopt a

diﬀerent route or altitude that would enable

better separation with other activity in the

MATZ. You should accommodate if possible. The important thing is that the controller

is aware of your intentions. Use the

standard ‘freecall’ (see p.81) format for

initiating contact, adapted as required.

MATZ are often inactive at weekends, although

you should always attempt a call to check

the status. If there is no response from

the assigned frequency after two attempts

you may enter with caution, however you

should never enter the ATZ within the MATZ

without a positive clearance to do so.

5 nm

5 nm radius4 nm

2,000 ft

1,000 ftStandard MATZ with

two STUBS and LARS

frequency

MATZ

LARS

3,000 ft

above

airﬁeld

levelSTANDARD MATZ WITH

TWO STUBS AND LARSMATZ

LARS

125-5 5NM4NM5NM

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE > MILITARY AIR TRAFFIC ZONES

Typical RTC tracks around

a military aerodrome

RWY 25

RWY 07

20 NM5-7 NMAerodrome traﬃc

Aircraft operating near military aerodromes

are not conﬁned to the MATZ. This could

include aircraft approaching to land or

operating in what is known as the ‘radar

training circuit’ (RTC). The RTC is a pattern

ﬂown by aircraft around the aerodrome for

the purpose of practising radar approaches.

The standard RTC sequence is:

>Take oﬀ and climb to a height of

between 1,500 ft and 2,500 ft;

>Vectoring around the pattern;

>Alignment and descent with the ﬁnal

approach track and glidepath; and

>Landing or low approach and go-around. It is primarily the downwind and base leg

elements which protrude beyond the MATZ,

so it is a good idea to contact the relevant

MATZ frequency if transiting these areas.

In addition to traﬃc in the RTC, arriving

aircraft joining the ﬁnal approach track may

come from any direction, but similar to the

RTC pattern, will likely be vectored onto

a 90º base leg and then a 40º intercept

angle to join the ﬁnal approach track.

Fast jet traﬃc will often approach aerodromes at

high speed and therefore need a large turn radius

to line up with the runway. The ﬁnal approach

may commence outside of the MATZ. This is

then followed by a ‘run and break’ manoeuvre

to lose speed and a close-in circuit to land.

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE > MILITARY AIR TRAFFIC ZONES

Example MATZ crossing request

For more details of radiotelephony (RT) procedures please see CAP 413 – www.caa.co.uk/cap413

and SSL 22 – Radiotelephony for General Aviation Pilots .

Explanation Example exchange

Commencing the call with the request gives

the controller the opportunity to consider if

they can immediately respond or whether

to instruct the caller to “standby” .

It also allows the controller to consider what

information will need to be passed back to the

aircraft before having to process the entire

message – for example most ATSUs will have a

series of squawk codes to be issued depending

on what service is being provided to the aircraft.“ Boscombe Zone, G-DOME,

request Basic Service and

MATZ penetration. ”

Assuming the controller is ready to process

your request, they will likely respond by

asking you to “pass your message” .

If they reply “standby” there is no need to

acknowledge this, they will try and call you

when able. It does not imply a rejection of

your request; it just means they are not

able to immediately respond to it.“ G-DOME, Boscombe Zone,

pass your message. ”

Use the standard “freecall” format to tell

the controller what you are doing.“ G-DOME, PA28 from Old Sarum

to Bristol overhead Alderbury,

altitude 2,200 ft, QNH 1009,

VFR, direct track Bristol. ”

Note that the giving of a squawk code does

not necessarily mean that you have been radar-

identiﬁed. It may be a generic squawk for all traﬃc

receiving a ‘Basic Service’ on that frequency.“ G-ME, Roger, squawk

2650, Basic Service. ”

Service level and squawk codes must

always be read back by the aircraft.“ Squawk 2650, Basic

Service, G-ME. ”

When crossing a MATZ you will normally be

given the aerodrome QFE to set, since the

vertical dimensions of the MATZ are deﬁned

relative to the aerodrome elevation.“ G-ME, MATZ penetration

approved at 1,800 ft

on Boscombe QFE 997

hectopascals, report

entering the MATZ. ”

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE > MILITARY AIR TRAFFIC ZONES

RESTRICTED AIRSPACE (TEMPORARY)

>Restricted airspace (temporary) is often

established around large air displays,

signiﬁcant public gatherings or a major

incident or accident. The details of these

are published in Aeronautical Information

Circulars (AICs) and activated by NOTAM.

TRANSPONDER MANDATORY ZONE

>A TMZ is an area established within

which all aircraft must be equipped with

the type of transponder speciﬁed for a

particular zone, and operate in accordance

with any required instructions. >UK TMZs normally require a mode S

transponder (see p. 90). Aircraft not equipped

with mode S must request the permission

of the relevant ATSU before entering.

>Details of individual TMZs can be found

in GEN 1 .5 and ENR 2.2 of the AIP.

RADIO MANDATORY ZONE

>An RMZ is an area established within

which all aircraft must establish two-

way communication over or monitor

(as determined for the individual RMZ)

the relevant radio communication

frequency. Use the freecall (see

p.81) format to establish contact.

>Details of individual RMZs can be found

in GEN 1 .5 and ENR 2.2 of the AIP . Example MATZ crossing request

Explanation Example exchange

Crossing altitude and QFE must be read back,

however requests to report at certain places

can simply be acknowledged with ‘wilco’.“ MATZ penetration approved at

1,800 ft on Boscombe QFE 997

hectopascals, wilco, G-ME. ”

Remember to report as requested. “G-ME entering the MATZ. ”

“G-ME, Roger, report leaving. ”

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PROHIBITED OR RESTRICTED AREAS

>A prohibited area is an area within

which ﬂight is entirely prohibited.

>A restricted area is an area within which

some ﬂying is restricted – for example,

sometimes they only apply to certain

categories of aircraft. These conditions

can be found in the notes of the VFR

chart and in ENR 5.1 of the AIP .

>The altitude to which they extend is

stated in thousands of feet AMSL.

‘2.2’ is therefore 2,200 ft.DANGER AREAS

>A danger area is a published area within

which activity hazardous to aviation may

be encountered. Flight within danger

areas may be prohibited by local bylaws.

>Details of activity periods can normally be

found in ENR 5.1 of the AIP . There is often

a frequency and/or telephone number in

the notes of the VFR chart from which the

status of the danger area may be obtained.

The status may also be obtained from

either a local ATC unit or London/Scottish

Information, as applicable to the region.

>If unauthorised entry to a danger,

restricted or prohibited area is detected,

red and green pyrotechnics may be ﬁred

from the ground to warn the aircraft.

>Some danger areas also oﬀer a ‘danger

area crossing service’ (DACS), which

may allow a tactical crossing clearance

to be issued. Details can be found in the

AIP or in the notes of the VFR chart.

>Establishing that a Danger Area is ‘cold’

or obtaining a crossing service may allow

a more direct route. If in doubt, remain

outside. Danger areas with a broken

boundary are activated by NOTAM.

Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE

WIND TURBINES

>Caution should be taken when operating

near wind turbines since older units

may not be lit in accordance with

recent CAA policy guidelines.

>Some LED obstacle lights fall outside

the spectrum visible through night-vision

goggles, therefore pilots using goggles

should use extra caution when ﬂying

in the vicinity of obstacles at night.

>Numerals in italics indicate obstacle

elevation AMSL. Numerals in brackets

indicate height above ground level.

(394)1726

(328)1841

(381)

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE

GLIDER AND PARACHUTE SITES

You should never overﬂy a glider site below

the speciﬁed winch launch altitude. You

may encounter a vertical winch cable.

Winch launching involves the glider being

launched by a cable from the ground. The

cable tows the glider to ﬂying speed along

the ground and continues to pull it forward

once airborne, giving a very steep climb

angle. The winch cable is then released when

the glider has reached suﬃcient altitude.

Glider sites with winch launching activities

are marked on the VFR chart. The maximum

altitude to which winch launching takes

place is indicated in thousands of feet. For

example, ‘2.5’ means 2,500 ft AMSL.

Where there is gliding without winch

launching, there is no altitude indicated on

the chart symbol. In this case gliders are

normally launched by aerotow, so you may

encounter powered aircraft towing gliders

near the site. Aerotowing and winch launching

activities often take place at the same site.

Pilots of powered aircraft should also be

aware that gliders often congregate at

locations away from the launching site. In

good ‘thermaling’ conditions many gliders

may converge in a single location. If you

can see one, there will likely be others.

Remember that under the Rules of the Air,

powered aircraft must give way to gliders

and other powered aircraft towing gliders. Parachuting sites may be active up to FL150.

You should remain clear unless you are able

to conﬁrm that a site is inactive through

contact with the relevant ATSUs or drop

zone frequency. Drop zone contact details

can be found in ENR 5.5 of the UK AIP .

AREAS OF INTENSE AERIAL ACTIVITY

Areas of intense aerial activity (AIAA) signify

areas in which aerial activity is particularly high.

This might include low ﬂying military aircraft and/

or aircraft performing high energy manoeuvres.

You should make use of UK FIS where available

(consider a Traﬃc Service), maintain a good

lookout and use an electronic conspicuity device.

Aerial Tactics Areas (ATAs) are also marked

in the same way. The same principles apply,

although the traﬃc encountered is more

likely to be manoeuvring military aircraft. G

G /2.5 G/2.5 /2.5

? Guidance

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE

INSTRUMENT APPROACHES

Some aerodromes outside controlled airspace

have instrument approach procedures (IAPs).

These are deﬁned sequences of waypoints

that guide aircraft to the ﬁnal approach track.

Details of IAPs can be found in entries for

individual aerodromes in AD of the AIP.

IAPs are often used in VMC, especially

by commercial air transport aircraft and

those conducting instrument training.

Larger commercial air transport traﬃc will have

reduced capability to ‘see and avoid’ due to the

limitations of visibility from the cockpit. Aircraf t also

tend to descend further away from the aerodrome

and make larger radius turns when conducting

IAPs than when making a visual approach. VFR traﬃc operating near aerodromes outside

controlled airspace should be aware that there

may be IFR traﬃc using IAPs and should avoid

crossing them at similar altitudes to that of the

procedure, unless talking to the relevant ATSU.

IAPs outside controlled airspace are indicated

by ‘feathered arrows’. Note the feathers only

align with the main instrument runway. There

may also be approaches to other runways.

Pilots are recommended to contact the

aerodrome ATSU if ﬂying within 10 NM of

an aerodrome marked with IAP feathers.

400400400400400400

1000DUNKESWELL

D061

SFC

D012

(OCNL 25000)

SFCI-ET 109.90D

(Ch 36X) iet

504413N 0032349W

88'

246°CAT C,D1034

(935)

258°10NM

512512512827845

1552830430857

884 597857762

289°

109°EX 337 ex

504508N 0031742W

(835)540

(440)

(522)495

(395)358

(258)

(760)1035

(935)1527

(1427)

(536)

(127)

(359)572

(472)

(548)

(588)576576

(476)(476)576

(476) 832832

(732)(732)832

(732)

(697)(697)797

(697)

(730)1184

(1084)1 MINLHA 2100

1 MIN

LHA LHA28002800 LHA 2800

1 MINIAF

TOMPOTOMPO

D5D5TOMPO

D5D6.4

D9.5D9.5D9.5D2

D8.5MIDDLEMOORMIDDLEMOOR MIDDLEMOOR

078°078°

(299)

252°252°CAT A,B

CATA,B

252°CAT A,BCAT C,D CATC,DQDM 247°QDM247°

CAT C,D QDM 246°

CAT A,B CATA,BQDM 252°QDM252°

CAT A,B QDM 252°

109°

Annual Rate

of Change 0.15°E

VAR 2.1°W - 2014MAX 210KIAS for procedure.

2: If operating without radar,

aircraft will normally start

the procedure from a

beacon on or close to the

aerodrome known as the

‘initial approach ﬁx’ (IAF).

A ‘base turn’ is then ﬂown

to position the aircraft

such that they can turn

onto the ﬁnal approach.3: There is normally a

holding procedure at

the IAF, often above the

aerodrome or nearby.1: When traﬃc is radar vectored onto an approach it

will tend to join the ﬁnal approach track between 5

to 10 NM prior to the runway and descend between

300 to 350 feet per mile. Vectoring will depend on

the direction from which the aircraft is coming, but

could start from downwind of the landing runway.

A typical Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach established outside controlled airspace. In this case Exeter airport.

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE > INSTRUMENT APPROACHES

UK LOW FLYING SYSTEM

Military low ﬂying takes place across most

of the UK, between 2,000 ft and 100 ft AGL.

The highest concentrations are normally

below 1,000 ft AGL and GA pilots are strongly

recommended to remain above this height

during enroute ﬂight. Areas of Intense Aerial

Activity (AIAA) and Aerial Tactics Areas (ATA) also

contain increased concentrations of activity.

More details of the UK Low Flying System

are available in ENR 6-20 and ENR 6-21 of the

UK AIP . The Ministry of Defence publishes a

monthly tactical training area timetable .VHF LOW LEVEL FREQUENCY

There may be circumstances in which civil

aircraft are operating in proximity to military

low ﬂying activity. The VHF Low Level Common

Frequency was made permanent in June 2023

and is available for both civil and military aircraft

when operating below 2,000 ft AGL in class

G airspace. The frequency is 130.490 MHz .

You should normally prioritise obtaining

a UK Flight Information Service or other

appropriate air traﬃc service. However, there

may be locations or altitudes where this

is not possible, and use of the Low Level

frequency will improve situational awareness. 400400

400400700700400400

400700400078°

2NM2NMRW08

MAPt2NM358

(258) 540

(440)

(697)622

(522)

LUSTLEIGHLUSTLEIGHMIDDLEMOORMIDDLEMOOR540

(440)

(730)(730)

OTBOTOTBOT

IAFIAFEBOBAEBOBA

IAFIAF 23002300MIDDLEMOOR

LUSTLEIGH538

811830430884857

(835)

(697)

(730)688

(588)227

(127)358

(258)636

(536)860

(760)1035

(935)1035

(935)

(395)

(522)

D012

18000D061

SFC109°289°LHA 2100

1 MIN

(359)572

(472)

(548)399

(299)

OTBOT

IAF34005.0

348°SISRI

IAF3400

5.0168°

EBOBA

IAF

3400TE08I

2300TE08F

FAF 2200

078°

(628)

(836)

MEBOBA

(EBOBA)TAA

3400EX 337 ex

504508N 0031742WBHD (112.05)

R339/

D24.2

BHD (11

2.05)R328/D20.2

BHD

R332/D14.5MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE

not available without NDB(L) EXMAX 210KIAS for

Procedure and Hold.

1: GNSS approaches typically follow

a slightly diﬀerent layout, with

approaches starting from a ‘Y’ or

‘T’ shaped set of tracks which turn

the aircraft onto the approach.

A typical RNAV (GNSS) approach established outside controlled airspace. In this case Exeter airport.400400

430MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE

not available without NDB(L) EX

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Airspace hazards and restrictionsAIRSPACE > VHF LOW LEVEL FREQUENCY

Users of the Low Level frequency should make

blind calls including:

>Call sign;

>Aircraft type (and number, in case of

formations);

>Position relative to reference points

identiﬁable to other pilots (using cardinal

or inter-cardinal directions);

>Altitude;

>Heading;

>Next signiﬁcant reference point.

Calls should be made when:

>It is safe and suitable;

>When entering the UK LFS;

>At signiﬁcant turning points;

>Approaching well-known/recognisable

physical features;

>Any other time when it would be

beneﬁcial for safety.

UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

The number of unmanned aircraft systems

(UAS) or ‘drones’ operating in the UK is

growing. The term UAS also includes traditional

model aircraft ﬂown by remote control.

UAS operations normally take place up to 400

ft and within visual line of site of the operator.

The UAS operator is responsible for looking

out for conﬂicting traﬃc, however pilots of

manned aircraft should also be aware that

their responsibility to ‘see and avoid’ other

traﬃc includes unmanned aircraft, even if

they are small and diﬃcult to identify.GA pilots operating below 500 ft should be

aware that encounters with legitimate UAS

operations in the open FIR are a distinct

possibility. There are also some model aircraft

ﬂying sites where operations are permitted

up to 1,500 ft AMSL – details are in ENR 5.5

of the AIP. The sites are normally not marked

on VFR charts, although may appear in ﬂight

planning applications and/or moving map

devices with an aeronautical database.

UAS operations involving the aircraft operating

beyond visual line of site of the operator

will normally be segregated from manned

air traﬃc by use of temporary danger areas

or restricted airspace – the details of these

will be published by NOTAM in the normal

way for temporary regulated airspace.

The Skyway Code does not address detailed

rules for the operation of UAS – for more

information about operating UAS see

caa.co.uk/drones .

Key resources for UAS requirements include:

>CAP 722 – Guidance on UAS

operations in the UK; and

>UAS regulations via the Aviation

Regulatory library.

Most UAS operators and remote pilots

are required to register with the CAA

via the DMARES Registration Page .

PH-1AG

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UK Flight Information ServicesAIRSPACE

UK FIS may be available from:

>Lower Airspace Radar Services (LARS);

>Other ATC units; and

>Area Control Centres – London or Scottish

Information (Basic Service only).When ﬂying outside controlled airspace,

situational awareness and safety will be

enhanced by use of UK FIS.

Scottish and London Information do not have

surveillance capability; the squawk code

issued is for the situational awareness of

other ATSUs.

For more details of UK FIS see CAP 774 – www.caa.co.uk/cap774 and CAP 1434

– www.caa.co.uk/cap1434 .Within the UK FIS there are four types of air traﬃc service. T errain avoidance remains the

responsibility of the pilot.

Basic Service

A Basic Service is intended to oﬀer the pilot maximum autonomy and is available to IFR ﬂights in

Class G airspace, or VFR ﬂights in Class E and Class G airspace. If the ATCO or FISO are aware

of airspace activity that may aﬀect your ﬂight they will tell you; however, this is subject to their

workload and the avoidance of other traﬃc is solely the pilot’s responsibility. Maintain a good

lookout.

T raﬃc Service

Under a Traﬃc Service, an ATCO will use radar to provide you with detailed traﬃc information on

speciﬁc conﬂicting aircraft; they will not provide you with deconﬂiction advice, regardless of your

meteorological conditions. A Traﬃc Service is available to IFR ﬂights in Class G airspace, or VFR

ﬂights in Class E and Class G airspace.

Deconﬂiction Service

Only available to IFR ﬂights in Class G airspace. An ATCO will use radar to provide you with

detailed traﬃc information on speciﬁc conﬂicting aircraft and advice on how to avoid that aircraft.

However, the pilot retains responsibility for collision avoidance; you can opt not to follow the

ATCO’s advice.

Procedural Service

A Procedural Service is an ATS for IFR traﬃc only. In addition to the provisions of a Basic Service,

the controller provides restrictions, instructions, and approach clearances, which if complied with,

shall achieve deconﬂiction minima against other aircraft participating in the Procedural Service. The

Procedural Service is typically provided by ATSUs without surveillance capability (eg radar) to IFR

ﬂights arriving or departing an aerodrome. Neither traﬃc information nor deconﬂiction advice can

be passed with respect to unknown traﬃc.IFR only

IFR only

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UK Flight Information ServicesAIRSPACE

WHAT SERVICE TO ASK FOR?

>GA pilots operating under VFR should request either a ‘Basic’ or ‘Traﬃc’ service.

>In good weather conditions there is potentially a g reater likelihood of mid-air collision, due to

increased traﬃc density. Consider requesting a ‘Tra ﬃc Service’ for increased situational awareness.

REQUESTING A SERVICE

Use the standard ‘freecall’ format when requesting a UK FIS. The initial call should address the ATSU

(station name), followed by your callsign and request (for example Basic Service). When instructed to

“pass your message” , give your information in the following order:

>Who you are – callsign and aircraft type;

>What you are doing – point of departure and destination, route or area of operation and/or

intentions;

>Where you are – position, altitude/level and ﬂight rules. Use a reference point such as a major

town or aerodrome; and

>What you want – if required, provide more detail on your request (such as requested routing).

Example request for ‘Basic Service’

For more details of radiotelephony (RT) procedures please see CAP 413 – www.caa.co.uk/cap413

and SSL 22 – Radiotelephony for General Aviation Pilots .

Explanation Example exchange

Commencing the call with the request

allows the controller to consider whether

they can immediately respond, or

instruct the caller to “standby” .

It also helps the controller anticipate what

information will need to be passed back to the

aircraft before having to process the entire

message – for example most ATSUs will have a

series of squawk codes to be given out, depending

on the service provided provided to the aircraft.“ Boscombe Zone, G-DOME,

request Basic Service. ”Radiotelephony

FEB 23

RADIOTELEPHONY

SAFETY SENSE

SSL 22FOR GENERAL AVIATION PILOTS

The Skyway Code / Airspace 81CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

For more info see the SSL 22iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

UK Flight Information ServicesAIRSPACE > REQUESTING A SERVICE

Example request for ‘Basic Service’

Explanation Example exchange

If the controller is ready to process your request,

they will likely respond by asking you to “pass

message” .

If you receive a reply “standby” there is no need

to acknowledge this: the controller will try and

call you when able. It does not imply a rejection

of your request; it just means they are not able to

immediately respond to it.“ G-DOME, Boscombe Zone,

pass your message. ”

Use the standard “freecall” format, setting

out more details of your ﬂight. There is

no need to repeat the original service

request (e.g. for Basic Service).“ G-DOME, PA28 from Thruxton

returning to Thruxton,

intending to carry out

general handling between

Andover and Newbury. 2 NM

north of Andover, altitude

2,300 ft, QNH 1023, VFR. ”

Note that the controller has not identiﬁed the

aircraft – this is not a requirement of providing a

Basic Service. The squawk code may be generic

to all aircraft on a Basic Service from that ATSU,

such that other units can identify who the aircraft

is in contact with. Y ou should not expect traﬃc

information while in receipt of a Basic Service.

Outside controlled airspace it is standard practice to

give the regional pressure setting (RPS) (see p.91)

when providing a service. Y ou are not obliged to us e

RPS, and particularly if there is a risk of vertica lly

infringing nearby airspace, you should ask for and

set the relevant local QNH. The RPS will be lower

and therefore under-read your actual altitude. “ G-ME, Roger, squawk 2650,

Basic Service, Portland

1019, report general

handling complete. ”

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UK Flight Information ServicesAIRSPACE > REQUESTING A SERVICE

Example request for ‘Basic Service’

Explanation Example exchange

The type of service, pressure setting (even if

not using it) and squawk code should be read

back. Instructions to report at a particular point in

the future can be acknowledged with “wilco” –

meaning you will comply.

Service, pressure setting, squawk and

reporting instruction is a signiﬁcant amount of

information to process – the controller may break

this into two calls.

If you do not record everything the ﬁrst time, reply

(for example) “say again squawk” or “say again all

after pressure setting” .

You may abbreviate your callsign once the

controller has done so.“ Squawk 2650, Basic service,

Portland 1019, wilco, G-ME. ”

When under a Basic Service the controller may

pass information pertinent to the safe conduct of

the ﬂight. This is NOT speciﬁc traﬃc information;

it is general information taking into account

the area you are operating in, and is subject to

controller workload. “ G-ME, be aware there

is a glider competition

around Rivar Hill, large

concentrations of gliders in

the area up to 4,000 ft. ”

Information relevant to your ﬂight may be

acknowledged with “Roger” .“Roger, G-ME. ”

Report as instructed.“ G-ME, general handling

complete, returning

to Thruxton. ”

The controller will state the termination of the

service and remind you to squawk the relevant

conspicuity code (VFR: 7000).“ G-ME, Roger, service

terminated, squawk

conspicuity. ”

The instruction to “squawk conspicuity” must

be read back.“Squawk conspicuity, G-ME. ”

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Example ‘T raﬃc Service’

Use the ‘freecall’ format to request a ‘T raﬃc Service’ . The controller will pass radar derived

traﬃc information relevant to your ﬂight.

The standard format for calling traﬃc is

position, range, relative movement

and (if available) altitude.“ G-ME, traﬃc one o’clock, 4

miles, crossing right to left

ahead, indicating 400 ft above. ”

You may respond with “Roger”

while you look for the traﬃc. “Roger, G-ME. ”

It will assist the controller if you report

the traﬃc is in sight (or not sighted).“T raﬃc in sight, G-ME. ”

The controller can provide an update

should you lose sight of the traﬃc.“ T raﬃc no longer in

sight, G-ME. ”

-“ G-ME, previously reported

traﬃc now 10 o’clock, 2 miles,

indicating 300 ft above. ”UK Flight Information ServicesAIRSPACE > REQUESTING A SERVICE

Traf f ic Crossing ahead Traf f ic Crossing behind Converging Traf f ic Similar Direction Traf f ic Opposite Direction Traf f icWhen passing traﬃc information the controller will use the following terms to describe the relevant movement:

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Controlled airspace operations AIRSPACE

The table on p.6 9 sets out the characteristics for the diﬀerent classiﬁcations of airspace. The majority

of controlled airspace that GA pilots will encounter in the UK is class D – used in most control zones

(CTRs) and control areas (CTA) around aerodromes.

As well as the diﬀerent classiﬁcations, controlled airspace is made up of diﬀerent structures.

Control zone (CTR)

CTRs are established around aerodromes,

with the shape normally orientated around

the length of the main runway. In the UK

CTRs are normally class D airspace and

extend from the surface to around 2,500 ft

AMSL or higher.

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Controlled airspace operations AIRSPACE

Control area (CTA)

CTAs overlay CTRs and extend further

beyond the aerodrome. The base is normally

around 1,500 ft AMSL. They are normally

class D, however some higher or larger CTAs

are class A.

T erminal manoeuvring area (TMA)

TMAs cover areas where there may be

several busy aerodromes close together; for

example the London, Manchester or Scottish

TMAs. They are normally class A, although

the Scottish TMA is an exception.

Airways

Airways link diﬀerent parts of the airspace

structure together. Airways have designations

consisting of letters and numbers. They are

normally class A. Some airways in Scotland

are class E combined with a transponder

mandatory zone (TMZ), allowing VFR access

without an ATC clearance.

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Controlled airspace operations AIRSPACE

REQUESTING TRANSITS

GA pilots sometimes avoid controlled

airspace, when it would be more eﬃcient

and potentially safer to obtain a transit.

If it appears advantageous and

reasonable to do so, conﬁdently request

a transit of CAS. If not, plan a route that

minimises the risk of infringement.

Air traﬃc controllers should make every eﬀort

to accommodate requests that are consistent

with the safe and orderly ﬂow of traﬃc.

Advantages of obtaining a controlled

airspace transit include:

>Reduces the distance of the ﬂight;

>May reduce the risk of airborne conﬂict;

>May reduce the risk of infringement:

>There is a shared understanding of the

intended route, enabling the controller to

plan interactions with other traﬃc; and

>The risk caused by distraction is

reduced – rather than navigating around

the edges of controlled airspace,

the aircraft is now cleared to enter

along a deﬁned area and/or route.

Within class D airspace there is no requirement

for ATC to apply formal separation between

VFR traﬃc and other VFR or IFR traﬃc, only

the provision of traﬃc information. Whilst ATC

will not issue instructions that create a direct

conﬂict, they may rely on VFR traﬃc visually

maintaining a safe distance from other aircraft.Recommendations for obtaining a transit:

>Request to transit via any preferred

VFR routes. These are normally

published in the aerodrome AIP entry,

AD 2.22 – Flight Procedures.

>Give the controller reasonable time to

respond to your request. 10 minutes ﬂying

time from the intended entry point is ideal.

>Sound proﬁcient on the radio and

concisely articulate your request. Use

the standard ‘freecall’ (see p. 81) format

(adapted as required). This will give the

controller conﬁdence that you will comply

with the conditions of the clearance.

>Listen out on the relevant frequency before

calling – if the zone controller sounds busy

with aerodrome traﬃc, you may not be

granted a transit that conﬂicts with the arrival

or departure routes. However, crossing the

aerodrome overhead at right angles to the

runway may be easier to accommodate.

If you are denied access to airspace or

refused an air traﬃc service you can

complete the online form: FCS 1522 – UK

Airspace Access or Refusal of ATS Report

The CAA use this data to inform airspace

change proposals and post implementation

reviews. They can also intervene if an area

of controlled airspace is not being appropriately

resourced.? Guidance

? Guidance

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Controlled airspace operations AIRSPACE > REQUESTING TRANSITS

Example request to transit controlled airspace

For more details of radiotelephony (RT) procedures please see CAP 413 – www.caa.co.uk/cap413

and SSL 22 – Radiotelephony for General Aviation Pilots .

Explanation Example exchange

Commencing the call with the request allows the

controller to consider whether they can respond

immediately, or instruct the caller to “standby” .

It also allows the controller to consider what

information will need to be passed back to the

aircraft before having to process the entire

message – for example most ATSUs will have a

series of squawk codes to be given out, depending

on what service is being provided to the aircraft.“ Solent Radar, G-DOME, request

Basic Service and zone transit. ”

Assuming the controller is ready to process

your request, they will likely respond by

asking you to “pass your message” .

If the controller replies “standby” there is

no need to acknowledge this: they will try

and call you when able. It does not imply a

rejection of your request; it just means they

are not able to immediately respond to it.“ G-DOME, Solent Radar,

pass your message. ”

Use the standard “freecall” format, spelling out

more detail on your desired zone transit. There

is no need to repeat the original service request

(e.g. for Basic Service) but give more detail

on your zone transit request if appropriate.“ G-DOME, PA28, from Compton

Abbas to Shoreham. 2

NM south of Alderbury,

altitude 2,300 ft, QNH 1022.

Request transit via Romsey

and Bishop’s Waltham. ”

Depending on what service you have

requested and/or whether the controller

anticipates giving you a clearance, they

may reply by giving you a squawk code.

The controller may ask you to “ident” , which

means after selecting the squawk, press

the ident key on the transponder. This draws

their attention to you on the radar screen.“ G-DOME, Roger, Basic Service,

squawk 3646 with ident. ”

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Controlled airspace operations AIRSPACE > REQUESTING TRANSITS

Example request to transit controlled airspace

Explanation Example exchange

The type of service and squawk

code must be read back.“ Basic Service, squawk 3646

with ident, G-DOME. ”

If the transit request is straightforward

then the clearance will likely be given

shortly after identiﬁcation, although remain

clear until given a clearance.

If you are approaching the zone boundary and

you still have not received a clearance, it may

be appropriate to enquire as to whether a

clearance is likely. Consider your alternative

route, should a clearance not be forthcoming.

If a clearance is not available, positively alter

course away from the airspace and monitor

your moving map device to ensure that

you remain clear of controlled airspace. “ G-ME, identiﬁed 10 NM west

of Southampton, cleared to

cross the zone VFR, not above

altitude 2,000 ft, Southampton

QNH 1024. Report entering

the zone at Romsey. ”

Read back the clearance with any altitude limits

or other conditions as received. Instructions,

such as to report at certain points in the future

may be acknowledged with the word “wilco” .

You may abbreviate your callsign once

the controller has done so. “ Cleared to cross the zone,

VFR, not above altitude 2,000

ft, QNH 1024, wilco, G-ME. ”

Report as instructed.“ G-ME, entering the

zone at Romsey. ”

Unless they have any further instructions,

the controller will just acknowledge. The

controller may apply a ‘Radar Control

Service’ - this requires a read-back.“G-ME, Roger, report leaving

the zone at Bishop’s Waltham. ”

- “Wilco, G-ME. ”

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MODES AND CODES

>Squawk 7000 (VFR) or 2000 (IFR)

as the conspicuity code;

>Select mode ‘C’ at all times so that

your altitude is displayed; and

>If ‘listening in’ on a frequency, use a relevant

frequency monitoring code (see p.1 3).

Non-normal situations:

>7700 – Emergency code. Should be

selected as soon as practical if the

aircraft is suﬀering an emergency.

>7600 – Radio failure.

>7500 – Unlawful interference.

>0030 – Lost.

More details on transponder procedures can

be found at Section 2 of ENR 1 .6 of the AIP.

FREQUENCY MONITORING CODES

Frequency Monitoring Codes (previously

Listening Squawks) are a situational awareness

tool that beneﬁt both pilots and air traﬃc

controllers. They allow the identiﬁcation of

aircraft that are monitoring a particular radio

frequency. Using an FMC may mitigate

the risk of airspace infringement.

>Listen out on the applicable frequency;

>Set your transponder to the

corresponding FMC; and

>Remember to squawk the appropriate

conspicuity code when no longer

monitoring the frequency.MODE S REQUIREMENTS

All aircraft must normally be equipped

with Mode S ‘Elementary Surveillance’

capability in the following circumstances:

>Within class A or C airspace;

>Above FL100; or

>Within transponder mandatory zones (TMZ).

Aircraft without Mode S may enter a TMZ with

the approval of the relevant ATSU. Additional

Mode S requirements also apply for aircraft

above 5,700 kgs MTOM or ﬂying under IFR.

There are some areas in which gliders may ﬂy

above FL100 without Mode S – details of these

areas can be found in ENR 1 .1 and 5.2 of the AIP.

Full details of Mode S carriage requirements

can be found in GEN 1 .5 of the AIP. Transponder useAIRSPACE

IDENTON

ALT

OFFSBY

VFR7000ALT! Key info

If an aircraft is ﬁtted with a serviceable

transponder, it is a requirement under SERA for

it to be selected on (including altitude reporting)

at all times. The only exceptions are if in

compliance with ATC direction or local procedure,

or when in airspace not requiring transponder

carriage, turning oﬀ the transponder is permitted

if necessary to conserve electrical power.

Turning oﬀ a serviceable transponder and will

cause increased risk to other airspace users.

Doing so in the event of infringing controlled

airspace will also increase the likely sanction.

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Altimeter setting proceduresAIRSPACE

PRESSURE SETTINGS

There are four types of altimeter settings used in

the UK. The altimeter is set in hectopascals (hPa):

>QNH – indicates altitude above mean

sea level (AMSL). When on the ground

at an aerodrome, it should indicate

the known elevation AMSL. >Regional pressure settings (RPS) – is

the lowest forecast pressure in a particular

altimeter setting region (ASR). The UK has

21 ASRs, which have geographical names

such as ‘Portland’ or ‘Cotswold’. Using

the RPS will normally result in a lower

altimeter reading than actual, unless you

are at the low pressure point of the ASR.

Full details of the UK’s altimeter setting

regions can be found in ENR 6 of the AIP.

>QFE – indicates height above aerodrome

level, so when on the ground at an

aerodrome, the QFE is the pressure

setting when the altimeter is at zero.

>Standard – the ‘standard’ pressure

setting is 1013 hPa. It is used above the

transition altitude. With ‘standard’ set on

the altimeter, you refer to your vertical

position as a ‘ﬂight level’ (FL). Setting 1013

hPa also indicates your ‘pressure altitude’. ALT

Altimeter settings example:

Standard pressure

1013 hPaAerodrome elevation

1,500 ftHeight

2,500 ft AGL

QNH

1032 hPa4,000 ft 3,500 ft

(FL35)2,500 ft

QFE

976 hPa

Mean sea level1 hPa = aprox. 27 ft

Altitude

4,000 ft AMSLALT

1032ALT

1013ALT

Pressure altitude

3,500 ft (FL35)

1032 hP

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QNH

1000Altitude

3,000 ft

4Altitude

3,000 ft

QNH

1000QNH

1000Altitude

3,000 ft

Transition

Altitude

3,000 ft01

QNHAltitude

4,149 ft

10131,149 ft

1 hPa = aprox. 27 ftTransition

LayerFL45

10133,351 ft

4To illustrate the relationship between QNH and FLs, one altimeter is left on the QNH, while the other is

adjusted to 1013 at the transition altitude.

On this day the QNH is 1000 hPa. When the aircraft reaches the transition altitude (3,000 ft AMSL in this

example) and 1013 hPa is set, the altimeter will read 3,351 ft. Assuming the aircraft is travelling

westbound, the lowest available VFR FL is 45.Altimeter setting proceduresAIRSPACE

TRANSITION ALTITUDE

The transition altitude (TA) is the altitude

above which the vertical position of an

aircraft is expressed in terms of ﬂight level

(FL) rather than altitude. It is not mandatory

in the UK for VFR ﬂights (it is a requirement

for IFR) to change to FLs above the TA,

however it may be required in other states.

>Outside controlled airspace, the transition

altitude in the UK is normally 3,000 ft AMSL.

>Within and below areas of controlled

airspace, the TA is normally either 5,000

ft or 6,000 ft AMSL. ENR 1 .7 of the AIP

contains details for individual locations.

The lowest FL available for VFR traﬃc is

normally FL35, although depending on the

local QNH and transition altitude, this may be

higher. The lowest available FL is known as

the ‘transition level’. The transition level must

always be at least 1,000 ft above the TA. RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES

>You should normally use the most

relevant QNH to your route or area

of operation. Only use the RPS if

there is no local QNH available.

>When transiting below or in the vicinity

of controlled airspace boundaries deﬁned

as an altitude, you should use the QNH

setting applicable to the airspace.

>When transiting below or in the vicinity

of controlled airspace deﬁned as a

ﬂight level, you should use 1013 hPa.

>Larger aerodromes will use QNH

for both take-oﬀ and landing.

Full details of UK altimeter setting procedures

can be found in ENR 1 .7 of the UK AIP.! Key info

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AERODROME

OPERATIONS

Including:

06.94 Aerodrome communications >

97 Arrival and departure procedures >

108 Visual communications and signage >

114 Marshalling signals >CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

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Aerodrome communications

RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

There are diﬀerent levels of service provision for radio communications at aerodromes, ranging

from SafetyCom, which relies on self-announcement and separation by pilots, to an aerodrome

control service provided by an air traﬃc controller. It is important that pilots understand

the diﬀerent levels of provision and the associated procedures and responsibilities.

SafetyCom – callsign ‘T raﬃc’

SafetyCom is a common traﬃc advisory frequency for use at aerodromes that do not have an

assigned frequency. It is currently 135.480 MHz and may be used within 10 NM and/or up to 1,000

ft above the traﬃc circuit at an aerodrome. Aircraft should announce their position and intentions

at the normal points using the callsign “[aerodrome name] traﬃc” . Repeating the name of the

aerodrome at the end of the transmission further mitigates the risk of confusion when aerodromes

are in close proximity to each other.AERODROME OPERATIONS

Correct use of procedures is important for safe aerodrome operations. Most

GA aerodromes are ‘uncontrolled’, meaning pilots must operate safely

amongst other airspace users, without direction from air traﬃc control.

Air/Ground Communication Service – callsign ‘Radio’

Air/Ground Communication Service (AGCS) is the most limited form of air/ground communication

available at an aerodrome. The AGCS operator may provide traﬃc and basic weather information

to pilots operating in the vicinity of the aerodrome. Such traﬃc information is based primarily on

reports made by other pilots. Whilst information provided by the radio operator may be used to

assist a pilot in making a decision, the safe conduct of the ﬂight remains the pilot’s responsibility.

The callsign is the normally “[aerodrome name] radio” . When operating in the AGCS environment,

the principle is that aircraft announce their position and separate themselves from other aircraft

in accordance with the Rules of the Air and any published aerodrome procedures. Only carry out

a manoeuvre (such as taxiing, take-oﬀ or landing) if you are satisﬁed it is safe to do so and will not

conﬂict with other traﬃc.

The AGCS operator has no power to issue clearances or issue instructions to aircraft either on the

ground or in the air, although clearances may be relayed from an ATC unit and messages passed on

behalf of the aerodrome operator.

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Aerodrome communicationsAERODROME OPERATIONS > RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

Aerodrome control service – callsign ‘T ower’

Some aerodromes have an Aerodrome Control Service w ithin the ATZ, provided by an air traﬃc

control tower. Within the ATZ, compliance with ATC instructions both on the ground and in the

air is mandatory. The callsign is “[aerodrome name] Tower”; for example ‘Wycombe Tower’. When

arriving at such an aerodrome you should call 15 NM or 5 minutes ﬂying time from the ATZ boundary,

whichever is greater, and request joining instructi ons – this will give the controller time to plan yo ur

arrival. Larger aerodromes may also have a ground c ontrol frequency – callsign ‘Ground’.Aerodrome ﬂight information service – callsign ‘Information’

The Aerodrome Flight Information Service (AFIS) is essentially a Flight Information Service

provided at an aerodrome. It is a higher level of service than AGCS; however it remains a source

of information rather than control. In the UK, AFIS may issue mandatory instructions to aircraft

and vehicles on the ground, up until a runway holding point. AFIS units do not issue instructions

to aircraft in the air, however they may request position reports that are consistent with the

aerodrome’s published traﬃc procedures. Note that outside the UK, AFIS does not normally issue

instructions to aircraft on the ground.

The callsign is “[aerodrome name] Information”; for example ‘Duxford Information’. It is still your

responsibility to be satisﬁed that every action is safe and to announce your position and intentions

while operating at the aerodrome.

Aerodrome approach control service – callsign ‘Approach’

An Approach Control Service may be provided at an aerodrome either inside or outside controlled

airspace. If the aerodrome has approach control, you should make contact at least 15 NM or 5

minutes ﬂying time from the ATZ boundary, whichever is greater.

As you approach the ATZ, the approach controller will normally pass you to the aerodrome control

(callsign ‘Tower’) for landing.

The callsign is the location name followed by the suﬃx ‘ Approach’ or ‘Radar’ (if a radar approach

unit); for example ‘Shoreham Approach’ or ‘Bournemouth Radar’.

ATIS

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a continuous recorded information message usually

found at larger aerodromes. It is updated regularly and gives aerodrome information such as:

>Runway in use

>Type of instrument approach to expect (if applicabl e)

>Weather conditions

>QNH

>Any other pertinent information or hazards, such as closed taxiways.

Each update will be allocated an alphabetic referen ce, such as ‘Information Alpha’. On initial contact

with the aerodrome control tower the pilot must inc lude the reference letter of the information copied .

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Aerodrome communicationsAERODROME OPERATIONS

Acknowledgment of light signals by aircraft

Time of day In ﬂight On ground

Day timeRocking aircraft’s wings,

except if on base or

ﬁnal approachMoving the aircraft’s

ailerons or rudder

Night timeFlashing on and oﬀ

twice the landing lights

or navigation lights Flashing on and oﬀ twice

the aircraft’s landing lights

or navigation lightsAERODROME LIGHT SIGNALS

The suit of light signals originate from a time when less aircraft were equipped with a radio, and ATC

might routinely use light signals to control aircraft.

If you experience radio failure, look out for light signals that may be used to communicate between

the ground (for example from the control tower) and aircraft.

Aerodrome to aircraft communication

Light signal displayed Meaning if in ﬂight Meaning if on the ground

Steady redGive way to other aircraft

and continue circling Stop

Steady green Clear to land Clear for take-oﬀ

Red ﬂashesDo not land: aerodrome

not available for landingMove clear of landing area

Green ﬂashesReturn for landing.

Clearance to land will be

given in due courseClear to taxi

White ﬂashesLand at this aerodrome

and proceed to apron,

clearance to land will be

given in due courseReturn to starting point

on the aerodrome

Red pyrotechnicNotwithstanding any

previous instructions, do

not land for the time being-

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Arrival and departure proceduresAERODROME OPERATIONS

OPERATING RULES

The following rules apply to operating at

aerodromes. Those relating to landing

and take-oﬀ, ﬂight within the ATZ and

movement on uncontrolled aerodromes

are based on Rules 10, 11 and 12 of the

UK Rules of the Air Regulations 2015 .

Part-SERA

SERA.3225 sets down the following rules for

operating at aerodromes. They apply regardless

of whether there is a notiﬁed ATZ. You must:

>observe other traﬃc for the

purpose of avoiding collision;

>conform with or avoid the pattern

of traﬃc formed by other aircraft

(the aerodrome traﬃc circuit);

>except for balloons, make all turns

to the left when approaching for a

landing or taking oﬀ, unless otherwise

indicated by the aerodrome; and

>except for balloons, land and take oﬀ into

the wind, unless safety or other operational

considerations determine otherwise.

Landing and take-oﬀ

Rule 10:

>You may not land on a runway that is

occupied by another aircraft, unless

authorised by an air traﬃc control unit; and

>In the case of a powered aircraft, after

landing, you must move clear of the

landing area as soon as possible.

>If take-oﬀs and landings are not

conﬁned to runways, you must:

>when landing, leave clear to your

left any other aircraft that is in the

process of landing, has already

landed or is about to takeoﬀ; >make turns to the left, provided you do

not interfere with other traﬃc; and

>in the case of a powered aircraft, when

taking up position for take-oﬀ, leave

clear on your left any aircraft which has

already taken oﬀ or is about to take oﬀ.

>The landing and take-oﬀ rules do not apply

to balloons.

Rules for the ATZ

Rule 11:

During the notiﬁed hours of watch of

either the ATC, AFIS or AGCS, an aircraft

must not operate within an ATZ unless:

>If there is an aerodrome control service,

permission has been given for the

ﬂight to be conducted safely; or

>If there is an AFIS or AGCS, appropriate

information has been obtained from

the AFIS or AGCS to allow the ﬂight to

be conducted safely within the ATZ.

>A continuous watch must be

kept on the appropriate radio

frequency or for visual signals.

>If equipped with a radio, information on

the aircraft’s position and height must be

transmitted upon entering or leaving the ATZ.

Movement on uncontrolled aerodromes

Rule 12:

You must not taxi on the manoeuvring

area of an uncontrolled aerodrome

without the permission of either:

>The person in charge of that aerodrome1; or

>The AFIS unit, if notiﬁed as being

in operation.

1 This permission is usually implied by operating in accordance with normal aerodrome procedures and any local terms and

conditions that may apply.

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AERODROME OPERATIONS

Arrival and departure procedures

THE AERODROME TRAFFIC CIRCUIT

The ‘circuit’ consists of the ﬂight pattern that aircraft make around the aerodrome when taking oﬀ or

landing. This guidance focuses on the uncontrolled aerodrome environment.

Downwind leg‘Downwind’ radio callCrosswind leg Base leg*

Late downwind*FinalDEADSIDE

LIVESIDE‘Final’ radio call

Circuit guidance

>Joining aircraft must normally give way to

traﬃc already established in the circuit.

>Maintain a good lookout. Be ﬂexible in

responding to changes in the traﬃc situation.

>Conform to the standard circuit pattern.

Understand how the visual picture of the

runway should appear from your aircraft

at diﬀerent stages of the circuit.

>Announce your position at the standard

points and whenever you feel it will

enhance the situational awareness of

others – for example announcing that

you are on base leg or late downwind. >Always make position calls, even if

you are unaware of any other traﬃc

operating at the aerodrome. If there is

no AGCS or AFIS, make ‘blind calls’ on

frequency. Non-radio aircraft are also a

possibility, so maintain a good lookout.

>If in doubt regarding aerodrome circuit

procedures, conﬁrm understanding

via telephone or over the radio. AFIS

or AGCS will not issue instructions to

aircraft in the air, however they should

be able to clarify local requirements.* Announce these positions if it would enhance situational awareness or if calls were not possible at the standard positions.

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Arrival and departure proceduresAERODROME OPERATIONS

! Key infoPROCEDURES FOR DEPARTING TRAFFIC

At an aerodrome with an AGCS, AFIS or ATC,

you should call for airﬁeld information prior to

taxiing to the runway. This will normally include:

>Runway in use;

>Circuit direction; and

>QNH or QFE.

At larger aerodromes there may be an

ATIS frequency, on which information for

operating at the aerodrome will be included.

The letter reference of the ATIS information

should be given on ﬁrst contact with ATC.

>At aerodromes with an AGCS, it is the

pilot’s responsibility to determine whether

they can safely taxi on the aerodrome.

Having reviewed the aerodrome chart

you should announce your intentions

to taxi, giving details of the route

and holding points as necessary.

>You do not need to request a taxi clearance

at an aerodrome with an AGCS. However,

you must have the permission of the

person in charge of the aerodrome before

taxiing on the apron or manoeuvring area.

This permission is normally implicit if

operating within the terms and conditions

of the aerodrome detailed in the AIP

entry, or the local procedures published

for an unlicensed aerodrome.

>At an aerodrome with an AFIS you

must request taxi instructions. AFIS

only gives instructions to aircraft on the

ground and the pilot must still ensure

it is safe to comply with them. >At a controlled aerodrome you must

request permission to taxi. Larger

controlled aerodromes may have

a ground frequency – for example

‘Bournemouth Ground’. Otherwise the

initial call should be made to the tower.

>At larger aerodromes the taxiways may

be confusing, so taxi slowly, carry an

up to date chart and do not be afraid

to stop and ask for clariﬁcation.

>Some moving map devices or panel mounted

GNSS navigators include georeferenced

aerodrome charts – these can be very

helpful for situational awareness.

>Once at the runway holding point,

complete all necessary power and/or

pre-take oﬀ checks before reporting

“ready for departure” . At an aerodrome

with AFIS, this is the point at which the

service reverts to information only – it is

the pilot’s responsibility to ensure it is

safe to enter the runway and take oﬀ.

>Particularly in a high wing aircraft, manoeuvre

so that you have a good view from the

holding point of the approach path. This

may require you to stop at an angle,

pointing in the direction of arriving traﬃc.

>At an aerodrome with an air traﬃc

control service, you must not enter

the runway without a clearance. This

will either be take-oﬀ clearance or an

instruction to “line up and wait” , with

the take-oﬀ clearance coming later.

>On departure, you must report leaving

the ATZ.

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Arrival and departure proceduresAERODROME OPERATIONS > PROCEDURES FOR DEPARTING TRAFFIC

Holding points that are

particularly vulnerable

to runway incursion are

marked on aerodrome

charts as ‘hot spots’ and

circled in red. The layout

of taxiways at these

points may be confusing

and therefore pilots

may be more prone to

unintentionally entering

the runway environment

without clearance.

HS1HS1old

YHold

YELHEL

Hold X Hold XHELHEL265°M216°M

A1E2

Stand 2 Stand 2

FuelFuelFuelFuelAPAPI (3.5°)

MEHT 23APAPI (3.5°)

MEHT 23

Example AGCS communications – ﬂying the circuit

For more details of radiotelephony (RT) procedures please see CAP 413 – www.caa.co.uk/cap413

and SSL 22 – Radiotelephony for General Aviation Pilots .

Explanation Exchange

On ﬁrst call use both your full callsign and that

of the station being addressed. If there is more

than one apron, giving your position will help

the radio operator identify where you are.“ Thruxton radio, G-DOME, PA28

on the main apron, request

taxi information for circuits. ”

The radio operator should then give you

the relevant aerodrome information.“ G-DOME, Thruxton radio,

runway in use 07 , left hand

circuit, QNH 1024. ”

Information such as runway in use, circuit

direction and QNH requires read-back.“ Runway in use 07 , left hand

circuit, QNH 1024, G-DOME. ”

Once satisﬁed it is safe to taxi,

announce your intentions.“ G-DOME, taxiing holding

point W for runway 07 . ”

The radio operator may pass any relevant

traﬃc information, but do not rely on this

– an AGCS operator is required to have a

contentious view of the manoeuvring area.“ G-ME, Roger. ”

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Arrival and departure proceduresAERODROME OPERATIONS > PROCEDURES FOR DEPARTING TRAFFIC

Example AGCS communications – ﬂying the circuit

Explanation Exchange

Once you have completed all pre-take oﬀ

checks, announce you are ready to depart.

Note that it is NOT correct to

report “ready for take-oﬀ” .“ G-ME, holding point W,

ready for departure. ”

The AGCS operator should pass information

on known traﬃc that may aﬀect your ﬂight.

However, it is still your responsibility to check

that the runway and ﬁnal approach are clear.“G-ME, Roger, traﬃc is a

PA28 reported ﬁnal, surface

wind 090º/14 kts. ”

Only use the word ‘take-oﬀ’ when announcing

that you are about to do so.“ Roger, taking oﬀ, G-ME. ”

Once established in the circuit, make standard

position calls.

Adding your intention (for example touch-and-go

or landing) to the downwind call will assist the

situational awareness of others, particularly in a

busy circuit.“ G-ME, downwind 07 , touch

and go (or to land). ”

“G-ME, Roger” .

“ G-ME ﬁnal, touch-and-

go (or to land). ”

“G-ME, Roger” .

Once on the ground, report when you have

vacated the runway and continue to announce

your taxi intentions.“ G-ME, runway vacated at W,

taxiing to the main apron. ”

- “G-ME, Roger” .

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Arrival and departure proceduresAERODROME OPERATIONS > PROCEDURES FOR DEPARTING TRAFFIC

Example AFIS communications – departure

For more details of radiotelephony (RT) procedures please see CAP 413 – www.caa.co.uk/cap413

and SSL 22 – Radiotelephony for General Aviation Pilots .

Explanation Exchange

On ﬁrst call use both your full callsign

and that of the station being addressed.“ Duxford Information,

G-DOME, PA28 on the eastern

apron, request taxi for VFR

ﬂight to Old Sarum. ”

The FISO will give you the QNH, runway

in use and taxi instructions.“ G-DOME, Duxford Information,

taxi holding point Echo

for runway 24L, left hand

circuit, QNH 1024. ”

The taxi instructions, runway in use, circuit

direction and QNH must be read back.“ T axi holding point Echo for

runway 24L, left hand circuit,

QNH 1024. G-DOME. ”

Once at the hold and any necessary checks

complete, report “ready for departure” .

Note that it is not correct to

report “ready for take-oﬀ” . “ G-DOME, holding at Echo,

ready for departure. ”

The phrase “take-oﬀ at your discretion” indicates

the point at which the FISO is no longer

giving you instructions. You are responsible for

determining whether it is safe to take oﬀ.

You should carefully check that the approach

and runway are clear before entering.“ G-ME, Roger, no reported

traﬃc, surface wind 260º/14

kts, take-oﬀ at your discretion. ”

The term ‘take-oﬀ’ should only be used to

announce that you are about to take-oﬀ (in an

AGCS or AFIS environment) or reading back a

take-oﬀ clearance from an aerodrome controller.“ T aking oﬀ runway

24L, G-ME. ”

Once airborne and transitioning to enroute

ﬂight, you should report leaving the frequency/

ATZ at the appropriate time. It is good

practice to let the current station know

the frequency you are changing to.“ G-ME, leaving the ATZ to

the south west at 2,000

ft, changing to Luton

Approach 129.55. ”

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AERODROME OPERATIONS

Arrival and departure procedures

Maintaining separation

>Control your speed and circuit width

to integrate with other traﬃc. Deploy

ﬂaps and land gear as required.

>If you cannot maintain adequate separation

from other aircraft, break oﬀ the circuit

and rejoin from the dead side. Do not orbit

in the circuit for spacing, unless directed

to do so at a controlled aerodrome.

>If required to go around due to traﬃc ahead

or on the runway, make the decision in good

time. Cross to the dead side as you climb

away and rejoin the circuit on the cross

wind leg or as appropriate to the situation.

>Fly a stable approach at the correct

speed, rate of descent and aligned with

the runway. If your approach becomes

unstable, do not hesitate to go around.

>Helicopters and larger GA aircraft

may create wake vortex – causing

control diﬃculties for others. For more

information, see SSL 15 – Wake Vortex .

Unattended Aerodromes

If operating at an unattended aerodrome,

announce your position and intentions via

‘blind call’ on the aerodrome radio frequency.

For aerodromes without an assigned

frequency, use Safetycom on 135.480 MHz.

Consider the safety implications of arriving at

an unattended aerodrome. It is recommended

to nominate a ‘responsible person’ who can

notify the authorities and/or proceed to the

aerodrome if you do not make contact after the

estimated arrival time. Carrying an ELT or PLB

(mandatory for Part 21 aircraft) is also advisable.

Smaller unlicensed aerodromes and strips

may have special procedures for arrival.PROCEDURES FOR ARRIVING TRAFFIC

Follow any speciﬁc arrival procedures

published for the aerodrome. For example,

some aerodromes will nominate a Visual

Reference Point (VRP) for the arrival route.

Radio contact with the aerodrome should

be made around 10 minutes prior to arrival.

On initial contact you should be passed:

> Runway in use;

> Circuit direction; and

> QNH or QFE.

At controlled aerodromes you will normally

be instructed to join in a particular manner,

such as ‘join overhead’ or ‘join downwind’.

At uncontrolled aerodromes you must plan your

arrival join, taking into account local procedures

and the prevailing traﬃc situation. Announce

your entry to the ATZ and joining intentions.

Know the correct circuit height. This may vary

depending on day of the week or aircraft type.

If the aerodrome has an ATIS, include

in your initial call the information letter

and QNH you have copied.

To increase visual conspicuity, it is

recommended to turn on landing lights

when approaching the aerodrome. SANDBACKVRP

? Guidance

Strip Flying

MAY 2022

STRIP

FLYING

SAFETY SENSE

SS12

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AERODROME OPERATIONS > PROCEDURES FOR ARRIVING TRAFFIC

Arrival and departure procedures

Joining procedures

The ‘overhead’ join is the recommended

joining procedure for uncontrolled aerodromes.

It allows you to observe traﬃc in the circuit

prior to entry.Standard overhead joins are not possible at all

aerodromes. Always check local procedures.

2,000ft2,000ft1,000ft

1,000ft

Joining

Circuit letdown

Circuit

DepartureJoining phasesExtended centreline

Extended centrelineFINALDOWNWIND LEG

BASE LEGCROSSWIND LEG

Upwind threshold

Intowind runway

thresholdLive sideDead side

2Begin letdown on dead side if safe.

If unable to ascertain runway in use

continue circling around the overhead.

When circuit direction is ascertained

call “Overhead, joining for runway…”Position to cross at the upwind

end of the runway at circuit height.

Watch for aircraft taking of f, as

they could pose a hazard.Watch for existing circuit

traf f ic and adjust your

path to sequence safely.

Maintain 1000 ft above circuit

height (or as speciﬁed by the

aerodrome) and observe windsock

and traf f ic. Keep aerodrome suitable

distance on the left of the aircraft.

If arriving from the other side of

the aerodrome than depicted,

circle overhead so as to start

from a similar position.? Guidance

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1 Downwind join: joining the circuit parallel

to the runway in the downwind direction. It

is important to observe for conﬂicting traﬃc

that may be coming from the crosswind leg.

If in doubt about cutting in front of another

aircraft, reduce speed and/or manoeuvre to

ﬁt in behind.

There may also be aircraft on the downwind

leg that are directly ahead of you and

therefore diﬃcult to identify. The danger

is that you join closer to the runway and

then turn base inside other traﬃc, without

realising you have cut in front of them.2 Crosswind (midﬁeld) join: joining at circuit

height from the dead side, at 90º to the

runway. You then turn downwind to join the

circuit direction. Watch out for traﬃc already

established on the downwind leg or traﬃc in

the initial climb below you.

3 Base leg join: joining directly to the base

leg of the circuit. Watch the downwind leg

carefully and ensure that you have not joined

on the inside of any traﬃc that is already on

the base leg.

4 Straight-in approaches are not

recommended since they do not give much

opportunity to observe conﬂicting circuit

traﬃc. If making a straight-in approach, report

‘long ﬁnal’ at 4 NM and ‘ﬁnal’ at 2 NM.AERODROME OPERATIONS > PROCEDURES FOR ARRIVING TRAFFIC

Arrival and departure procedures

Downwind legCrosswind leg

Joining circuit on

a downwind legJoining circuit

on a base legJoining for

straight in

approach

Base legFinal

‘Final’ radio callDEADSIDE

LIVESIDEJoining circuit

at crosswind

1In addition to the overhead join there are other options for joining the circuit, if traﬃc conditions allow.

Aerodromes will sometimes publish a preferred joining route. Always check local procedures.

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AERODROME OPERATIONS > PROCEDURES FOR ARRIVING TRAFFIC

Arrival and departure procedures

Example AFIS communications – arrival

For more details of radiotelephony (RT) procedures please see CAP 413 – www.caa.co.uk/cap413

and SSL 22 – Radiotelephony for General Aviation Pilots .

Explanation Exchange

As per contacting an enroute ATSU,

including the request in the initial call will

help the FISO respond appropriately.“ Duxford Information,

G-DOME, 10 NM south of

Duxford, request join. ”

The FISO should respond with the

relevant aerodrome information.“ G-DOME, Duxford Information,

runway 24L in use, left

hand circuit, QFE 1019. ”

Runway in use, circuit direction and

QHN/QFE must be read back.“ Runway 24L, left hand circuit,

QFE 1019, G-DOME. ”

Announce entry into the ATZ.“ G-DOME, entering the ATZ

from the south at 1,500 ft”

The request to report downwind is not an

instruction as you would receive from an

air traﬃc controller. It is a reporting request

that is consistent with local procedures.

The FISO may give you traﬃc information

in the circuit, although it should

be treated as advisory only. “ G-ME, Roger, report

joining downwind. ”

Requests may be acknowledged with ‘wilco’.

While you should follow published aerodrome

procedures, AFIS cannot issue instructions

to aircraft in the air. It is your decision as

to how to execute the arrival join.“ Wilco, G-ME. ”

- “ G-ME, joining downwind. ”

-“ G-ME, Roger, currently one on

ﬁnal. Report ﬁnal runway 24L. ”

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AERODROME OPERATIONS > PROCEDURES FOR ARRIVING TRAFFIC

Arrival and departure procedures

Example AFIS communications – arrival

Explanation Exchange

-“Wilco, G-ME. ”

“G-ME, ﬁnal 24L. ”

The term “land at your discretion” is used by

AFISOs to aircraft on ﬁnal. It emphasises that

it is the pilot’s decision whether to land or

not. It is not a landing clearance as you would

receive from an aerodrome controller. You should

ensure the runway is clear before landing. “ G-ME, Roger, land at your

discretion, wind 280º/9 kts. ”

- “ Roger, G-ME. ”

In the UK, AFISOs issue taxi instructions to aircraft

on the ground.“ G-ME, taxi to the end of the

runway, vacate at Delta and

then to the western apron. ”

If you are unsure of the assigned route, stop

and ask for clariﬁcation, although do not stop

on the runway.“ Vacate at Delta and taxi to

the western apron, G-ME. ”

If necessary, conﬁrm the correct parking location. “ G-ME, request parking. ”

-“ G-ME, park between

the brown PA28 and the

yellow Super Cub. ”

-“ Roger, between the brown

PA28 and the yellow

Super Cub, G-ME. ”

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RUNWAY MARKINGS2020202020Visual Runways

– LDA < 1200 m

Precision Approach RunwaysNon Precision Approach Runways, Visual Runways of LDA

>1200 m and where Threshold requires emphasis

Centre Line

MarketingThreshold

Marking

Touchdown Zone

MarkingsTouchdown Zone

MarkingsAiming

Point MarkEdge

MarkingThreshold

MarkingRunway

DesignatorAERODROME OPERATIONS

Visual communications and signage20Permanently Displaced Threshold Pre-Threshold Markings

Pre-threshold area of runway ﬁt for movement

of aircraft and available as starter extension for

take-oﬀ but not available for landingPre-threshold area of runway ﬁt for use as a

stopway by aircraft landing in the opposite direction

but not ﬁt for normal movement of aircraft

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Visual communications and signageAERODROME OPERATIONS > RUNWAY MARKINGS20

20Temporarily Displaced Threshold and Pre-Threshold Markings

Pre-threshold area of runway

unﬁt for the movement of aircraft

and unsuitable as stopwayPre-threshold area of runway

ﬁt for movement of aircraft and

available as starter extension

for take-oﬀ but not available

for landingNew

Threshold

APAPIRunway lighting

A typical lighting installation for GA

runways includes:

>Green threshold lighting;

>White edge lighting; and

>Red end lighting.

Some runways may also be equipped with a

simple approach lighting system, consisting of

white lights in a single ‘T -bar’ layout. This aids

visual acquisition of the runway in poor visibility. LIGHTING

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Visual communications and signageAERODROME OPERATIONS > LIGHTING

TAXIWAY SIGNS AND MARKINGS

(i) (ii)

(iii)Speciﬁc Location

Direction SignRunway Location SignDesignation

Taxiway Ending

Runway Destination SignLocation and destination signs

Signs allow speciﬁc locations or directions to be

identiﬁed. Taxiways are normally identiﬁed by

a letter, for example ‘ Alpha’ or ‘Bravo’. Speciﬁc

locations such as holding points are normally

indicated with a letter and number combination.Precision Approach Path Indicators (PAPIs)

PAPIs indicate whether you are on the correct

approach angle to the runway. They are normally

set at between 3º and 4º. Most GA aerodromes

will have a two light system (APAPI), when on

the correct slope, one light is white and the

other light is red. Larger aerodromes typically

have a four light system.A B

TOO HIGH SLIGHTLY HIGH

ON CORRECT APPROACH PATH

D E

SLIGHTLY LOW TOO LOW

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Visual communications and signageAERODROME OPERATIONS >TAXIWAY SIGNS AND MARKINGS

II27 27

a)(a)Runway Taxi-Holding Position marking

pattern ‘A’ identifying the last holding

position prior to entering runway

(i)

(ii)Mandatory signs and holding points

Mandatory instruction signs are indicated

by white letters on a red background. The

most common example being runway

entry points. Entry points at either end

of a runway will refer to the end of the

runway (for example 27) at which the entry

is located. At intermediate points of entry,

both runway directions are indicated.

You must not pass mandatory signs without

permission from ATC (in the case of a

controlled aerodrome) or at an uncontrolled

aerodrome without having checked the runway

and ﬁnal approach is clear and announced

your intentions to enter the runway.

Accompanying the sign will also be

ground markings which indicate the

holding point, consisting of two solid

yellow lines followed by two dashed lines

on the runway side of the markings.

Larger aerodromes may also have ‘guard

lights’ – normally these are placed in

pairs either side of a runway holding

point and alternately ﬂash yellow.

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Visual communications and signage

Boundary markers

Orange and white markers are sometimes

used to mark the boundary of areas

unﬁt for the movement of aircraft and/

or the boundary of the aerodrome.

AERODROME GROUND SIGNALS

Ground to air visual signals date from the time when many aircraft did not have radios. Ground

signals therefore had to be read from the air to ascertain information such as the direction of the

landing runway.

Ground to air signals are normally located in the ‘signal square’. The signal square will contain signs

that display information about aerodrome operations. If arriving non-radio, observe the signal square

from overhead and plan your join accordingly.Area unﬁt for the movement of aircraft

Aerodrome boundaryStop Bar On Stop Bar OﬀStop bars

At larger controlled aerodromes you may

encounter ‘stop bars’. These are red lights

that are positioned across the taxiway,

normally prior to entering a runway. You must

not cross a red stop bar. ATC will switch

them oﬀ after giving a clearance to cross or

enter the associated holding point. The red

bar should then be replaced with a green

centreline marking that leads past it.

ATC should not normally ask you to cross

an illuminated stop bar. If ATC issue an

instruction that involves crossing an illuminated

stop bar, you must seek clariﬁcation. AERODROME OPERATIONS >TAXIWAY SIGNS AND MARKINGS

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Visual communications and signageAERODROME OPERATIONS > AERODROME GROUND SIGNALS

cA right hand arrow of

conspicuous colour in the signal

square indicates that turns are

to be made to the right before

landing and after take-oﬀ. This

means adopt a right hand

circuit pattern. In the absence

of a signal or other information

to the contrary, a left hand

circuit pattern is the norm.

A red square with two yellow

diagonal displayed in the

signal square indicates that

landings are prohibited.

A horizontal white dumb-bell

with black stripes indicates that

while take-oﬀs and landings

are conﬁned to runways

only, other manoeuvres

need not be conﬁned to

runways or taxiways.

A cross on the surface of a

runway (white) or taxiway

(yellow) indicates an area unﬁt

for the movement of aircraft.A black letter C against a

yellow background indicates

the place at which a pilot

can report to the air traﬃc

control unit or to the person

in charge of the aerodrome.

At most GA aerodromes,

visiting pilots should report

to this point after arrival.A double white cross displayed

in the signal square indicates

that gliding operations are

taking place at the aerodrome.A red square with one yellow

diagonal displayed in the

signal square indicates that

special precautions must

be observed in approaching

to land or in landing, for

example due to the poor state

of the manoeuvring area.

A horizontal white dumb-

bell displayed in the signal

square indicates that aircraft

are required to land, take-

oﬀ and taxi on runways

and taxiways only.12A horizontal white or orange

landing T in the signal square

indicates the direction to be

used by aircraft for landing and

taking oﬀ – parallel to the shaft

of the T towards the cross arm.The landing direction/runway in

use may also be displayed in a

prominent place on the control

tower using black digits on a

yellow background.

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AERODROME OPERATIONS

Marshalling signals

When visiting larger aerodromes you may be directed to your parking location by a marshaller. The

following pages cover most of the signals likely to be used for operations with light aircraft. Details of

all signals can be found in Appendix 1 of SERA .

Description: Raise fully

extended arms straight

above head with wands

pointing up.

Meaning: Identify gate.Description: With right arm

and wand extended at a

90-degree angle to body,

make “come ahead” signal

with left hand. The rate of

signal motion indicates to

pilot the rate of aircraft turn.

Meaning: Turn left (from

pilot’s point of view).

Description: Point both arms

upward, move and extend

arms outward to sides of

body and point with wands to

direction of next signalman

or taxi area.

Meaning: Proceed to next

signalman or as directed by

tower/ground control.Description: Raise right

hand above head level with

wand pointing up; move left-

hand wand pointing down

toward body.

Meaning: Wingwalker/

guide -This signal provides

an indication by a person

positioned at the aircraft wing

tip, to the pilot/marshaller/ push-

back operator, that the aircraft

movement on/oﬀ a parking

position would be unobstructed.Description: With left arm

and wand extended at a

90-degree angle to body,

make “come ahead” signal

with right hand. The rate of

signal motion indicates to

pilot the rate of aircraft turn.

Meaning: Turn right (from

pilot’s point of view).

Description: Bend extended

arms at elbows and move

wands up and down from

chest height to head.

Meaning: Straight ahead.Description: Fully extend

arms and wands at a

90-degree angle to sides and

slowly move to above head

until wands cross.

Meaning: Normal stop.

Description: Abruptly extend

arms and wands to top of

head, crossing wands.

Meaning: Emergency stop.

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dDescription: Raise hand

just above shoulder height

with open palm. Ensuring

eye contact with ﬂight crew,

close hand into a ﬁst. Do Not

move until receipt of “thumbs

up” acknowledgement from

ﬂight crew.

Meaning: Set brakes.Description: Raise right arm

to head level with wand

pointing up and start a

circular motion with hand;

at the same time, with left

arm raised above head level,

point to engine to be started.

Meaning: Start engine(s).

Description: Extend arm

with wand forward of body

at shoulder level; move

hand and wand to top of left

shoulder and draw wand

to top of right shoulder in a

slicing motion across throat.

Meaning: Cut engine(s).

Description: Move extended

arms downwards in a

“patting” gesture, moving

wands up and down from

waist to knees.

Meaning: Slow down.

Description: With arms

down and wands toward

ground, wave either right

or left wand up and down

indicating engine(s) on left or

right side respectively should

be slowed down.

Meaning: Slow down

engine(s) on indicated side.Description: Raise hand

just above shoulder height

with hand closed in a

ﬁst. Ensuring eye contact

with ﬂight crew, open

palm. Do not move until

receipt of “thumbs up”

acknowledgement

from crew.

Meaning: Release brakes.

Description: With arms

and wands fully extending

above head, move wands

inwards in a “jabbing”

motion until wands touch.

Ensure acknowledgement is

received from ﬂight crew.

Meaning: Chocks inserted.

Description: With arms

and wands fully extended

above head, move wands

outward in “jabbing” motion.

Do not remove chocks until

authorised by crew.

Meaning: Chocks removed.Marshalling signalsAERODROME OPERATIONS

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Description: With arms in

front of body at waist height,

rotate arms in a forward

motion. To stop rearward

movement, use signal 6(a)

or 6(b).

Meaning: Move Back.Description: Fully extend

arms and wands at a

90-degree angle to sides.

Meaning: Hover.

Description: Fully extend

arms and wands at a

90-degree angle to sides

and, with palms turned up,

move hands upwards. Speed

of movement indicates rate

of ascent.

Meaning: Move upwards.

Description: Fully extend

arms and wands at a

90-degree angle to sides and,

with palms turned down,

move hands downwards.

Speed of movement

indicates rate of descent.

Meaning: Move downwards.

Description: Extend arm

horizontally at a 90-degree

angle to right side of body.

Move other arm in same

direction in a sweeping

motion.

Meaning: Move horizontally

left (from pilot’s point of view).Description: Point left arm

with wand down and bring

right arm from overhead

vertical position to horizontal

forward position, repeating

right-arm movement.

Meaning: Turns while

backing (for tail to

starboard).

Description: Point right arm

with wand down and bring

left arm from overhead

vertical position to horizontal

position, repeating left-arm

movement.

Meaning: Turns while

backing (for tail to port).

Description: Raise right arm

to head level with wand

pointing up or display hand

with “thumbs up”; left arm

remains at side by knee.

Meaning: Aﬃrmative/all

clear-This signal is also used

as a technical/servicing

communication signal.Marshalling signalsAERODROME OPERATIONS

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BRAKEENGINEDescription: Extend arm

horizontally at a 90-degree

angle to left side of body. Move

other arm in same direction in

a sweeping motion.

Meaning: Move horizontally

right (from pilot’s point of view).Description: Perform

a standard salute with

right hand and/or wand

to dispatch the aircraft.

Maintain eye contact with

ﬂight crew until aircraft has

begun to taxi.

Meaning: Dispatch aircraft.

Description: Extend right

arm fully above head and

close ﬁst or hold wand in

horizontal position; left arm

remains at side by knee.

Meaning: Do not touch

controls (technical/servicing

communication signal).

Description: Hold arms fully

extended above head, open

left hand horizontally and

move ﬁnger tips of right hand

into a touch open palm of

left hand (forming a “T”). At

night, illuminated wands can

also be used to form the “T”

above head.

Meaning: Connect ground

power (technical/servicing

communication signal).

Description: Hold arms fully

extended above head with

ﬁnger tips of right hand

touching open horizontal

palm of left hand (forming a

“T”); then move right hand

away from the left. Do not

disconnect power until

authorised by ﬂight crew. At

night illuminated wands can

also be used to form the “T”

above head.

Meaning: Disconnect

power (technical/servicing

communication signal).Description: Cross arms with

wands downwards and in

front of body.

Meaning: Land.

Description: Move right-

hand wand in a “fanning”

motion from shoulder to

knee, while at the same time

pointing with left-hand wand

to area of ﬁre .

Meaning: Fire.

Description: Fully extend

arms and wands downwards

at a 45-degree angle to sides.

Hold position until aircraft is

clear for next manoeuvre.

Meaning: Hold position/

stand by.Marshalling signalsAERODROME OPERATIONS

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Description: Hold right arm

straight out at 90 degrees

from shoulder and point

wand down to ground or

display hand with “thumbs

down”; left hand remains at

side by knee.

Meaning: Negative

(technical/servicing

communication signal).Description: With right arm

at side and left arm raised

above head at 45 degree

angle, move right arm in a

sweeping motion towards

top left shoulder.

Meaning: Open/close

stairs (technical/servicing

communication signal). This

signal is intended mainly

for aircraft with the set of

integral stairs at the front.

Description: Extend both

arms at 90 degrees from

body and move hands to cup

both ears.

Meaning: Establish

communication via interphone

(technical/ servicing

communication signal).

Description: Raise arm and hand with ﬁngers

extended horizontally in front of face, then

clench ﬁst.

Meaning: Brakes engaged.Meaning of Signals made by Pilot to Marshaller

Description: Raise arm with ﬁst clenched

horizontally in front of face, then extend ﬁngers.

Meaning: Brakes released.Marshalling signalsAERODROME OPERATIONS

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Description: Arms extended palms facing

outwards, move hands inwards to cross in

front of face.

Meaning: Insert chocks.

Description: Hands crossed in front of face,

palms facing outwards, move arms outwards.

Meaning: Remove chocks.

Description: Raise the number of ﬁngers

on one hand indicating the number of the

engine to be started. For this purpose the

aircraft engines shall be numbered as

follows, No. 1 engine shall be the port outer

engine, No. 2, the port inner engine, No. 3,

the starboard inner engine and No. 4, the

starboard outer engine.

Meaning: Ready to start engine indicated.Marshalling signalsAERODROME OPERATIONS

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Including:

07.121 Pilot ﬁtness >

123 Aeronautical decision making >

126 Threat and error management >

127 Airmanship >

127 Safety resources >

128 Maintaining skills >

129 Staying in control >

130 Avoiding collisions >

134 Avoiding airspace infringements >CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

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Pilot ﬁtness

MEDICAL CONDITIONS AND INJURY

You must not ﬂy if you are aware of any

decrease in medical ﬁtness that may aﬀect

your ability to safely exercise the privileges

of your licence. This could include injury,

medical treatment or the use of medication,

both prescription and non-prescription. You

may not be aware of the eﬀects of a particular

condition or medication, so if in doubt seek the

advice of an Aeromedical Examiner (AME).

If you hold a Medical Certiﬁcate,

you must seek aeromedical advice

in the following circumstances:

>Surgical operation or invasive procedure;

>The regular use of any medication;

>Signiﬁcant injury involving incapacity

to act as ﬂight crew; >Signiﬁcant illness involving

incapacity to act as ﬂight crew;

>Pregnancy;

>Hospital or medical clinic admission; and

>First requirement for correcting lenses.

If you have made a Pilot Medical Declaration,

it is recommended to seek the advice

of an AME if you are in any doubt as

to your continued ﬁtness to ﬂy.

Less serious ailments such as the common

cold or hay fever would not normally require

aeromedical advice (unless taking medication)

but may still have an impact on your ﬁtness

to ﬂy. Any signiﬁcant congestion of the nose,

sinuses or ears has the potential to cause

pain while ﬂying and is best avoided.Human factors continue to play a role in most GA accidents. Many could

have been avoided by better decision making and management of risk. Even

for those accidents in which the primary cause was technical failure, human

performance often still aﬀects the outcome.

The study of human factors gives insight into improving ﬂight safety. This chapter explores

ways to do so, including threat and error management (TEM) and airmanship. It is not the

intention to provide a rigid process to follow, but to make you think about how to be a safer

pilot. CAP 737 – Flight-crew human factors handbook contains more detail. Whilst written for

the multi-pilot environment, many of the concepts are relevant to single-pilot aircraft as well.

Intertwined with the issue of human factors, a recurring threat in GA ﬂying is lack of

recent ﬂying experience. Whilst time and resource may limit the amount of ﬂying available,

it is important to acknowledge this threat and manage it accordingly. This chapter also

examines some common risk areas, such as loss of control and mid-air collision.

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PREFLIGHT HEALTH

You must become eﬀective at self-assessment and determining whether you are ‘ﬁt to ﬂy’. Plan

an adequate sleep opportunity of at least eight hours prior to the day of a ﬂight. Fatigue is often

cumulative – most healthy people can absorb one or two nights of reduced sleep, but chronic lack

of sleep will have longer term eﬀects and cannot be rectiﬁed in a single night. Avoid late nights and

excessive use of personal electronic devices immediately before bed.

Flying should not take place less than 8 hours after any alcohol consumption. If you have consumed

signiﬁcant quantities, you may have to wait for up to 24 hours for the alcohol to leave the body. The

UK legal blood alcohol limit for ﬂying is 20 milligrams per 100 ml – note this is a quarter of the limit

for driving in England and Wales. Eat a healthy meal of moderate size, within several hours of the

ﬂight. Avoid excessive carbohydrates that may cause a rapid increase and subsequent fall in blood

sugar levels.SAFER FLYING

Pilot ﬁtness

I AM SAFE

The following mnemonic is recommended

for assessing ﬁtness to ﬂy:

Illness

Do I have any symptoms that might

aﬀect my ability to ﬂy?

Attitude

Am I emotionally ready and fully

focussed on the ﬂight?

Medication

Am I taking any prescription or over-

the-counter drugs that might aﬀect my

performance?

Stress

Am I under pressure or have any worries

and anxieties?

Alcohol

Have I been drinking within the last 24

hours?

Fatigue

Am I tired or not adequately rested?

Eating

Am I adequately nourished? DURING THE FLIGHT

When making decisions about the ongoing

conduct of the ﬂight, consider your fatigue and

alertness levels. If travelling a long distance,

consider diversion options if you feel fatigued.

Ensure you remain nourished and hydrated.

For longer ﬂights, take water and food that

is practical to consume in the aircraft. Wear

comfortable clothing appropriate for the

conditions. During winter it is recommended

to carry heavier clothing, in the event of heater

failure or having to make a forced landing.

If ﬂying at higher altitudes, be alert for symptoms

of hypoxia – including feeling drowsy, lightheaded

or even euphoric. You should use oxygen above

cabin altitudes of 10,000 ft. Above 5,000 ft,

the use of oxygen may improve night vision.

It is recommended to carry a carbon monoxide

(CO) detector in the aircraft, preferably

with an audio alerting function. Exhaust

manifold leaks are always a possibility and

CO poisoning is believed to have been a

factor in several light aircraft accidents.I

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PREFLIGHT

Using a preﬂight planning checklist will ensure

you do not forget to review any key information.

Identify if there are any threats or potential errors

that require mitigation or may inﬂuence whether

to modify, delay or cancel the ﬂight. The decision

to commence the ﬂight is sometimes the most

critical one – when making this decision, consider

the cumulative eﬀect of the diﬀerent risk factors.

The ‘PAVE’ checklist provides a structured

approach. The following are some example

factors to consider:

£ Pilot – recent experience, ﬁtness to ﬂy,

I AM SAFE

£ Aircraft – airworthiness, limitations for

the conditions

£ EnVironment – weather, aerodrome

limitations, terrain

£ External pressures – time pressure,

delays, passengers

Gather as much information about the operating

environment as possible – understand the

detail of all relevant NOTAMs and weather

information. Build a picture of the weather

conditions and how they might evolve during

the ﬂight. Know the threats associated with

diﬀerent weather systems. Identify possible

diversion aerodromes should the weather

prevent safe passage to the planned destination.

It is not always suﬃcient to assume you

will be able to return to your destination.

Always ask the ‘what if?’ question – for

example what if the weather is worse than

forecast or your departure is delayed for some

reason. Take positive decisions in response to

information – do not proceed while ‘waiting to

see what happens’ or ‘hoping it will be OK’. Avoid pressure to commence or complete the

ﬂight at a certain time – for example, if delays

create unacceptable consequences such as

being late for work the next day, consider

how this will inﬂuence your decision making.

Manage the expectations of any passengers

who may not understand the impact of

weather or technical issues with the aircraft.

Plan a ﬂight that is appropriate for your

current level of experience and practice – if

you have not ﬂown recently, a less complex

ﬂight in good weather is appropriate. Factors

such as marginal weather, complex airspace

or taking passengers may increase the risk

of distraction and error. You do not want

the ﬂight to become a source of stress.

If ﬂying early in the morning, check the weather

forecast and NOTAMs the evening before. You

must still conduct a review on the day, however

a check the day before will orientate you for the

ﬂight and help avoid any unwelcome surprises.

Give yourself adequate time to prepare for the

ﬂight and allow for factors that might cause

delays and time pressure before departure.

Arrive at the airﬁeld in good time and conduct

a thorough check of weather, NOTAMs and

the aircraft. Remove as many distractions as

possible and avoid diverting your attention to

anything unrelated to the ﬂight. Even if you

have already checked the weather before

arriving at the airﬁeld, you should always

conduct a ﬁnal check before departure.Aeronautical decision making

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Aeronautical decision making

STRESS AND FATIGUE

If feeling stressed, fatigued or otherwise ensure

about your ﬁtness to ﬂy, defer the ﬂight to another

day, or ﬂy with an instructor if appropriate.

Flying must often compete with other priorities

and inﬂuences in life. Whilst it can be a healthy

way to enjoy some leisure time, it is important

that before ﬂying you are well rested and

not preoccupied with unrelated matters.

During times of high emotional stress associated

with bereavement or other life changing events,

it may be prudent to refrain from ﬂying – your

capacity to focus may be reduced below a

safe level. Work, family or other life related

pressures may also bring stress levels to an

undesirable level, and you must consider the

potential impact on your ﬂying. Symptoms of

signiﬁcant or chronic stress may include poor

sleep, loss of appetite, indigestion, feeling

irritable, poor concentration or loss of energy.

INFLIGHT

Inﬂight decision making will be improved by

having sound aircraft handling skills, preﬂight

preparation and knowledge of procedures

and the operational environment.

You want to keep as much of your mental

capacity as possible for maintaining situational

awareness and making decisions, rather

than having to focus on controlling the

aircraft or processing information that should

have been assimilated on the ground. Always think at least a few minutes ahead of

the aircraft and consider what decisions may

need to be made. For example, whether to

cross or avoid controlled airspace or dealing

with another airspace hazard. Use periods of

inactivity to complete routine tasks such as

cruise checks or fuel system management.

Monitor the weather conditions and respond

appropriately to any unexpected developments.

Recognise when the conditions may be turning

against you and require a new course of

action – for example being continually forced

lower or having to navigate around convective

activity. Situational awareness of the wider

weather picture will improve your decision

making – consider in which directions the

weather may be worsening or improving.

Do not think only in terms of the destination

or departure point – in a potential VFR

into IMC scenario you may need to ﬁnd a

diversion aerodrome in a diﬀerent direction.

Emergency and non-normal situations will

have varying degrees of time available for

decision making – engine failure or other severe

malfunctions of the aircraft require the application

of well-rehearsed emergency procedures

and there is often limited time for analysis.

Other non-normal situations may allow more

time. Use this eﬀectively – unless the aircraft

is in immediate danger, it is usually better to

pause and assess the situation before reacting.

Good knowledge of aircraft systems will

support this. Weather related situations may

require consideration of diﬀerent options – use

resources such as air traﬃc control to gather

information or provide navigational assistance.

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Aeronautical decision making

The Five Hazardous Attitudes Antidote

Anti-authority: “Don’t tell me. ”

This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone telling them what to

do. In a sense, they are saying, “no one can tell me what to do. ” They may

be resentful of having someone tell them what to do or may regard rules,

regulations, and procedures as silly or unnecessary. However, it is always your

prerogative to question authority if you feel it is in error.Follow the rules.

They are usually

right.

Impulsivity: “Do it quickly. ”

This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to do something,

anything, immediately. They do not stop to think about what they are about

to do, they do not select the best alternative, and they do the ﬁrst thing that

comes to mind.Not so fast. Think

ﬁrst.

Invulnerability: “It won’t happen to me. ”

Many people falsely believe that accidents happen to others, but never to

them. They know accidents can happen, and they know that anyone can be

aﬀected. However, they never really feel or believe that they will be personally

involved. Pilots who think this way are more likely to take chances and

increase risk.It could happen

to me.

Macho: “I can do it. ”

Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone else

think, “I can do it–I’ll show them. ” Pilots with this type of attitude will try to

prove themselves by taking risks in order to impress others. While this pattern

is thought to be a male characteristic, women are equally susceptible.T aking chances is

foolish.

Resignation: “What’s the use?”

Pilots who think, “What’s the use?” do not see themselves as being able to

make a great deal of diﬀerence in what happens to them. When things go

well, the pilot is apt to think that it is good luck. When things go badly, the

pilot may feel that someone is out to get them or attribute it to bad luck. The

pilot will leave the action to others, for better or worse. Sometimes, such

pilots will even go along with unreasonable requests just to be a “nice guy. ”I’m not helpless.

I can make a

diﬀerence.HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES

Even though you may be an amateur pilot, it is important to approach ﬂying with a professional

attitude. The assessment of human factors in aviation accidents has identiﬁed ﬁve ‘hazardous

attitudes’ that may lead to poor decision-making and the failure to properly assess and control the

risks of a ﬂight.

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Threat and error management (TEM) is a more

structured approach to how pilots can assess

and control factors that may impact the safety of

a ﬂight. It is not necessary for GA pilots to have

a detailed understanding of TEM theory, however

the concept will assist you in thinking about

how to better anticipate and manage threats

to safe ﬂight or errors that may reduce safety

margins. TEM does not aim to eliminate threats

or errors, but manage them more eﬀectively.

The practice of TEM is sometimes described

as ‘defensive ﬂying’. This has similarities

with defensive driving, which emphasises

observation and anticipation of the surrounding

environment. The old saying ‘a superior

pilots uses his superior judgement to avoid

situations which require the use of his

superior skill’ reﬂects a similar approach.

TEM has three elements: threats, errors and

undesired aircraft states. Threats and errors have

the potential to cause undesired aircraft states.

An undesired aircraft state is when the aircraft is

in an unsafe attitude, conﬁguration or location.

THREATS

A threat is normally something beyond the direct

inﬂuence of the pilot that may reduce safety

margins and therefore needs consideration

or mitigation. Threats normally fall into three

categories: anticipated, unanticipated and latent.

Anticipated threats are factors that you should

be aware of in advance, such as a poor weather

forecast, high densities of VFR traﬃc, a short

runway or some known fault with the aircraft.

Unanticipated threats cannot be speciﬁcally

anticipated, but a good pilot will consider

the possibility of them in advance. For

example, aircraft malfunction, unforecast

poor weather or unplanned runway closure. Latent threats could include external time

pressure, fatigue, insuﬃcient pilot skill,

knowledge or poor attitude to safety. In

an organisational context, factors such as

poor standards or safety culture would also

be a latent threat to safe operations.

ERRORS

Errors are deﬁned actions or inactions by the

pilot (or other operational personnel) that lead to

a potential reduction in safety. Unmanaged and/

or mis-managed errors may lead to undesired

aircraft states. Errors are broadly considered

to be either aircraft handling, procedural or

communication. Errors often occur due to

the failure to manage threats eﬀectively.

Aircraft handling errors may be addressed by

better training and a self-awareness of skill

level – most GA pilots do not ﬂy that often and

therefore loss of aircraft handling skills is a

signiﬁcant risk. Procedural and communication

errors are often the result of insuﬃcient checklist

discipline or proﬁciency with radio telephony.

A common cause of all error types is distraction

and/or mental overload. VFR ﬂight in complex

airspace and around busy aerodromes often

involves high workload. This can be mitigated by

better planning and anticipation, task prioritisation

and removal of unnecessary distraction.

The CAA has identiﬁed distraction and

interruption in GA ﬂying as a common

source of errors.Threat and Error Management

Distraction and Interruption

MAY 2023

DISTRACTION

AND INTERRUPTION IN

GENERAL AVIATION OPERATIONS

SAFETY SENSE

SS31

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The concept of airmanship predates the modern study of human factors. More recent attempts at

deﬁning the term provide a useful model for pilot p roﬁciency and improvement. If TEM and aeronautical

decision making can be thought of as concepts to ma nage risk and take decisions before and during a

ﬂight, airmanship is more the discipline of being a good pilot in general. The practice of good airman ship

should be an aspiration for all aviators. SSL 1 – Good Airmanship Guide discusses practical steps for good

airmanship in GA ﬂying.

UK Regulation (EU) 1178/2011 (the UK Aircrew Regula tion) deﬁnes ‘ Airmanship’ as:

‘The consistent use of good judgement and well-deve loped knowledge, skills and attitudes to accomplish

ﬂight objectives. ’

A 2003 BAE Systems training paper proposed that the foundations of airmanship consis t of:

The General Aviation Safety Council (GASCo) produce a ‘personal currency chart’ which can be

downloaded from their website – www.gasco.org.uk .

Learn from the experiences and mistakes of others. Many GA magazines reproduce accident

reports or feature articles on decision making scenarios. Maintain an interest in current thinking

on GA safety issues. The CAA ’s Clued up magazine (available for free on the CAA website – search

online at www.caa.co.uk ) contains a wealth of information in this area.

Some GA Associations and ﬂying schools have pilot proﬁciency schemes approved under the CAA ’s

Pilot Recognition for Operational Up-skilling and Development (PROUD) framework. These schemes

are a good way to challenge yourself and improve your ﬂying. Search for “CAA PROUD” online to

ﬁnd out more.

A range of safety guidance material is available from the CAA and external organisations. Most

GA safety content is available via the GA Unit homepage at www.caa.co.uk/ga and includes the

Safety Sense Leaﬂets , Clued Up magazine and a range of other publications, podcasts and video

animations. For more details see Finding out more .SAFER FLYING

Airmanship

Safety resources Knowledge Aircraft, environment, risk

Skill Physical, cognitive, communication, management and team

AttitudesProfessionalism, discipline, self-improvement, knowledge of

hazardous attitudes

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The average GA pilot only ﬂies about 30

hours per year. You may be surprised at how

quickly handling skills and recollection of

operating procedures fade, particularly if

overall experience is low. Challenges such

as higher winds, unfamiliar aerodromes or

complex airspace may quickly make a lack

of recent experience more apparent.

Be realistic about your current skill level – whilst

you should not be afraid of taking on more

challenging ﬂights, some refresher training with

an instructor may be prudent beforehand.

BUILDING EXPERIENCE

Experience should improve your conﬁdence

and understanding of diﬀerent conditions

and operational challenges. As you become

more conﬁdent, plan longer ﬂights but

balance this with a cautious attitude and

take advice if you are unsure of anything.

Flying with a more experienced pilot may be

beneﬁcial, but always be clear about who is

pilot in command. Pursuing training towards

additional ratings will make your ﬂying more

interesting and make you a better pilot.

Be wary of allowing bad habits to creep in,

such as poor checklist discipline or imprecise

control of speed and/or altitude in your ﬂying.

Avoid complacency or the reinforcement of risky

behaviour – do not start to believe things such

as ‘the weather is never as bad as forecast’ or

that overloading the aircraft is ever acceptable.

Most GA pilots with a single engine piston (SEP)

rating or similar are required to have had an

hour’s ﬂying with an instructor every two years.

Use this time to revise manoeuvres such as

short ﬁeld landings, steep turns or practice forced

landings. If undertaking a proﬁciency check,

note any areas of weakness and discuss them

with the examiner – even if you pass the check,

consider further training to improve your skills.After any signiﬁcant break from ﬂying, set

aside time to thoroughly review speeds and

procedures for your aircraft and any other

subjects you may need to revise. Take instruction

as required and wait until you are completely

comfortable before taking passengers again.

If ﬂying a diﬀerent aircraft for the ﬁrst time,

review the AFM and ﬁnd a suitable instructor

who can train you on the type. Memorise

relevant speeds and procedures.

KEEP IMPROVING

A good pilot should be conﬁdent and

diligent, whilst maintaining a healthy degree

of self-critique. Be realistic about your

capabilities and reﬂect on areas for possible

improvement. Areas to consider include:

>Knowledge of weather and operational

threats such as airspace hazards;

>Aircraft knowledge, for example normal

and emergency procedures, system

knowledge such as avionics or fuel;

>Improvement of ﬂying skills such as unusual

attitudes, crosswind technique, slow ﬂight;

>Decision making before and during the

ﬂight – for example weather, fatigue

or other operational pressures; and

>Decision making in emergency

situations, such as partial engine

failure or VFR ﬂight into IMC.SAFER FLYING

Maintaining skills

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Staying in control

>Know the correct speeds for your aircraft

in all phases of ﬂight, including stall

(clean and with ﬂap) and best glide.

>The stall always happens at the same angle

of attack, which as g-loading increases,

will occur at a higher airspeed. In a 2g

manoeuvre the stalling angle of attack

occurs at a 41% higher airspeed.

>Be proﬁcient in slow ﬂight and stall

recognition/recovery techniques.

>Landing in crosswinds and/or turbulent

conditions requires good handing

skills – conduct additional training if

you are not conﬁdent in this area.

Challenging landing sites, such as small strips,

often feature in loss of control accidents,

underlining the need to apply extra caution:

>Have you calculated your

performance requirements?

>Are there obstacles that might need

avoiding on approach or climb out?

>Runways tend to be shorter and narrower,

how precise is your touch down technique?

>Even small amounts of turbulence or

crosswind can make speed control

and touchdown precision much more

challenging. How proﬁcient are you?

>Low sun can make judging height and

distance to touch down challenging. Is

that likely to be an issue on arrival?Common issues in loss of control

accidents include:

>Distraction;

>Poor handling technique;

>Turbulence and/or crosswinds;

>Challenging operating sites; and

>Continued VFR into IMC.

Distraction comes from a variety of sources,

but a common one is being distracted by an

issue during a critical phase of ﬂight that leads

the pilot to neglect controlling the aircraft:

>Manoeuvring in the circuit

while preparing to land;

>Attempting to shut open doors or

canopies while close to the ground;

>Attempting to diagnose cockpit

warnings or other system issues; or

>Engine failures, or in the case of

gliders, winch launch failures.

The most important message is to ﬂy the aircraft.

Even an engine failure is unlikely to be fatal if

the aircraft arrives at the ground under control

in a level attitude. Issues such as open doors or

warning lights can normally wait until the aircraft

is at a safe altitude and the ﬂight path is stable.? Guidance

Strip Flying Loss of Control

MAY 2022

STRIP

FLYING

SAFETY SENSE

SS12

JULY 2022

LOSS OF CONTROL

ST ALL & SPIN AWARENESS

SAFETY SENSE

SS30

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SAFER FLYING

Avoiding collisions

! Key info

More than 100 ‘airproxes’ are reported

to the UK Airprox Board every year.

Almost all mid-air collisions occur in good

VMC and at relatively low level, reﬂecting the

circumstances in which traﬃc density tends to

be higher. Around half of mid-air collisions in the

UK happen near aerodromes, many in the circuit.

The avoidance of collisions in uncontrolled

airspace is achieved as much by the ‘big sky’

as it is by ‘see-and-avoid’. Even when operating

an eﬀective visual scan, most pilots will not

achieve a 100% traﬃc detection rate, especially

if the conﬂicting aircraft is outside the area

normally visible from the cockpit. The risk

of collisions can never be mitigated entirely,

however by taking a number of precautions

you can improve the odds in your favour.

MITIGATIONS

Certain areas of uncontrolled airspace in

the UK have high volumes of VFR traﬃc,

particularly during the summer.

>Avoid obvious ‘choke points’ around radio

beacons or other signiﬁcant features

commonly used for navigation. You may

wish to load VFR reference points (VRPs)

into your VFR moving map device, however

you should avoid direct overﬂight.

>Avoid aerodromes or other hazardous

airspace reservations like glider sites. Note

the cable launch heights on your chart. Be

aware gliders do not conﬁne themselves to

the overhead of their operating sites or the

immediate vicinity of it. Gliders will often

congregate around an area of thermals – if

you see one, there will likely be others. >Hang gliders and paragliders often launch

from hill sites facing into wind, sometimes

in large numbers. These sites are not

always shown on charts, and some are

activated by NOTAM. An active site may

contain many gliders circling in ‘gaggles’

and they may depart on cross country

routes, normally in a downwind direction.

>Randomise your cruising levels. There is

no requirement in the UK for VFR ﬂights

to follow ‘semi-circular’ rules (although

there may be in other states), so ﬂy at

diﬀerent altitudes such as 2,200 ft instead

of round numbers such as 2,000 ft.

>Avoid crossing the ﬁnal approach track of

aerodromes outside controlled airspace,

even if outside the ATZ. The feathered arrows

on charts indicate the instrument approach

paths of larger aerodromes – aircraft descend

along these at around 300 ft per NM.

>Be familiar with aerodrome joining, circuit and

departure procedures. Many GA aerodromes

have non-standard arrangements.

>Be clear about your position and intentions –

many airproxes at uncontrolled aerodromes

result from a lack of clear communication as

to the position and intentions of aircraft.

For more information on collision avoidance,

see SSL 13 .

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Avoiding collisions

THE VISUAL SCAN

Despite the recognition of its ﬂaws, an eﬀective

‘lookout’ will go a long way to mitigating the

risk of collision. Ensure the windscreen or

canopy is clean – a dead insect might obscure

the dot of a conﬂicting aircraft. It is usually

easier to remove dead insects immediately

after a ﬂight, which also saves time for when

you (or someone else) next go ﬂying.

For VFR operations, you should have your

eyes inside the cockpit no more than 25%

of the time. The rest of the time you should

be looking outside. Provided you hold a steady

visual attitude, the aircraft will maintain altitude

while you look outside. Adopting a systematic

approach to scanning the view outside the

cockpit will help you maintain an eﬀective

lookout and give you time to periodically

check direction and altitude on instruments.

>You should move your eyes (and head as

necessary) in short and regularly spaced

movements that bring successive areas

of the sky into the central visual ﬁeld.

You should pause for at least a second

to refocus on the new area and detect

any aircraft. The centre of focus should shift by about 10º per movement. 15º is

around the normal width within which the

eyes can focus on a particular area, so 10º

allows for some overlap. The eyes struggle

to detect movement while the head is

moving, so be sure to stop moving your

head when refocusing on a new area.

There are two methods that have been identiﬁed

as being eﬀective lookout techniques:

>Side to side scanning method: Start

at the far left of your visual area and

make a methodical sweep to the right,

pausing for a couple of seconds in each

‘block’ of the viewing area to focus

your eyes. At the end of the scan,

return to and scan the instrument panel

and then repeat the external scan.

>Front-to-side scanning method: Start

in the centre block of your visual ﬁeld,

move to the left, focusing very brieﬂy on

each ‘block’, then swing quickly back to

the centre block after reaching the last

block on the left and repeat the action

to the right. Then, after scanning the

instrument panel, repeat the external scan.

2 12 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

52 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s

Front-to-side

scanning methodSide-to-side

scanning method

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SAFER FLYING > THE VISUAL SCAN

Avoiding collisions

>‘Block’ means an area that can be focused

on at one time in the normal ﬁeld of view.

>Inevitably there will be times when you

need to keep your eyes in the cockpit

for longer than is ideal – for example, to

change a radio frequency or check engine

instrumentation. Try not to get ﬁxated

inside, and look back outside every few

seconds. Consciously re-establish the

scan once the interruption has passed.

>If you are ﬂying with another pilot, or a

passenger you have educated on ‘looking

out’, tell them you are going ‘heads down’

so that they know to keep a good lookout.

>Peripheral vision can be eﬀective at detecting

movement, but the greatest collision risk

often comes from aircraft that do not

appear to move relative to your position. If

you detect an aircraft that does not move

relative to your position, there may be a

collision risk – alter course in accordance

with the Rules of the Air (see p. 62).

>You should not turn the aircraft without

looking in the relevant direction ﬁrst. In a

high wing aircraft, the wing should be lifted

prior to turning, to ensure there is no hidden

traﬃc. While climbing you should periodically

weave the nose of the aircraft to reveal any

traﬃc hidden by the raised nose attitude.

USE OF ATS

Talking to ATC and obtaining a Traﬃc

Service will also reduce the risks.

Remember that a Basic Service does not

include speciﬁc traﬃc information.

>You should always consider which of

the nearby ATSUs will provide the best

information on other traﬃc – for example,

if passing close to an aerodrome, it

may be best to contact them. ELECTRONIC CONSPICUITY

Electronic Conspicuity (EC) is technology by

which the position of aircraft can be detected

electronically, either by ATC surveillance systems

(such as radar) or other aircraft. EC plays a role in

allowing diﬀerent aircraft to safely share airspace

and prevent collisions. This section gives a brief

introduction to the subject.

T ransponders

The transponder is the most common device by

which aircraft emit their position electronically.

Transponders work on the principle of transmitting

a four-letter code after being ‘interrogated’ by

a signal from a secondary radar station on the

ground. Diﬀerent levels of detail are included

in this signal depending on the mode. ‘ A ’ is the

most basic, ‘C’ includes altitude information and

‘S’ includes a more advanced 24-bit code that

is unique to the aircraft. Enhanced Mode S also

allows the transmission of information on the

aircraft’s ﬂight path.

Most powered aircraft in the UK are equipped with

a transponder, however the cost and electrical

power requirement mean that many aircraft,

particularly unpowered ones, are not equipped.

It is a legal requirement that if your aircraft is

equipped with a transponder, you should use

it to its full capabilities. This gives ATC more

information that via a primary radar contact,

and also allows you to be detected by the

Traﬃc Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS)

on larger aircraft.? Guidance

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SAFER FLYING > ELECTRONIC CONSPICUITY

Avoiding collisions

ADS-B

More recent technologies such as ADS-B

(Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast)

have the potential to bring forms of EC to a much

wider audience than available with traditional

transponder technologies, since they require less

electrical power. ADS-B works on the principle

of taking the aircraft’s position from a navigation

source (for example the aircraft’s GPS) and then

broadcasting it (known as ADS-B ‘Out’) for ADS-B

receivers (known as ADS-B ‘In’) to detect. It

has the advantage of allowing low powered EC

devices to share position information with each

other.

In 2017 the CAA indicated that ADS-B using

1090 MHz is the preferred national system for

improving EC equipage in the UK General Aviation

ﬂeet. More information is available in AIC Y ellow

141/2019 published in December 2019 – Enabling

ADS-B Out in the UK General Aviation Fleet.

EC for General Aviation

A range of measures and information has

been made available by the CAA to facilitate

the adoption of EC devices and reduce mid-air

collisions.

EC Devices can be either permanently installed

in an aircraft or portable. Many EC systems

for GA transmit and/or receive ADS-B in some

form, although there are other systems such as

‘FLARM’ and ‘Pilot Aware’ that can receive ADS-B

on 1090 MHz but use diﬀerent (non-aeronautical)

bands to transmit position information.

Pilots using EC devices should be aware of their

functionality and limitations. Devices are not

always interoperable with each other and may

use diﬀerent parts of the radio spectrum for

transmitting signals.

EC technology continues to evolve and expand.

GA pilots are strongly encouraged to familiarise

themselves with the subject.An EC device is a safety aide, it must not replace

keeping a good lookout for other aircraft or proper

preﬂight planning.

It is very important that you are familiar with how

to use your EC device and its limitations. It must

be correctly integrated with your ﬂying, such that

it does not become a distraction or hazard.

Finding out more

>EC for General Aviation – www.caa.co.uk/ec

>Special Edition of ‘Clued Up’ Magazine

on EC – www.caa.co.uk/cap2000

>Technical Standards for EC devices

– www.caa.co.uk/cap1391

VISUAL CONSPICUITY

Use of lights and aircraft colour can have an

inﬂuence on how eﬀectively you can be seen by

other aircraft. Strobes and anti-collision beacons

should be on at all times after entering the runway

environment. Landing lights should be on once

approaching an airﬁeld and at all times when in

areas of high traﬃc density.

Colours like black are actually more likely to show

up against the ground or sky, whereas white or

patterns that break up the outline of the aircraft

will tend to visually merge into a predominantly

grey background. If you are based in an area of

high traﬃc density, consider what impact the

colour of your aircraft may be having on your

visibility to other aircraft.? Guidance

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SAFER FLYING

Avoiding Airspace Infringements

An airspace infringement is the unauthorised

entry of an aircraft into notiﬁed airspace. This

includes controlled airspace (CAS), prohibited

or restricted airspace, active danger areas,

aerodrome traﬃc zones (ATZ), radio mandatory

zones (RMZ) and transponder mandatory

zones (TMZ).

An airspace infringement has the potential to

be a serious safety incident and could lead to

a mid-air collision.

An essential aspect of preventing airspace

infringements is eﬀective pre-ﬂight planning.

A respected ﬂight instructor once said to “never

carry out a ﬂight that has not been ﬂown

ﬁrst on your dining room table” meaning

that detailed and eﬀective pre-ﬂight planning is

essential. Do not get airborne without a plan and

a secondary plan.

Other methods of reducing the probability, or

consequences, of an airspace infringement

include:

>Use a VFR moving map device. In the vast

majority of airspace infringements, pilots

are found to not be using a moving map or

not using one correctly. This is particularly

evident during instructional ﬂights where

workload is high and distractions more likely.

It is essential that functions of the equipment

are understood and the settings are correctly

conﬁgured to enable updates and warnings

to be available both pre- and in-ﬂight.

Many platforms for moving maps are also

ideal for use with Electronic Conspicuity

devices to help avoid mid-air collisions. Ensure software and databases are up to

date. Plan your route carefully on the moving

map, both horizontally and vertically, checking

airspace, and NOTAM activity. When using

them in the cockpit, ensure that they are

located where they can be seen without

obscuring external lookout. Pay attention to

alerts and have a back-up plan in case they fail

due to overheating or power failure. Why not

replicate your route by drawing lines on the

standard 1:500,000 or 1:250,000 VFR charts?

>Plan to remain 200 ft from the base of

CAS (or 200 ft over the top of an ATZ or

Danger, Prohibited or Restricted areas)

and/or 2 NM from the edge of any notiﬁed

airspace. This will allow for time to react

to inadvertent deviations of heading or

level that could result in an infringement.

In turbulent conditions, it may be necessary

to increase the 200 ft margin when

remaining below CAS. When considering

your altitude also ensure that you are

using the most appropriate altimeter

setting for the area. Remember that the

Regional Pressure Setting (RPS) oﬀered

by some ATSUs is the lowest forecast

pressure setting for an altimeter setting

region. Care must also be taken to

note where the base of CAS changes

between an altitude and a Flight Level.

>Obtain a UK Flight Information Service.

Pilots can obtain a UK FIS from a number

of Air Traﬃc Service Units around the UK;

details can be found at LARS Frequencies

and in the relevant sections of the UK

AIP in the Aerodrome Section.? Key info

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SAFER FLYING

>Use an FMC. If you do not want to obtain

a service from ATC, use a Frequency

Monitoring Code . Subject to workload, ATC

will endeavour to provide a timely warning if

an aircraft looks like it will infringe, but this is

subject to ATC capacity and not guaranteed.

Pilots intending to employ FMCs should:

>select the appropriate frequency and

ensure the volume and reception

quality are adequate, before selecting

the corresponding FMC;

>select the FMC using ALT (Mode C)

if the transponder is so equipped;

> listen out for any transmissions with

the aircraft’s callsign or position;

>ensure you remain within transmission

range of the relevant ATSU.

>Apply Threat and Error Management

when planning and ﬂying.

TEM is the practice of thinking ahead to

predict/identify and avoid threats and errors

and manage them. Understanding TEM will

enable a pilot to think and plan, in advance,

for the eventualities that can lead to an

airspace infringement. Threats are the events

or things that occur outside your control

which require your attention if infringements

are to be avoided such as airspace,

NOTAM, weather, distraction and navigation

equipment failure. Errors are the actions or inactions that

lead to a deviation from the plan resulting

in an airspace infringement such as

misidentiﬁcation of land features, a failure

to maintain your planned altitude or ﬂying an

inaccurate heading. By spending time on the

ground, pre-ﬂight, to consider these factors

you will be better prepared for the things that

can go wrong in the air.

Understand the role of distraction and how

it can lead to inadvertent infringement of

controlled airspace. Try to recognise the

potential for distractions including those

from passengers, unfamiliar equipment

or its malfunction, aircraft problems,

weather or stress. Ensure that you

positively shift attention back to ﬂying,

operating and navigating the aircraft.

For more information on Distraction in GA ﬂying,

see SSL 31 .

As part of pre-ﬂight planning and general

up-skilling, review the Airspace and Safety

Initiative website (https://airspacesafety.com)

for information on infringement hotspots and

prevention resources.

Information on how the CAA addresses incidents

involving airspace infringements can be found at

www.caa.co.uk/cap1404 .Avoiding Airspace Infringements

Distraction in General Aviation

Operations

MAY 2023

DISTRACTION

AND INTERRUPTION IN

GENERAL AVIATION OPERATIONS

SAFETY SENSE

SS31

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EMERGENCIES

Including:

08.137 Key principles >

137 Mayday or Pan call format >

138 Distress and Diversion Cell (D&D) >

139 Lost >

139 Loss of communications >

139 Electrical failure >

140 Engine failure >

142 Fire >

142 Ditching >

143 Incident and accident reporting >

149 Interception procedures >CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

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EMERGENCIES

Key principles

>Know your aircraft – memorise

the AFM checklists relating to

time critical emergencies.

>Fly the aircraft – accidents often happen

when a non-lethal problem distracts from the

task of ﬂying the aircraft. Always adjust the

ﬂight path to maintain a safe ﬂying speed. >Assess the situation – once the aircraft is

under control, take a moment to assess the

situation; do not jump to conclusions about

what the problem is or how to respond to it.

>Declare an emergency – if in doubt,

declare an emergency in good time. It

is easier to cancel a distress call if the

situation is later resolved than wait until it

may be too late. If not talking to an ATSU

at the time, make the call on 121.5 MHz .The following chapter is intended to be a guide to dealing with

emergency situations. It is not intended to replace procedures for speciﬁc

aircraft, for which you should review the AFM and memorise as required.

Mayday or Pan call format

>Distress: “Mayday, Mayday, Mayday”

>Urgency: “Pan Pan, Pan Pan, Pan Pan”

Followed by:

>Name of station being addressed

>Aircraft call sign

>Aircraft type

>Nature of emergency

>Intentions

>Position, Altitude, Heading

>Any other relevant information, such as

pilot qualiﬁcations or persons on board >After exchanging information and intentions

with ATC, you may wish to defer further

communication on the radio until after

landing. Ending a call ‘Mayday out’ indicates

that you do not need a further reply.

>Select 7700 on your transponder – doing so

will highlight to other ATSUs that an aircraft

in the area is experiencing an emergency.

>There is no ICAO requirement to

include pilot qualiﬁcations in a distress

message. However, this information

should be included whenever possible

in UK emergency messages as it may

help the controller to plan a course of

action best suited to the pilot’s ability.

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EMERGENCIES

Distress and Diversion Cell (D&D)

>The Distress and Diversion Cell (D&D)

is the emergency centre based at the

London Area Control Centre. D&D have

the ability to provide accurate position

ﬁxes using Direction Finding (DF).

>The service is available 24hrs a day to pilots

ﬂying within UK airspace who are in distress,

in urgent need of assistance, or experiencing

diﬃculties (for example unsure of position)

which could lead to a state of emergency.

>The service is also available for

practice calls, provided that no real

emergency is in progress on the UHF

or VHF distress frequencies. >Position ﬁxes can be obtained

instantaneously on transmission:

>Within the London FIR - at and above

3,000 ft AMSL over land east of Wales and

south of Manchester, reducing to 2,000

ft AMSL within 40nm of Heathrow; and

>Within the Scottish FIR - at and

above 8,500 ft AMSL, reducing

to between 2,000 ft and 5,000 ft

over the sea and lowland areas.

>Below these altitudes DF coverage

may still be available depending on

obstacles / atmospheric conditions

/ distance from DF receivers.

Sample exchange calling D&D for a Practice Pan

Explanation Exchange

Always listen out before transmitting, to ensure

there are no other calls in progress. Repeating the

Practice PAN statement three times ensures that

other units or aircraft monitoring the frequency are

aware that it is a not a real emergency call.“ Practice PAN, Practice PAN,

Practice PAN, London Centre,

G-DOME, Practice PAN. ”

If the controller is ready to process your

practice request, they will respond by

asking you to “pass details when ready” .“ G-DOME, London Centre,

Practice PAN acknowledged,

pass details when ready. ”

Have prepared a concise description of your

practice emergency and assistance request.“ Practice PAN, G-DOME, [state

nature of practice emergency

and assistance required]. ”

Sample exchange calling D&D for a T raining Fix

Explanation Exchange

Always listen out before transmitting, to

ensure there are no other calls in progress.“ T raining Fix, T raining Fix,

T raining Fix, G-DOME,

request T raining Fix. ”

The controller display uses Ordnance Survey

mapping to enable position reports with reference

to towns/villages/geographical features.“ G-DOME, London Centre,

your position is…. Do you

require further assistance?”

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EMERGENCIES

Lost

With the widespread use of VFR moving map

systems, cases of being completely lost are

thankfully rarer than they once were. However,

such systems are not universally carried, and

even if they are (which is recommended),

they can be misinterpreted or fail.

>If in contact with an ATSU that has radar,

ask them to clarify your position.

>If not in contact with an ATSU,

call Distress and Diversion on

121.5 and ask for assistance. >Prior to establishing contact with either an

ATSU or D&D, squawk 0030 – this will alert

other ATSUs that there is a lost aircraft.

>Orbit near any prominent landmarks

that could be described to ATC. Do

not continue to ﬂy aimlessly.

Loss of communications

>Many apparent communication failures

are caused by incorrect setting of the

radios – check basic issues like volume,

squelch, frequency and audio selector

panel settings, before concluding you

have actually experienced a radio failure.

>If you have lost communications, set

7600 on the transponder, maintain

VMC and consider whether the ﬂight

can continue safely without the radio.

It may be advisable to divert to a quiet

aerodrome outside of controlled airspace. >Once overhead an aerodrome, observe

the signal square and circuit. Watch for

other traﬃc and any light signals from

the ground. Land once you believe it is

safe to do so and report your landing to

the relevant ATSU as soon as possible.

>A good mitigation against loss of

communications is to carry a handheld

radio and suitable headset adaptor.

However, these often have short

range, particularly at low level.

Electrical failure

>Alternator failure is a common cause of

electrical failure. Depending on condition,

you might have power for a limited period

(perhaps 20 minutes) from the battery.

>Minimise use of electrical power (for

example lights) to prolong battery life.

Try to maintain VMC and proceed to

the nearest suitable aerodrome. >Expect to lose radio communications

once the battery fails.

>Know which systems in your aircraft

are electrical, for example ﬂaps, and

be prepared to land without them.

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EMERGENCIES

Engine failure

GUIDANCE

>Know your best glide speed and

procedures for your aircraft.

>Particularly at low level, focus on maintaining

speed and control. Provided you keep the

aircraft at ﬂying speed and under control,

engine failures are unlikely to be fatal.

>If a failure happens shortly after take-oﬀ,

landing ahead is safer than attempting to

turn back. Assess the area immediately

in front of you and pick the place that

is likely to cause the least damage.

>If you have some height, check for

common causes of failure such as fuel

tank selection or carb icing – know

the speciﬁc drill for your aircraft.

>Partial engine failures can confuse the

decision making process. Assess whether

the failure is likely to become worse – for

example if rapidly losing oil pressure, the

engine may not run for much longer. Take

a positive decision to either put down in a

ﬁeld or continue to an aerodrome, depending

on your judgement of the problem.

>The Australian ATSB have published useful

advice on partial engine failures in single

engine aircraft titled: Managing partial power

loss after takeoﬀ in single-engine aircraft.

https://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/2010/

avoidable-3-ar-2010-055/ .FIELD SELECTION

>If required to conduct a forced

landing in a ﬁeld, assess:

>Wind direction – try to land into wind;

>Size – the bigger the better;

>Surroundings – avoid power

lines or other obstructions;

>Shape – square gives the best

range of touch down options;

>Surface – grass is one of the

better surfaces, ploughed ﬁelds

or crops are less desirable since

they may ﬂip the aircraft; and

>Slope – avoid signiﬁcant slopes.

>You should consider what would happen in

the event of a forced landing – for example

if planning to ﬂy over the Scottish mountains

in the winter, it would be prudent to have

warm clothing and appropriate provisions in

the aircraft, including cooking apparatus.

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EMERGENCIES

Engine failure

If too high

If too low

Aiming point

4Wind

An eﬀective forced landing technique is that of

the ‘constant aspect’ approach. The full pattern

assumes a height of around 2,000 ft or more,

although the main principle applies at any height.

If you are sitting on the left side of the aircraft,

it is easier to complete in a left hand direction.

1 Enter the pattern at a point appropriate

to your height, adjusting the horizontal

distance from the ﬁeld as required. If you

are at 2,500 ft AGL or above, you should be

able to arrive abeam the ﬁeld with enough

height to ﬂy a circuit pattern around it.

2 At around 45º to the intended landing spot,

assess the visual angle to it. The aim is to

keep that visual angle (the ‘constant aspect’)

the same until touch down. As you are

turning around the landing site, if the angle

starts to shallow, move closer. If it steepens,

widen the turn to take you further away.3 Fly an arc around the edge of the ﬁeld,

tightening or widening the turn to keep

the visual angle constant. If you intend to

land with full ﬂap or lower the landing gear,

aim further into the ﬁeld to account for

the extra drag once they are deployed.

4 As you approach the ﬁeld adjust the turn

as necessary and side slip or S-turn if

too high. Once conﬁgured for landing,

ensure as much as possible (magnetos,

master switch, fuel etc) is switched oﬀ.

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EMERGENCIES

Fire

ON THE GROUND

>Know your aircraft’s procedures for

responding to ﬁre on the ground.

>The most likely time is when starting the

engine. Be prepared to cut the mixture,

turn oﬀ the fuel and vacate the aircraft.

>It is often recommended that you keep

cranking the engine and (once the mixture

and fuel is selected oﬀ) open the throttle

fully. This should draw the ﬁre back into

the engine. However, if the ﬁre has not

stopped shortly after cutting the mixture,

vacate the aircraft and move upwind. IN THE AIR

>The engine or electrical system are

the most likely sources of ﬁre.

>In a single engine aircraft, shut down

and perform a forced landing as soon

as possible. If the ﬁre does not go out,

lowering landing gear, ﬂap and/or slide

slipping are ways to lose altitude faster.

>Electrical ﬁres can sometimes be prevented

by early detection and isolation of the

source – for example if a circuit breaker

pops, be wary of resetting it and never reset

more than once – it may cause a ﬁre.

>If a burning smell is detected, try

to determine if it is coming from a

particular source and if electrical, isolate

by pulling the relevant circuit breaker.

If it gets worse, turn oﬀ the master

switch and land as soon as possible.

Ditching

Ditching characteristics vary between aircraft

– know the procedures for your aircraft.

>If you have determined that the carriage

of lifejackets is required, it is strongly

recommended to wear them in the

aircraft. Always fasten the seat belt over

the life jacket assembly, to allow for easy

removal of the belt after a ditching. >It is recommended that you carry a liferaft

if crossing any signiﬁcant body of water

– such as the English Channel. Especially

during the winter months, you are unlikely

to survive for more than an hour immersed

in the water unless wearing a survival suit.

>For more details see Safety Sense Leaﬂet

21: Ditching Light Aircraft on Water ,

available at www.caa.co.uk/safetysense .

Ditching Light Aircraft on Water

JULY 2022

DITCHING

LIGHT AIRCRAFT ON WATER

SAFETY SENSE

SS21

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EMERGENCIES

Incident and accident reporting

If you experience a safety incident, you may be legally obliged to report it. In all cases the information

shared with the relevant organisations will be treated as conﬁdential (not anonymous). Accidents,

serious incidents and Airproxes are subject to public reports, but without identifying the persons

involved. All investigations into aviation safety events will be conducted in accordance with ‘Just

Culture’ principles.

AIR ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION BRANCH

Accidents or serious incidents must be

reported as soon as practicable to the Air

Accident Investigation Branch (AAIB) in

Farnborough on 01252 512299 . Accidents

must also be reported to the Police. For

more information see www.aaib.gov.uk .

In the event of the death or incapacitation of the

pilot in command, the responsibility to report

passes to the operator. In many GA accidents,

the pilot is also the operator, in which case it

would fall to others aware of the aircraft’s ﬂight,

for example aerodrome or air traﬃc control staﬀ.

Pass as much of the following

information as possible to AAIB:

>the type, model, nationality and

registration marks of the aircraft;

>the names of the owner, operator

and hirer (if any) of the aircraft;

>the name of the commander of the aircraft;

>the date and time (UTC) of the

accident or serious incident;

>the last point of departure and the next

point of intended landing of the aircraft;

>the position of the aircraft in relation to

some easily deﬁned geographical location; >the number of:

>crew on board and the number

killed or seriously injured;

>passengers on board and the number

killed or seriously injured; and

>other persons killed or seriously

injured as a result of the accident.

>the nature of the accident or serious incident

and the extent of damage as far as is known.

Deﬁnition of an accident

“ Accident” means an occurrence associated

with the operation of an aircraft which, in the

case of a manned aircraft, takes place between

the time any person boards the aircraft with

the intention of ﬂight and such time as all such

persons have disembarked, or in the case of

an unmanned aircraft, takes place between

the time the aircraft is ready to move with the

purpose of ﬂight until such time it comes to

rest at the end of the ﬂight and the primary

propulsion system is shut down, in which:

>a person is fatally or seriously

injured as a result of:

>being in the aircraft;

>direct contact with any part of the

aircraft, including parts which have

become detached from the aircraft; or

>direct exposure to jet blast;

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EMERGENCIES > AIR ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION BRANCH

Incident and accident reporting

except when the injuries are from natural

causes, self-inﬂicted or inﬂicted by other

persons, or when the injuries are to

stowaways hiding outside the areas normally

available to the passengers and crew; or

>the aircraft sustains damage or structural

failure which adversely aﬀects the

structural strength, performance or

ﬂight characteristics of the aircraft, and

would normally require major repair or

replacement of the aﬀected component;

except for engine failure or damage, when

the damage is limited to a single engine,

(including its cowlings or accessories), to

propellers, wing tips, antennas, probes,

vanes, tires, brakes, wheels, fairings,

panels, landing gear doors, windscreens,

the aircraft skin (such as small dents or

puncture holes) or minor damages to main

rotor blades, tail rotor blades, landing

gear, and those resulting from hail or bird

strike, (including holes in the radome); or

>the aircraft is missing or is

completely inaccessible.

Deﬁnition of serious injury

“Serious injury” means an injury which is

sustained by a person in an accident and

which involves one of the following:

>hospitalisation for more than 48 hours,

commencing within 7 days from the

date the injury was received;

>a fracture of any bone (except simple

fractures of ﬁngers, toes, or nose);

>lacerations which cause haemorrhage,

nerve, muscle or tendon damage;

>injury to any internal organ; >second or third degree burns, or

any burns aﬀecting more than

5% of the body surface; or

>veriﬁed exposure to infectious

substances or harmful radiation.

Deﬁnition of serious incident

“Serious Incident” means an incident involving

circumstances indicating that there was a high

probability of an accident and is associated with

the operation of an aircraft, which in the case of

a manned aircraft, takes place between the time

any person boards the aircraft with the intention

of ﬂight until such time as all such persons have

disembarked, or in the case of an unmanned

aircraft, takes place between the time the aircraft

is ready to move with the purpose of ﬂight until

such time it comes to rest at the end of the ﬂight

and the primary propulsion system is shut down.

The incidents listed below are typical

examples of serious incidents. The list is

not exhaustive and only serves as a guide

to the deﬁnition of ‘serious incident’:

>A near collision requiring an avoidance

manoeuvre or when an avoiding manoeuvre

would have been appropriate to avoid

a collision or an unsafe situation.

>Controlled ﬂight into terrain (CFIT)

only marginally avoided.

>An aborted takeoﬀ or a takeoﬀ

using a closed or engaged runway,

a taxiway or unassigned runway.

>A landing or attempted landing

on a closed or engaged runway,

a taxiway or unassigned runway; or

>Gross failure to achieve predicted

performance during takeoﬀ or initial climb.

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Incident and accident reporting

>All ﬁres and/or smoke in the cockpit, in

the passenger compartment, in cargo

compartments or engine ﬁres, even

though such ﬁres were extinguished

with extinguishing agents.

>Any events which require the emergency

use of oxygen by the ﬂight crew.

>Aircraft structural failure or engine

disintegration, including uncontained

turbine engine failure, which is

not classiﬁed as an accident.

>Multiple malfunctions of one or more

aircraft systems that seriously aﬀect

the operation of the aircraft.

>Any case of ﬂight crew

incapacitation in ﬂight.

>Any fuel state which would require the

declaration of an emergency by the pilot.

>Runway incursions classiﬁed with severity

A. The ‘Manual on the Prevention of Runway

Incursions’ (ICAO Doc 9870) contains

information on the severity classiﬁcations.

>Take-oﬀ or landing incidents, such

as undershooting, overrunning or

running oﬀ the side of runways.

>System failures, weather phenomena,

operation outside the approved

ﬂight envelope or other occurrences

which caused or could have caused

diﬃculties controlling the aircraft.

>Failure of more than one system in a

redundancy system which is mandatory

for ﬂight guidance and navigation.

>The unintentional or, as an emergency

measure, the intentional release

of a slung load or any other load

carried external to the aircraft.OCCURRENCE REPORTING

Some safety incidents must be reported to the

CAA under the Occurrence Reporting

regulations1. This is often known as ‘Mandatory

Occurrence Reporting’ (MOR). Reports are ﬁled

using the ECCAIRS2 format via www.aviation

reporting.eu . For more guidance see SSL 32

– Occurrence Reporting for General Aviation .

You should report any occurrence that you feel

could have an impact on aviation safety. This will

ensure that we always review and learn from

events. The reporting requirements are only

mandatory for Part 21 aircraft, however pilots

of non-Part 21 aircraft are strongly encouraged

to report similar incidents via the same portal.

If the incident occurred while working or

operating for an organisation required to have

an internal reporting system, you should use

the organisation’s system, which will process

the report and ﬁle an MOR via ECCAIRS.

The following non-exhaustive list includes

key occurrence types that must be

reported by the pilot in command:

>Airspace infringement;

>Declaration of emergency;

>Fire or fume events;

>Loss of control;

>Collision or near collision on the

ground or in the air with another

aircraft, the ground or obstacle;EMERGENCIES > AIR ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION BRANCH

1 Regulation (EU) No 376/2014

Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2015/1018

2 ECCAIRS stands for European Co-ordination Centre for

Accident and Incident Reporting Systems

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EMERGENCIES > OCCURRENCE REPORTING

Incident and accident reporting

>Runway incursion or excursion;

>Engine failure;

>Unintended entry into IMC;

>Bird or other wildlife strike;

>Lighting strike that damaged the aircraft;

>Icing (including carb icing) which could

have endangered the aircraft; and

>Severe turbulence which caused

injuries or required the aircraft

to be checked for damage.

There are also some that are speciﬁc to

balloon and glider incidents, for example

ejection of occupants from the basket or winch

launch related incidents. See the Occurrence

Reporting Regulation for more details.

Glider pilots who are members of the

BGA should use the organisation’s

incident and accident reporting system

and guidance. Its use complies with the

Occurrence Reporting requirements.

Note: There is sometimes overlap between reporting

requirements for the diﬀerent organisations and regulations

– the AAIB and Occurrence reporting requirements are

mandated by regulation and you must report in accordance

with both (as applicable) for a particular incident.

AIRPROX BOARD

An Airprox is a situation in which, in the

opinion of a pilot or air traﬃc services

personnel, the distance between aircraft as

well as their relative positions and speed

have been such that the safety of the aircraft

involved may have been compromised. The Airprox Board is a joint CAA and Military

Aviation Authority (MAA) organisation

responsible for receiving, analysing and

publishing reports of Airproxes.

More information on reporting an Airprox

or reviewing Airprox Board reports can be

found at www.airproxboard.org.uk .

CHIRP

The Conﬁdential Human Factors Incident

Reporting Programme (CHIRP) is an independent

ﬂight safety reporting programme, the aim of

which is to contribute to the enhancement

of ﬂight safety in the UK’s commercial and

general aviation industries. It can be used

by engineers and technical staﬀ involved

with design and manufacturing processes,

ﬂight and cabin crew members, air traﬃc

controllers, maintenance/engineering personnel

and individual aircraft owners/operators.

It is designed to complement other

mandatory reporting requirements by

providing a means by which individuals are

able to raise safety-related issues of concern

without being identiﬁed to their peer group,

management, or the regulatory authorities.

CHIRP publishes regular compilations of

reports submitted, so that the issues identiﬁed

and lessons learnt can be shared with all

those interested in reading them. Any names,

dates, locations and aircraft registrations

are removed from the published reports.

More information and to submit a report

can be found at www.chirp.co.uk .

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EMERGENCIES

Incident and accident reporting

JUST CULTURE

‘Just Culture’ is deﬁned in the Occurrence

Reporting Regulation1 as:

“ A culture in which front-line operators

or other persons are not punished for

actions, omissions or decisions taken by

them that are commensurate with their

experience and training, but in which

gross negligence, wilful violations and

destructive acts are not tolerated. ”

Just Culture describes how human mistakes

and errors are dealt with in a way that is fair to

the individuals concerned and prioritises the

improvement of overall safety above punitive

measures. Human errors will occur, and

resolution should take precedence over blame.

An early example of what we would now think

of as a Just Culture statement hung above the

shop ﬂoor of a World War II Hawker factory:

“ A fault revealed voluntarily will be treated

leniently but a fault concealed may

lead to serious consequences for the

workman, not to mention the pilot. ”

Most descriptions of Just Culture focus on

scenarios within organisations – for example

how the management of maintenance

organisations or ﬂight schools deal with errors

and incidents that may be committed by their

employees or other individuals under their

direction. Such descriptions emphasise that

employees must feel able to report openly and

investigations should focus on improving safety

within the organisation rather than assigning

blame. This applies to all organisations in the

aviation system, including those in GA. Just Culture for GA

GA organisations should have a Safety

Policy which covers reporting and how

reports of incidents are dealt with in the

organisation. Such processes should reﬂect

a Just Culture. In practice, means:

>both individuals and management are

open about incidents and errors, such

that everyone learns from them;

>this openness focuses on learning rather

than people being made ‘an example of’; and

>when the competence of individuals

is found to be below the required

standard, solutions focus on retraining

rather than demotion or dismissal.

Just Culture is also relevant to individual

GA pilots or others working outside of an

organisation. Some scenarios in which

Just Culture will likely be relevant:

>when individuals report directly to the CAA;

>when individuals working for an organisation

need to report internally or when

organisations need to deal with incidents;

>when the CAA needs to investigate

the competence of individuals; and

>when someone wishes to ‘blow the

whistle’ regarding a safety issue.

The principles of Just Culture apply when

reporting incidents directly to the CAA, or if

an incident becomes subject to investigation.

Those involved in GA should also feel able to

report genuine safety concerns (sometimes

known as whistle blowing) knowing that

they will be treated conﬁdentially.

1REGULATION (EU) No 376/2014

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Note that conﬁdential is not the same as

anonymous – the CAA strongly discourages

people from submitting reports anonymously,

since it limits the ability to follow up for more

detail or meaningfully investigate them.

Beneﬁts of reporting

Just Culture is important because an open

and honest reporting culture improves ﬂight

safety. This has obvious beneﬁts to everyone

involved in aviation. As a GA pilot, you can

contribute to this by reporting incidents

when required, or when you feel that a

report may contribute to ﬂight safety.

In the GA environment, it may appear that the

beneﬁt of reporting an incident, that would

otherwise go unnoticed, is negligible – unlike

in an organisation, it may seem that individual

reports are unlikely to ‘make a diﬀerence’.

This is not the case – an eﬀective reporting

system is a key element of improving safety.

It may be that individual reports do not make

a large diﬀerence, but overall reporting will

contribute to the analysis of safety trends

and help shape future CAA safety policy.Dealing with human error

It is important to acknowledge that Just Culture

does not translate as ‘no blame’ – in reality, many

incidents lie somewhere between two extremes

of errors that are commensurate with experience

and those which stem from gross negligence.

Systems that aim to improve safety must

apply the principles of Just Culture to a variety

of diﬀerent errors and incidents. Individuals

should always be treated fairly, if however

an incident reveals a lack of competence,

appropriate retraining must be applied by the

organisation involved or directly by the CAA. This

retraining should be relevant to the incident in

question and focus on restoring the individual

to the appropriate level of competence.

Incidents that clearly include a disregard

for risk or poor attitudes and behaviours

will be treated more harshly and may

result in a loss of privileges, or in

extreme cases, criminal prosecution.EMERGENCIES > JUST CULTURE

Incident and accident reporting

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EMERGENCIES

Interception procedures

It is a requirement for Part 21 aircraft ﬂying unde r Part-NCO and for all aircraft ﬂying international ly to

carry the interception procedures speciﬁed in ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) and the SERA. These are

reproduced below.

SERA.11015 Interception

>(a) Except for intercept and escort service provided on request to an aircraft, interception of

civil aircraft shall be governed by appropriate regulations and administrative directives issued

by Member States in compliance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation, and in

particular Article 3(d) under which ICAO Contracting States undertake, when issuing regulations

for their State aircraft, to have due regard for the safety of navigation of civil aircraft.

>(b) The pilot in command of a civil aircraft, when intercepted, shall:

>(1) immediately follow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft, interpreting and

responding to visual signals in accordance with the speciﬁcations in Tables S11-1 and S11-2;

>(2) notify, if possible, the appropriate air traﬃc services unit;

>(3) attempt to establish radio-communication with the intercepting aircraft

or with the appropriate intercept control unit, by making a general call on the

emergency frequency 121 .5 MHz, giving the identity of the intercepted aircraft

and the nature of the ﬂight; and if no contact has been established and if

practicable, repeating this call on the emergency frequency 243 MHz;

>(4) if equipped with SSR transponder, select Mode A, Code 7700, unless

otherwise instructed by the appropriate air traﬃc services unit;

>(5) if equipped with ADS-B or ADS-C, select the appropriate emergency functionality,

if available, unless otherwise instructed by the appropriate air traﬃc services unit.

Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED

Aircraft RespondsMeaning

1DAY or NIGHT — Rocking aircraft

and ﬂashing navigational lights at

irregular intervals (and landing lights

in the case of a helicopter) from a

position slightly above and ahead

of, and normally to the left of, the

intercepted aircraft (or to the right if

the intercepted aircraft is a helicopter)

and, after acknowledgement, a

slow level turn, normally to the

left (or to the right in the case of a

helicopter) on the desired heading.You have

been

intercepted.

Follow me.DAY or NIGHT —

Rocking aircraft, ﬂashing

navigational lights

at irregular intervals

and following.Understood,

will comply.T able S11-1: Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft

Note 1 Meteorological conditions or terrain may require the intercepting aircraft to reverse the positions and direction of turn

given above in Series 1.

Note 2 If the intercepted aircraft is not able to keep pace with the intercepting aircraft, the latter is expected to ﬂy a series of

race-track patterns and to rock the aircraft each time it passes the intercepted aircraft.

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EMERGENCIES

Interception procedures

Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED

Aircraft RespondsMeaning

2DAY or NIGHT — An abrupt

breakaway manoeuvre from the

intercepted aircraft consisting of

a climbing turn of 90 degrees or

more without crossing the line of

ﬂight of the intercepted aircraft.You may

proceed.DAY or NIGHT —

Rocking the aircraft.Understood,

will comply.

3DAY or NIGHT — Lowering landing

gear (if ﬁtted), showing steady

landing lights and overﬂying runway

in use or, if the intercepted aircraft

is a helicopter, overﬂying the

helicopter landing area. In the case of

helicopters, the intercepting helicopter

makes a landing approach, coming

to hover near to the landing area.Land at this

aerodrome.DAY or NIGHT —

Lowering landing gear,

(if ﬁtted), showing

steady landing lights and

following the intercepting

aircraft and, if, after

overﬂying the runway in

use or helicopter landing

area, landing is considered

safe, proceeding to land.Understood,

will comply.T able S11-1: Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft

Series INTERCEPTED Aircraft Responds Meaning INTERCEPTING

Aircraft SignalsMeaning

4DAY or NIGHT — Raising

landing gear (if ﬁtted) and

ﬂashing landing lights while

passing over runway in use or

helicopter landing area at a height

exceeding 300 m (1 000 ft) but

not exceeding 600 m (2 000 ft)

(in the case of a helicopter, at a

height exceeding 50 m (170 ft)

but not exceeding 100 m (330

ft)) above the aerodrome level,

and continuing to circle runway

in use or helicopter landing area.

If unable to ﬂash landing lights,

ﬂash any other lights available. Aerodrome

you have

designated

is inade-

quate.DAY or NIGHT — If it is

desired that the intercepted

aircraft follow the intercepting

aircraft to an alternate

aerodrome, the intercepting

aircraft raises its landing

gear (if ﬁtted) and uses the

Series 1 signals prescribed

for intercepting aircraft.

If it is decided to release

the intercepted aircraft, the

intercepting aircraft uses the

Series 2 signals prescribed

for intercepting aircraft.Understood,

follow me.

Understood,

you may

proceed.

5DAY or NIGHT — Regular

switching on and oﬀ of all available

lights but in such a manner as to

be distinct from ﬂashing lights.Cannot

comply.DAY or NIGHT — Use

Series 2 signals prescribed

for intercepting aircraft.Understood.

6DAY or NIGHT — Irregular

ﬂashing of all available lights.In distress. DAY or NIGHT — Use

Series 2 signals prescribed

for intercepting aircraft.Understood.T able S11-2: Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft

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EMERGENCIES

Interception procedures

>(c) If any instructions received by radio from

any sources conﬂict with those given by

the intercepting aircraft by visual signals,

the intercepted aircraft shall request

immediate clariﬁcation while continuing

to comply with the visual instructions

given by the intercepting aircraft.

>(d) If any instructions received by radio from

any sources conﬂict with those given by the

intercepting aircraft by radio, the intercepted

aircraft shall request immediate clariﬁcation

while continuing to comply with the radio

instructions given by the intercepting aircraft. >(e) If radio contact is established during

interception but communication in a

common language is not possible, attempts

shall be made to convey instructions,

acknowledgement of instructions and

essential information by using the phrases

and pronunciations in Table S11-3 and

transmitting each phrase twice:

Phrases for use by INTERCEPTING aircraft Phrases for use by INTERCEPTED aircraft

Phrase Pronunciation1Meaning Phrase Pronunciation1Meaning

CALL SIGN KOL SA-IN What is your

call sign?CALL SIGN

(call sign)2KOL SA-IN

(call sign)My call sign

is (call sign)

FOLLOW FOL-LO Follow me WILCO VILL-KO Understood,

will comply

DESCEND DEE- SEND Descend for

landing

CAN NOT KANN NOTT Unable to comply

YOU LAND YOULAAND Land at this

aerodromeREPEAT REE- PEET Repeat your

instruction

AM LOST AMLOSST Position unknown

PROCEED PRO- SEED You may proceed

MAYDAY MAYDAY I am in distress

HIJACK3HI-JACK I have been

hijacked

LAND (place

name)LAAND (place

name)I request to land

at (place name)

DESCEND DEE-SEND I require descentT able S11-3

1 In the second column, syllables to be emphasised are underlined.

2 The call sign required to be given is that used in radiotelephony communications with air traﬃc services units and

corresponding to the aircraft identiﬁcation in the ﬂight plan.

3 Circumstances may not always permit, nor make desirable, the use of the phrase ‘HIJACK’.

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EMERGENCIES

Interception procedures

>(f) As soon as an air traﬃc services unit

learns that an aircraft is being intercepted

in its area of responsibility, it shall take

such of the following steps as are

appropriate in the circumstances:

>(1) attempt to establish two-way

communication with the intercepted

aircraft via any means available,

including the emergency radio

frequency 121 .5 MHz, unless such

communication already exists;

>(2) inform the pilot of the intercepted

aircraft of the interception;

>(3) establish contact with the intercept

control unit maintaining two-way

communication with the intercepting

aircraft and provide it with available

information concerning the aircraft;

>(4) relay messages between the

intercepting aircraft or the intercept

control unit and the intercepted

aircraft, as necessary;

>(5) in close coordination with

the intercept control unit take all

necessary steps to ensure the

safety of the intercepted aircraft; >(g) As soon as an air traﬃc services unit

learns that an aircraft is being intercepted

outside its area of responsibility, it shall

take such of the following steps as are

appropriate in the circumstances:

>(1) inform the air traﬃc services unit

serving the airspace in which the

interception is taking place, providing

this unit with available information

that will assist in identifying the

aircraft and requesting it to take

action in accordance with (f);

>(2) relay messages between the

intercepted aircraft and the appropriate

air traﬃc services unit, the intercept

control unit or the intercepting aircraft.

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TABLES AND

CODES

09.Including: 154 Crosswind component >

155 Morse code >

156 Distance, weight and volume >

157 Abbreviations >CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

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TABLES AND CODES

Crosswind component

40180º

100HEADWIND

COMPONENT

- KNOTS

CROSSWIND

COMPONENT

- KNOTSDIRECTION OF FLIGHT

RUNWAY

TAILWIND

COMPONENT

- KNOTSEXAMPLE:

WIND SPEED 20

KNOTS. ANGLE BETWEEN

RUNWAY AND DIRECTION

OF WIND 60º. CROSSWIND

COMPONENT - 17 KNOTS.

HEADWIND COMPONENT -

10 KNOTS.WIND DIRECTION

RELATIVE TO

RUNWAY

5010º

20º

30º

40º

50º

60º

70º

80º

90º

100º

110º

120º

130º

140º

150º

160º

170º20 30 40 50REPORTED WIND SPEED - KNOTS

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TABLES AND CODES

Morse code

Phonetic alphabet and Morse code

Letter Code Word Pronunciation

A • – Alfa AL FAH

B – • • • Bravo BRAH VOH

C – • – • Charlie CHAR LEE or SHAR LEE

D – • • Delta DELL TAH

E • Echo ECK OH

F • • – • Foxtrot FOKS TROT

G – – • Golf GOLF

H • • • • Hotel HOH TEL

I • • India IN DEE AH

J • – – – Juliett JEW LEE ETT

K – • – Kilo KEY LOH

L • – • • Lima LEE MAH

M – – Mike MIKE

N – • November NO VEM BER

O – – – Oscar OSS CAH

P • – – • Papa PAH PAH

Q – – • – Quebec KEH BECK

R • – • Romeo ROW ME OH

S • • • Sierra SEE AIR RAH

T – Tango TANG GO

U • • – Uniform YOU NEE FORM or OO NEE FORM

V • • • – Victor VIK TAH

W • – – Whiskey WISS KEY

X – • • – X-ray ECKS RAY

Y – • – – Yankee YANG KEY

Z – – • • Zulu ZOO LOO

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TABLES AND CODES

Morse code

Phonetic alphabet and Morse code

Numeral or numeral

elementCode Pronunciation

1 • – – – – WUN

2 • • – – – TOO

3 • • • – – TREE

4 • • • • – FOW-er

5 • • • • • FIFE

6 – • • • • SIX

7 – – • • • SEV-en

8 – – – • • AIT

9 – – – – • NIN-er

0 – – – – – ZE-RO

Decimal Thousand DAY -SEE-MAL TOU-SAND

Distance, weight and volume

Conversion T able

1 kg = 2.205 lb 1 lb = 0.454 kg

1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 cm = 0.394 in

1 foot = 0.305 m 1 metre = 3.28 ft

1 Imp gal = 4.546 litres 1 litre = 0.22 Imp gal

1 US gal = 3.785 litres 1 litre = 0.264 US gal

1 Imp gal = 1 .205 US gal 1 US gal = 0.83 Imp gal

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TABLES AND CODES

Abbreviations

AAIB

Air Accidents

Investigation Branch

AAL

Above Aerodrome

Level

ACC

Area Control Centre

ADS-B

Automatic Dependent

Surveillance-Broadcast

AFIS

Aerodrome Flight

Information Service

AFM

Aircraft Flight Manual

AFTN

Aeronautical Fixed

Telecommunication

Network

AGCS

Air/Ground

Communication

Service

AGL

Above Ground Level

AIAA

Area of Intense

Aerial Activity

AIC

Aeronautical

Information Circular

AIP

Aeronautical

Information PublicationAIS

Aeronautical

Information Service

AMC

Acceptable Means

of Compliance

AME

Aeromedical Examiner

AMSL

Above Mean Sea Level

ANO

Air Navigation Order

ATA

Aerial Tactics Aera

ATCO

Air Traﬃc Control

Oﬃcer

ATIS

Automatic Terminal

Information Service

ATO

Approved Training

Organisation

ATS

Air Traﬃc Service

ATSU

Air Traﬃc Service Unit

ATZ

Aerodrome Traﬃc Zone

BGA

British Gliding

Association BHPA

British Hang gliding

and Paragliding

Association

CAP

Civil Air Publication

CFIT

Controlled Flight

into Terrain

CHIRP

Conﬁdential Human

Factors Reporting

Programme

CTA

Control Area

CTR

Control Zone

D&D

Distress and

Diversion cell

DACS

Danger Aera

Crossing Service

Direction Finding

DTO

Declared Training

Organisation

EASA

European Aviation

Safety Agency

Electronic Conspicuity ECCAIRS

European Coordination

Centre for Accident

and Incident

Reporting Systems

ELT

Emergency

Locator Beacon

FIR

Flight Information

Region

FISO

Flight Information

Service Oﬃcer

FMC

Frequency

Monitoring Code

GASCo

General Aviation

Safety Council

Guidance Material

GNSS

Global Navigation

Satellite System

IAP

Instrument Approach

Procedure

ICAO

International Civil

Aviation Organization

IFR

Instrument

Flight Rules

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IMC

Instrument

Meteorological

Conditions

LAPL

Light Aircraft

Pilot Licence

LARS

Lower Airspace

Radar Service

MAA

Military Aviation

Authority

MATZ

Military Air Traﬃc Zone

MEF

Maximum

Elevation Figure

MOR

Mandatory

Occurrence Report

Nautical MileNOTAM

Notice to Airmen

PIC

Pilot in Command

PLB

Personal Locator

Beacon

PPL

Private Pilot Licence

RA(T)

Restricted Airspace

(Temporary)

RMZ

Radio Mandatory Zone

RPAS

Remotely Piloted

Aircraft Systems

RPS

Regional Pressure

Setting

Radio Telephony

RTC

Radar Training CircuitSEP

Single Engine Piston

SERA

Standardised European

Rules of the Air

SLMG

Self-Launching

Motor Glider

SSEA

Simple Single

Engine Aeroplane

SVFR

Special Visual

Flight Rules

Transition Altitude

TEM

Threat and Error

Management

Transition Level

TMA

Terminal

Manoeuvring Area TMG

Touring Motor Glider

TMZ

Transponder

Mandatory Zone

UAS

Unmanned Aerial

Systems

UK FIS

UK Flight Information

Service

UK LFS

UK Low Flying System

UTC

Coordinated

Universal Time

VFR

Visual Flight Rules

VMC

Visual Meteorological

Conditions

VRP

Visual Reference PointTABLES AND CODES

Abbreviations

AUTO

Automated report

Patches

BECMG

BecomingBKN

Broken clouds

(5-7 oktas)

Blowing

BLW

Below

MistBTN

Between

CAT

Clear air turbulence

CAVOK

Ceiling and

visibility OK

CumulonimbusCC

Cirrocumulus

Cirrus

CLD

Cloud

CLR

ClearMETEOROLOGY

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TABLES AND CODES

Abbreviations

COR

Correction

COT

At the coast

Cirrostratus

Cumulus

DEG

Degrees

Dew point

Drifting

Dust storm

Widespread dust

Drizzle

EMBD

Embedded

FEW

Few clouds (1-2 oktas)

Funnel cloud

Fog

From

FPM

Feet per minuteFRQ

Frequent

Smoke

Freezing

Gust

GAMET

General Aviation

Meteorological

Forecast

GEN

Generally

GND

Ground

Hail

Small hail/snow pellets

High pressure centre

HPA

Hectopascals

Haze

Ice crystals

INTSF

Intensifying

ISOL

IsolatedJTST

Jet stream

Kilometres

Knots

Low pressure centre

LAN

Inland (or over land)

LCA

Locally

LSQ

Line squall

LTG

Lightning

Light and variable

LYR

Layer(s) layered

Less than 0º

(temperature)

Less than lowest

reportable RVR

Metres

MAX

Maximum

METAR

Meteorological

Aerodrome ReportMI

Shallow (for example

mist or fog)

MNM

Minimum

MOD

Moderate

MON

Above or covering

mountains

MPS

Metres per second

Minus

MSL

Mean sea level

MTW

Mountain wave

NAT

North Atlantic

No change

NCD

No cloud detected

(auto reports only)

NDV

No directional variation

NIL

None

Nautical miles

NOSIG

No signiﬁcant change

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TABLES AND CODES

Abbreviations

Nimbostratus

NSC

No signiﬁcant cloud

N, S, E, W, NE, SW,

SSW etc

North, South, East,

West, North East etc

NSW

No signiﬁcant weather

OCNL

Occasional

OVC

Overcast (8 oktas)

Ice pellets

Dust devils

PRFG

Fog banks

PROB

Probability

Plus

PSYS

Pressure system

Spray

Rain

RMK

RemarksRVR

Runway visual range

RWY

Runway

Sand

Stratocumulus

SCT

Scattered (3-4 oktas)

SEA

At sea

SEV

Severe

SFC

Surface

Snow grains

Showers

SIG

Signiﬁcant

SIGMET

Signiﬁcant

Meteorological

Information

SKC

Sky clear

Snow

Snow pelletsSPECI

Special report

Squalls

Sandstorm

Stratus

STNR

Stationary

Temperature

TAF

Terminal Aerodrome

Forecast

TCU

Towering cumulus

TEMPO

Temporarily

Until

TOP

Cloud top

TROP

Tropopause

Thunderstorm

TURB

Turbulence

Upward (tendency

in RVR)UP

Unidentiﬁed

precipitation (auto

reports only)

Volcanic ash

VAL

In valleys

In the vicinity (of

the aerodrome)

VIS

Visibility

VRB

Variable

VSP

Vertical speed

Vertical visibility

WDSPR

Widespread

WRNG

Warning

Wind shear

WSPD

Wind speed

Weather

Zulu Time (UTC/GMT)

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INTERNATIONAL

FLIGHT

10.Including: 162 Foreign requirements >

163 VFR ﬂight plans >

165 Documents >

165 Customs, immigration and police >

166 Non-ICAO compliant aircraft or pilot licenses >CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

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INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT

Foreign requirements

The European Aeronautical Database

(EAD) is the common source of European

AIPs – www.ead.eurocontrol.int . Despite

harmonisation of rules through ICAO and

EASA, there are still local variations. Some

common ones to look out for include:

>Airspace equipage requirements vary

across Europe. GEN 1 .5 of the relevant AIP

is normally the best source of information

for a particular state’s requirements.

>Throughout Europe the Standardised

Rules of the Air (SERA) will apply,

however some national variations still

exist. Check the subsections of ENR 1 of

the relevant AIP for requirements such

as cruising levels and VFR at night.

>Unlike the UK, many states make widespread

use of class E airspace. The visibility and

cloud separation minima for VFR ﬂight are

higher than in class G (see p. 66). Know

which airspace class you will be ﬂying in.

>Be familiar with the charts you are using

and the meaning of the diﬀerent symbols

and airspace – ﬁnes for infringing controlled

airspace or danger areas can be very high.

>The standard radio service to ask for

enroute is normally the ‘Flight Information

Service’ (FIS) – look for ‘Information’

frequencies on the charts to contact.

Most states do not have subcategories

of FIS such as ‘Basic’ or ‘Traﬃc’.

>In many states VFR ﬂight plans need to

be closed on arrival, otherwise overdue

action may be initiated. If landing at

an aerodrome without an ATSU, you

may have to call a regional ATC centre

by phone to close the ﬂight plan. >At smaller aerodromes the radio

communications may be conducted in

the local language. The aerodrome’s

AIP entry should indicate the languages

used. Only use such aerodromes if

conversant in the applicable language.

Many ﬂying clubs or schools oﬀer a so called

‘cross-channel check ﬂight’ which will be

a valuable exercise for understanding the

additional considerations for ﬂying abroad.

The principles of pre-ﬁght planning remain the

same when ﬂying abroad, although you should

pay additional attention to NOTAMs and carefully

read the AIP entries of the foreign aerodromes

you are visiting. Commercially produced VFR

ﬂight guides are available for some states.

CROSSING WATER

Flying abroad from the UK invariably involves

crossing water. You should consider the following:

>Fly as high as possible;

>Wear lifejackets;

>Carry a life raft and know how to deploy

it correctly;

>For longer crossings and/or during times

of lower sea temperatures, consider an

immersion suit – it will increase your

chances of survival in a ditching; and

>It is a requirement for all powered Part

21 aircraft and balloons to carry an ELT or

PLB, regardless of whether the ﬂight is

international or not. Other states may also

apply this requirement to non-Part 21 aircraft.

More information on ditching considerations

can be found in SSL 21 – Ditching Light Aircraft

on Water. www.caa.co.uk/safetysense .

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INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT

VFR Flight Plans

It is a requirement to ﬁle a ﬂight plan for international ﬂights. For more information on UK ﬂight

planning procedures, see ENR 1 .10 of the UK AIP . If using the ﬂight planning facilities of another state,

ENR 1 .10 of the relevant AIP should be consulted.

FILING

Most ﬂight plan ﬁling is now done online, either

using the Assisted Flight Planning Exchange

Service (AFPEX) or other online ﬂight planning

services. These systems interface with the

Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network

(AFTN). It is worth doing some research into

which platform you ﬁnd easiest to use.

>More information on AFPEX and registering

to use the system is available at

www.ﬂightplanningonline.co.uk . There is

a helpdesk service available for AFPEX

through the Civil Aviation Communications

Centre (CACC) at Swanwick on +44

(0)1489 612792 or 0845 6010483 .

>If for some reason you are unable to

access the internet and are not at an

airﬁeld with an ATSU capable of submitting

your FPL, you may fax it to the CACC

at Swanwick on 01489 612793 .

>A ﬂight plan should be ﬁled 60 minutes or

more prior to the estimated oﬀ-blocks time.

If ﬁling a plan prior to the day of the ﬂight

you should include the date of the ﬂight

in item 18 of the FPL form – for example

DOF/070922 would be 22nd September 2007 .

>If you are delayed by more than 30 minutes

from the ﬁled departure time, you must

submit a delay message, either through

an ATSU, AFPEX or the AFPEX helpdesk.

>It is possible to ﬁle a full ﬂight plan in-ﬂight

through London or Scottish Information, but

this this should not be considered the default

method. A request should be commenced

with ‘I wish to ﬁle an airborne ﬂight plan’.ADDRESSING

Addressing is the mechanism by which

the relevant FIR authorities and ATSUs

for your ﬂight receive your ﬂight plan. It

is done by entering addressing codes

at the top of the ﬂight plan form.

It is recommended that you follow the guidance

available for addressing in AFPEX at

www.ﬂightplanningonline.co.uk and in

the online ﬂight plan form itself. This will

aid addressing the ﬂight plan correctly to

those units connected to the AFTN. Flight

plans should normally be addressed to:

>Departure, destination and alternate

aerodromes – ICAO code followed by ZTZX

(for example EGKKZTZX would be Gatwick);

>In the UK, the London FIR – EGZYVFRT

and/or Scottish FIR – EGZYVFRP;

>For certain UK destinations, speciﬁc

additional addressees listed in

ENR 1 .11 of the UK AIP;

>Any other ATSUs en-route you wish

to make aware of your ﬂight; and

>Any foreign FIRs that you

are passing through.

Further speciﬁc addressing details

can be found in section ENR 1 .11 of

the AIP for the relevant state.

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INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT

VFR Flight Plans

FORM COMPLETION AND ROUTING

There is further guidance available on the

AFPEX website for completion of the FPL

form. Follow links to help and training at

www.ﬂightplanningonline.co.uk . In general, the

ﬂight plan routes should be described using:

>Waypoints, VORs or bearings and distances

from them – e.g. DVR16010, which indicates

a position 160º and 10 NM from DVR VOR; or

>Lat/Long positions such as 5114N00122W.

These points should normally be not

more than 30 minutes ﬂying time apart.

Do not use aerodrome designators.

In the case of crossing the FIR boundary into/

from French airspace, the crossing point (for

example ORTAC is a common one) should be

included in the route, and the elapsed ﬂight

time to the FIR boundary included in Item 18

of the FPL form. For example, EET/LFFF0145

would indicate you planned to cross into the

relevant Paris FIR 01:45 minutes into the ﬂight.

ACTIVATION AND CLOSURE

A VFR ﬂight plan needs activating on departure.

If departing from an aerodrome with an ATSU,

they should be able to activate it for you,

assuming they are connected to the AFTN. If

in doubt ask before departure. Alternatively:

>Ask another ATSU to do so over the radio

(subject to their capacity), for example

London or Scottish Information; or

>Nominate someone to activate

it after you have departed by

phoning the AFPEX Helpdesk. Once the departure message has been

received, the destination aerodrome calculates

the aircraft’s estimated time of arrival (ETA).

Procedures relating to ﬂight plan closure

vary depending on destination:

>If you land at your destination, the ATSU

at the aerodrome should close the ﬂight

plan for you. If you fail to arrive or make

communication, the ATSU will start overdue

action after 30 minutes beyond the ETA. If

you land at another aerodrome you must

inform your original destination otherwise

they may commence overdue action.

>In the UK, if arriving outside the hours of

operation of the destination aerodrome’s

ATSU, or if there is no ATSU connected

to the AFTN, then overdue action will not

be initiated in the event of failure to arrive.

It is therefore strongly recommended to

nominate someone who will phone the

AFPEX Helpdesk in the event of you failing

to arrive when planned – this is referred

to as nominating a ‘responsible person’.

>Outside the UK, if arriving at an aerodrome

without an active ATSU, it is usually a

requirement for the pilot to close the

ﬂight plan with the regional ATC centre or

ﬂight planning oﬃce. Overdue action may

be initiated if this has not been done and

could result in a heavy ﬁne. Contact details

can normally be found in ENR section

1 .10 of the AIP for the relevant state, or in

commercially available VFR ﬂight guides.

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INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT

Customs, immigration and police

UK REQUIREMENTS

If making an international ﬂight to or from the

UK, or within the Common Travel Area, you must

notify the Border Force and/or police (often

referred to as ‘Special Branch’). This is done

using the General Aviation Report (GAR) form,

either via the online portal or by emailing it to:

ncu@hmrc.gov.uk (National Co-ordination Unit).

The GAR form includes details of the

aircraft, ﬂight and those onboard. It

satisﬁes customs, immigration and police

(when applicable) requirements.

Full details of the requirements, GAR form

submission and associated guidance can be found

at www.gov.uk/government/publications/general-

aviation-operators-and-pilots-notiﬁcation-of-ﬂights . FOREIGN REQUIREMENTS

When arriving into a foreign state, you will

normally have to use an aerodrome that is

designated for customs and/or immigration

purposes. Details of this can be found in the

AIP entry for the relevant foreign aerodrome. At

smaller aerodromes customs and immigration

may be available with prior notiﬁcation.

When travelling within the Schengen Area

of Europe, there is normally no requirement

to land at designated aerodromes, however

participating states do have the right to

implement border controls in response to

speciﬁc events or threats, so check the

current situation before planning a ﬂight.

It is also a requirement when leaving most

states, including the Schengen area, to

depart from a designated aerodrome and

give any prior notice of your departure that

may be required at that aerodrome. Depending on the type of aircraft you are ﬂying,

the requirements may vary. The following list

will generally cover everything that would be

required under EASA or ICAO regulations:

>Approved Flight Manual;

>Original Certiﬁcate of Registration;

>Original Certiﬁcate of Airworthiness

(or permit to ﬂy);

>Noise certiﬁcate;

>Aircraft radio licence;

>Insurance certiﬁcate; >Journey log;

>Flight plan details;

>Current charts;

>Interception procedures;

>Minimum Equipment List (if

you operate with one);

>Operating permission (if applicable);

>Flight crew licences; and

>Passports for all onboard.Documents

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INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT

Non-ICAO compliant aircraft or pilot licences

If you are ﬂying an aircraft that does not have

an ICAO-compliant certiﬁcate of airworthiness,

you may need to seek the permission of

the relevant states before ﬂying outside the UK.

This normally includes microlights (sometimes

known as ultralights in other states), amateur

constructed aircraft or aircraft that formerly

held an ICAO certiﬁcate but now ﬂy on a

national permit to ﬂy. In the UK these are

often collectively known as ‘permit aircraft’.

Many amateur built aircraft may be ﬂown

internationally within Europe under the

relevant European Civil Aviation Conference

(ECAC) agreement. However, implementation

of this is not consistent throughout Europe

and some states still require individual

permissions. You must check the requirements

of the relevant state before ﬂight.

The following GA associations compile

information on ﬂying permit aircraft

internationally, although it cannot be

guaranteed that the information is

completely accurate or up to date: >European Microlight Federation

– www.emf.aero ;

>British Microlight Aeroplane

Association – www.bmaa.org ; and

>Light Aircraft Association –

www.lightaircraftassociation.co.uk .

If ﬂying on a non-ICAO compliant pilot’s licence

or medical declaration, you will also likely

need the permission of the relevant state

before ﬂying outside the UK. For example,

an ICAO medical certiﬁcate is required to

ﬂy most powered aircraft outside the UK.

Many states have a validation process for

ICAO compliant pilot licensing when operating

aircraft registered within an EU member state.

If required by the state being overﬂown or

visited, you must carry the permission with

you at all times.

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FINDING OUT

11.Including: 168 Airspace >

169 Safety >

170 Regulatory >?CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023

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INFORMATION

Finding out more

AIRSPACE

Airspace & Safety Initiative

(ASI) – airspacesafety.com

The Airspace & Safety Initiative (ASI) is a joint

CAA, NATS, Airport Operators Association

(AOA), GA and MoD project to investigate and

tackle the major safety risks in UK airspace.

The initiative aims to encourage good practice

for all pilots, to help reduce airspace incidents

such as infringements of controlled airspace.

Radiotelephony Manual

– www.caa.co.uk/cap413

The UK Radiotelephony Manual (CAP 413) aims

to provide pilots, Air Traﬃc Services personnel

and aerodrome drivers with a compendium

of clear, concise, standard phraseology and

associated guidance for radiotelephony

communication in United Kingdom airspace.

UK Flight Information Services

– www.caa.co.uk/cap774

The UK Flight Information Services (CAP 774)

details the suite of air traﬃc services (ATS) which

(excluding aerodrome services) are the only

services provided in Class G airspace within the

UK Flight Information Region (where notiﬁed,

elements of the UK FIS are also provided to

aircraft operating in Class E airspace). Therefore,

this document is equally applicable to civilian

and military pilots, air traﬃc controllers, and

Flight Information Service Oﬃcers. There is a

supplementary leaﬂet – www.caa.co.uk/cap1434 . Airspace infringements: Review and remedial

actions process – www.caa.co.uk/cap1404 .

If you do end up infringing airspace, the

approach for the CAA dealing with this

is set out in CAP 1404. The process is

designed to focus on lessons learnt and apply

proportionate and appropriate remedial action.

Electronic conspicuity devices

– www.caa.co.uk/cap1391

CAP 1391 explains the beneﬁts of EC in

terms of reducing the risk of airborne conﬂict

between aircraft in UK uncontrolled airspace.

It sets out the required minimum technical

speciﬁcation and explains the regulatory

approach manufacturers need to follow for

portable EC devices to be legally used on

board aircraft in uncontrolled UK airspace.The CAA is also increasingly moving towards the use of electronic communication and publications.

For the latest news and regulatory updates, subscribe to SkyWise notiﬁcations (skywise.caa.co.uk );

this provides notiﬁcations of things like airspace restrictions, new regulations or publications and can

be tailored to your particular type of ﬂying.

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INFORMATION

Finding out more

SAFETY

General Aviation Safety Council

(GASCo) – www.gasco.org.uk

GASCo was originally formed in 1965

and aims to:

>Collect, collate and disseminate ﬂight

safety information among users of UK

registered general aviation aircraft; and

>Study all matters aﬀecting, or which

might aﬀect, ﬂight safety in UK general

aviation and to make recommendations

to interested parties, as necessary.

Some of GASCo’s activities involve the conduct

of Safety Evenings on behalf of the CAA, the

publication of safety information and a quarterly

magazine devoted to GA ﬂight safety issues.

Air Accidents Investigation

Branch – www.aaib.gov.uk

The Air Accidents Investigation Branch

(AAIB) investigates civil aircraft accidents

and serious incidents within the UK, its

overseas territories and crown dependencies.

The results of investigations are published

and available on the AAIB’s website.

CHIRP – www.chirp.co.uk

Conﬁdential Human Factors Incident Reporting

Programme (CHIRP) is an independent ﬂight

safety reporting programme, the aim of

which is to contribute to the enhancement

of ﬂight safety in the UK’s commercial

and general aviation industries. CHIRP publish ‘GA Feedback’ on their

website which contains reports submitted by

personnel involved in aviation that highlight

safety issues encountered during operations.

Clued Up – www.caa.co.uk/ga

Clued Up magazine is produced on behalf

of the CAA and brings you the latest news

in aviation safety, topical issues, advice

and contribution from pilots, air traﬃc

controllers and safety experts from the

across the UK’s General Aviation community.

From the CAA ’s GA homepage, click on

‘Safety guidance and resources’.

CAA Safety Sense

– www.caa.co.uk/safetysense

CAA Safety Sense Leaﬂets cover a wide

variety of safety and operational topics

relevant to GA ﬂying.

GetMet – www.metoﬃce.gov.uk/aviation/ga

Produced in association between the

Met Oﬃce and the CAA, this free booklet

provides essential information on where to

get your met data to safely enjoy low-level

ﬂying, both in the UK and near Europe.

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INFORMATION

Finding out more

REGULATORY

CAA useful links

>GA Unit – www.caa.co.uk/ga – contains

a wealth of regulatory information,

including current ‘hot topics’ of interest.

>CAA consultations –

www.caa.co.uk/consultations

>CAA publications –

www.caa.co.uk/publications

>Civil Air Publications (CAPS) can be found by

entering the URL as www.caa.co.uk, forward

slash the number of the CAP you are looking

for. For example: www.caa.co.uk/capXXXX

>Regulations made under the Civil

Aviation Act 1982 and Air Navigation

Order 2016 (CAA consolidation) –

CAP 393 – www.caa.co.uk/cap393

>Assimilated law applicable to aviation –

https://www.caa.co.uk/uk-regulations/

>Oﬃcial Record Series 4 – www.caa.co.uk/

ors4 – ORS4 contains all general (not

individual) permissions and exemptions

that are made either against or pursuant

to the ANO or European regulations. An

example of this are the ‘SERA permissions’,

which set out areas in which the UK has

exercised national discretion under SERA.EASA regulations and documents

>EASA regulations – www.easa.europa.

eu/regulations – EASA organise

regulations by functional area, such

as airworthiness or ﬂight crew

licensing. Look for the ‘Easy Access’

consolidations that include amendments,

Acceptable Means of Compliance

(AMC) and Guidance Material (GM).

>EASA rulemaking documents – www.easa.

europa.eu/document-library – EASA places

rulemaking documents such as ‘notices of

proposed amendments’ (NPAs – essentially

consultation documents) and ‘Opinions’

(draft regulations post consultation but

prior to enactment) under the ‘document

library’ section of their website.

Aeronautical Information Service –

www.nats.aero/do-it-online/ais/

AIS is the main source of information relevant

to air navigation in the UK, containing

the Aeronautical Information Publication

(AIP), Aeronautical Information Circulars

(AIC) and NOTAMs. Airspace details and

procedures can be found in the ENR section,

with aerodromes in the AD section.

European AIS Database

– www.ead.eurocontrol.int

Contains online versions of European

AIPs. Requires a login to be created.

The Skyway Code / Finding Out More 170CAA / CAP 1535 / November 2023 iKey Regulations Airspace Aerodrome… Safer Flying Emergencies UK Comms Info Pre-ﬂight check… Pre-ﬂight…

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