← The Saudi aviation reference, in one place.
Transport Canada Aeronautical Information Manual (TC AIM 2025-1)
Reproduced for study. Always verify against the official GACAR at gaca.gov.sa.
AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATIONMANUAL
Effective 0901Z, March 20, 2025 to 0901Z, October 02, 2025
TP 14371E
(2025-1)TC-1007083
TC-1007083
1. Aeronautical Information Manual - AIM 2025-1
Effective 0901Z, March 20, 2025 to 0901Z, October 2, 2025
2. Next Edition:
AIM 2025-2 October 2, 2025 Printed in Canada
3. Please direct your TC AIM comments and inquiries to:
TC AIM Co-ordinator (AARTT)
Transport Canada 330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Telephone:
...................................................................... 613-993-4502
Fax: ................................................................................... 613-952-3298
E-mail: ................................. TC.AeronauticalInformationManual-
Manueldinformationaeronautique.TC@tc.gc.ca
For general Civil Aviation inquires please contact:
Civil Aviation Communications Centre (AARC)
Transport Canada Place de Ville 330 Sparks Street Ottawa, ON K1A 0N8
E-mail: ...................................................................... services@tc.gc.ca
4. © His Majesty the King in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of Transport 2025
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Department of Transport, Canada. Please contact the Civil Aviation Communications Centre at 1-800-305-2059 (EST) for assistance.
The information in this publication is to be considered solely as a guide and should not be
quoted as or considered to be a legal authority. It may become obsolete in whole or in part at any time without notice.
5. ISSN: 1715-7390
T52-2/2E-PDF
TP 14371E
(2025-1) TC-1007937
TP 14371E
Transport Canada
Aeronautical Information Manual
(TC AIM)
MARCH 20, 2025
TC AIM March 20, 2025 TC AIM March 20, 2025TRANSPORT CANADA AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (TC AIM)
EXPLANATION OF CHANGES
EFFECTIVE—MARCH 20, 2025
NOTES :
1. Editorial and format changes were made throughout the
TC AIM where necessary, and those that were deemed
insignificant in nature were not included in the “Explanation
of Changes.”
2. The blue highlights in the manual represent the changes
described in this section.
MET
(1) MET 1.1.2 – Meteorological Services Available
Information was added to amplify this section.
(2) MET 1.2.3 – Weather Services Definitions in Flight
Publications
Information was added regarding the locations ofweather cameras.
(3) MET 1.4 – In-flight Meteorological
Information (VOLMET)
Information was added regarding the phasing out ofVOLMET.
(4) MET 8.2 – National Variations
Information was added regarding the requirement toinclude frost.
(5) MET 8.4.4 – Automatic Aerodrome Routine
Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) and Human
Observation Comparison
Information was added to clarify remarks.
RAC
(6) RAC 4.3 – Traffic Circuits — Controlled Aerodromes
This subpart was updated for clarity.
(7) RAC 4.5.2 – Traffic Circuit
Procedures — Uncontrolled Aerodromes
This section was updated for clarity.NAT
(1) NAT 1.9 – Clearances
This subpart was updated with new information, andthe sections were removed.
(2) NAT 1.10.1 – Requirements
This section was updated, and references were addedto NAT Doc 007 section 5.3 and to AIP ENR 7.1.9.
(3) NAT 1.11.1 – General
This section was updated regarding the removal byICAO of all references to MNPS in theirdocumentation, and a reference was added toAIP ENR 7.2.3.3.
(4) NAT 1.12 – Reduced Vertical Separation
Minimum (RVSM) — Minimum Aircraft System
Performance Specifications (MASPS)
This subpart was updated with information regardingapprovals for flights within the NAT HLA, and areference was added to AIP ENR 7.2.4.
(5) NAT 1.15 – Meteorological Reports
This subpart was updated with new information.
(6) NAT 1.17.1 – In-flight Contingencies
This section was updated, and a reference was addedto AIP ENR 7.4.
RPA
(1) RPA 3.2.22 – Minimum Weather Conditions
This section was updated for clarity.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM March 20, 2025 TC AIM
i
TC AIM March 20, 2025Table of Contents
GEN—GENERAL 1
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Aeronautical Information .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Aeronautical Authority .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Aeronautical Information Management (AIM) ................................................................................................................. 2
1.1.3 Transport Canada Aeronautical Information Manual (TC AIM) .................................................................................. 2
1.1.4 Transport Canada Aeronautical Information Manual (TC AIM) Publication Information ..................................... 2
1.1.5 NOTAM .................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.6 Aerodromes .............................................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Summary of National Regulations ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Differences with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standards, Recommended Practices and
Procedures .................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)’s Procedures for Air Navigation Services—Aircraft
Operations (PANS OPS) ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Units of Measurement .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Other Units ............................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Geographic Reference ............................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Time System .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.5.1 Date-Time Group ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.5.2 Morning and Evening Twilight Charts ................................................................................................................................ 4
1.5.3 Time Zone ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.6 Nationality and Registration Marks ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 V–Speeds ............................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7.1 Conversion Tables ................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.7.2 RVR Comparative Scale–Feet to Metres .............................................................................................................................. 8
2.0 SAFETY ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Aviation Occupational Health and Safety Program ........................................................................................................... 8
2.1.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Refusal to Work in Dangerous Situations ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.3 Delegated Labour Program Officials .................................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Aviation Safety Analysis ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Aviation Safety Research and Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 9
2.2.3 Minister’s Observer and Technical Advisor Programs ..................................................................................................... 9
2.2.4 Safety Promotion ................................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.3 General Aviation Safety Program ...................................................................................................................................... 10
3.0 TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD OF CANADA (TSB) .............................................................................. 10
3.1 Aviation Safety Investigation .............................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2 Definitions ........................................................................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Reporting an Aviation Occurrence .................................................................................................................................... 11
3.3.1 Accidents ................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
3.3.2 Mandatory Reportable Incidents ........................................................................................................................................ 11
3.3.3 Information to Report .......................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.3.4 Other Occurrences ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
3.3.5 Contacting the Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB) ..................................................................................... 12
3.4 Keeping and Preservation of Evidence .............................................................................................................................. 12
3.5 SECURITAS Program ........................................................................................................................................................ 12
3.5.1 How to Report to SECURITAS ........................................................................................................................................... 12
3.5.2 What to Repor t to SECURITAS .......................................................................................................................................... 12
3.5.3 Where to Subm it a SECURITAS Report ........................................................................................................................... 13
3.6 Offices of the Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB) ......................................................................................... 13
4.0 INDEX OF KEYWORDS ......................................................................................................................................... 14
ii
March 20, 2025 TC AIM5.0 MISCELLANEOUS .................................................................................................................................................. 30
5.1 Glossary of Aeronautical Terms ........................................................................................................................................ 30
5.2 Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................ 42
5.3 Legislation Index ............................................................................................................................................................... 48
5.4 Canadian Aviation Regulation Advisory Council (CARAC) .......................................................................................... 50
5.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
5.4.2 Governing Principles ........................................................................................................................................................... 50
5.4.3 Objective ................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
5.4.4 Organizational Structure .................................................................................................................................................... 50
5.4.4.1 Focus Group .......................................................................................................................................................................... 50
5.4.4.2 Special Technical Committee ............................................................................................................................................. 50
5.4.4.3 Canadian Aviation Regulation Advisory Council (CARAC) Plenary ......................................................................... 50
5.4.4.4 Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) Management Team ................................................................................... 50
5.4.4.5 Secretariat ............................................................................................................................................................................... 51
5.4.5 Project Resources ................................................................................................................................................................... 51
5.4.6 Communication ..................................................................................................................................................................... 51
5.4.7 Information ............................................................................................................................................................................ 51
6.0 AVIATION OPERATIONS CENTRE (AOC) ......................................................................................................... 51
6.1 Aviation Operations Centre (AOC)—Civil Aviation Accident, Occurrence and Incident Reporting ........................... 51
7.0 CIVIL AVIATION ISSUES REPORTING SYSTEM (CAIRS) ............................................................................... 52
AGA—AERODROMES 53
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION .................................................................................................................................. 53
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 53
1.1.1 Aerodrome Authority ........................................................................................................................................................... 53
1.1.2 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Documents ................................................................................... 53
1.1.3 Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) ......................................................................................................................... 53
1.1.4 Contaminated Runway Operations .................................................................................................................................... 53
1.1.4.1 Canadian Civil Aerodromes ................................................................................................................................................ 53
1.1.4.2 Department of National Defence Aerodromes ................................................................................................................. 53
1.1.5 Wildlife Hazard ..................................................................................................................................................................... 53
1.2 International Airports ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
1.2.1 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Definitions ................................................................................... 54
1.3 Aerodrome Directory ......................................................................................................................................................... 54
1.4 Aeronautical Ground Lights .............................................................................................................................................. 54
2.0 AERODROMES AND AIRPORTS .......................................................................................................................... 54
2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 54
2.1.1 Registration ........................................................................................................................................................................... 54
2.1.2 Certification .......................................................................................................................................................................... 54
2.2 Use of Aerodromes, Airports, and Heliports ................................................................................................................... 55
2.3 Airport/Heliport/Water Airport Certification ................................................................................................................ 55
2.3.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
2.3.2 Applicability of Airport Certification ............................................................................................................................... 55
2.3.3 Transport Canada’s Responsibilities .................................................................................................................................. 55
2.3.4 Operator’s Responsibilities .................................................................................................................................................. 55
2.3.5 Airport Certification Process ............................................................................................................................................. 56
2.3.6 Regulatory References for Aerodrome Certification (Airport/Heliport/Water Airport) ........................................ 56
2.4 Airport/Heliport/Water Airport Certificate .................................................................................................................... 56
2.4.1 Issue ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 56
2.4.2 Airport Certificate Validity and Amendments ............................................................................................................... 56
3.0 RUNW AY CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................................................................ 56
3.1 Runway Length and Width ................................................................................................................................................ 56
3.2 Runway Strip ...................................................................................................................................................................... 56
3.3 Runway Safety Area ............................................................................................................................................................ 56
iii
TC AIM March 20, 20253.4 Runway End Safety Area (RESA) ...................................................................................................................................... 56
3.5 Runway Threshold Displacement ...................................................................................................................................... 57
3.6 Runway Turn Pad ............................................................................................................................................................... 57
3.7 Blast Pad ............................................................................................................................................................................. 57
3.8 Stopway ............................................................................................................................................................................... 57
3.9 Clearway ............................................................................................................................................................................. 57
3.10 Declared Distances ............................................................................................................................................................. 57
3.11 Rapid-Exit Taxiways ........................................................................................................................................................... 57
3.12 Runway and Taxiway Bearing Strength ............................................................................................................................ 57
3.12.1 Pavement Load Rating Charts ............................................................................................................................................ 58
3.13 Heliports ............................................................................................................................................................................. 58
3.13.1 Final Approach and Take-Off Area (FATO) .................................................................................................................... 58
3.13.2 Heliport Classification ......................................................................................................................................................... 58
3.13.3 Heliport Operational Limitations ...................................................................................................................................... 58
4.0 OBSTACLE RESTRICTIONS .................................................................................................................................. 58
4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 58
4.2 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS) .................................................................................................................................. 59
4.2.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
4.2.2 Heliports ................................................................................................................................................................................. 59
4.3 Airport Zoning Regulations .............................................................................................................................................. 59
4.3.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
4.3.2 Airports Where Zoning Regulations Are in Effect ......................................................................................................... 59
5.0 MARKERS, MARKINGS, SIGNS, AND INDICATORS ....................................................................................... 59
5.1 Aircraft Take-off or Landing Area Boundary Markers ................................................................................................... 59
5.2 Air Taxiway Edge Markers ................................................................................................................................................. 60
5.3 Seaplane Dock Markers ...................................................................................................................................................... 60
5.4 Runway Markings ................................................................................................................................................................ 61
5.4.1 Displaced Threshold Markings ........................................................................................................................................... 61
5.4.2 Stopway Markings ................................................................................................................................................................. 62
5.4.3 Runway Holding Position Markings .................................................................................................................................. 62
5.5 Heliports ............................................................................................................................................................................. 63
5.5.1 Heliport Touchdown and Lift-Off Area (TLOF) Marking ............................................................................................ 63
5.5.2 Safety Area Markers ............................................................................................................................................................. 63
5.5.3 Heliport Identification Markings ...................................................................................................................................... 63
5.5.4 Final Approach and Take-Off Area (FATO) Markers .................................................................................................... 63
5.5.5 Helicopter Parking Position Markings ............................................................................................................................. 63
5.5.6 Approach and Take-Off Direction Indicator Markings ................................................................................................ 63
5.6 Closed Markings ................................................................................................................................................................. 63
5.7 Unserviceable Area Markers .............................................................................................................................................. 64
5.8 Airside Signs ....................................................................................................................................................................... 64
5.8.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
5.8.2 Information Signs ................................................................................................................................................................. 64
5.8.3 Mandatory Instruction Signs ............................................................................................................................................. 65
5.8.4 Illumination of Airside Signs ............................................................................................................................................. 66
5.9 Wind Direction Indicators ................................................................................................................................................ 66
6.0 OBSTRUCTION MARKING AND LIGHTING .................................................................................................... 66
6.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 66
6.2 Regulations ......................................................................................................................................................................... 66
6.3 Aeronautical Evaluation .................................................................................................................................................... 67
6.4 Marking .............................................................................................................................................................................. 67
6.5 Lighting ............................................................................................................................................................................... 67
6.5.1 Rotating Ob struction Light ................................................................................................................................................ 68
6.5.2 Tower Configurations .......................................................................................................................................................... 68
6.6 Appurtenances ................................................................................................................................................................... 69
6.7 Suspended Cable Span Markings ...................................................................................................................................... 69
6.8 Aircraft Detection Systems ................................................................................................................................................ 69
iv
March 20, 2025 TC AIM7.0 AERODROME LIGHTING ..................................................................................................................................... 69
7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 69
7.2 Aerodrome Beacon ............................................................................................................................................................. 70
7.3 Minimum Night Lighting Requirements at Aerodromes ................................................................................................ 70
7.4 Unserviceable Area Lighting ............................................................................................................................................. 70
7.5 Approach Lighting ............................................................................................................................................................. 70
7.5.1 Non-Precision Approach Runways .................................................................................................................................... 70
7.5.2 Precision Approach Runways .............................................................................................................................................. 71
7.6 Visual Approach Slope Indicator Systems (VASIS) .......................................................................................................... 71
7.6.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
7.6.2 Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) V1 and V2 and Abbreviated VASI (AVASI) AV ...................................... 72
7.6.3 Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) and Abbreviated PAPI (APAPI) ............................................................ 72
7.6.4 Categories According to Eye-To-Wheel Height (EWH) in the Approach Configuration ....................................... 72
7.6.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
7.6.4.2 Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) Categories ...................................................................................................... 73
7.6.4.3 Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) Categories .................................................................................................. 73
7.6.5 Knowing the Eye-to-Wheel Height (EWH) ..................................................................................................................... 73
7.6.6 Obstacle Protection Surface (OPS) .................................................................................................................................... 73
7.7 Runway Identification Lighting ......................................................................................................................................... 74
7.7.1 Runway Threshold Identification Lights (RTIL) .............................................................................................................. 74
7.7.2 Visual Alignment Guidance System (VAGS) .................................................................................................................... 74
7.8 Runway Lighting ................................................................................................................................................................. 74
7.8.1 Runway Edge Lights (REDL) ............................................................................................................................................... 74
7.8.2 Runway Threshold Lights and Runway End Lights (RENL) .......................................................................................... 74
7.8.3 Displaced Threshold Lighting ............................................................................................................................................. 75
7.8.4 Runway Centreline Lighting ................................................................................................................................................ 75
7.8.5 Runway Touchdown Zone Lighting ................................................................................................................................... 75
7.9 Rapid-Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights (RETIL) ................................................................................................................. 75
7.10 Taxiway Lighting ................................................................................................................................................................ 75
7.10.1 Taxiway Edge Lights ............................................................................................................................................................. 75
7.10.2 Taxiway Centreline Lights ................................................................................................................................................... 76
7.10.3 Stop Bars ................................................................................................................................................................................. 76
7.11 Runway Guard Lights .......................................................................................................................................................... 76
7.12 Heliport Lighting ............................................................................................................................................................... 77
7.12.1 Touchdown and Lift-Off Area (TLOF) Lighting ............................................................................................................ 77
7.12.2 Final Approach and Take-Off (FATO) Lighting ............................................................................................................. 77
7.12.3 Approach/Take-Off Direction Lights ............................................................................................................................... 77
7.13 Emergency Lighting ........................................................................................................................................................... 78
7.14 Aircraft Radio Control of Aerodrome Lighting (ARCAL) .............................................................................................. 78
7.15 Retroreflective Markers ..................................................................................................................................................... 78
8.0 AIRCRAFT RESCUE AND FIRE FIGHTING (ARFF) .......................................................................................... 78
8.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 78
8.2 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) Hours of Availability ................................................................................... 78
8.3 Classification System ......................................................................................................................................................... 78
8.4 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) Standby Request ........................................................................................... 79
8.5 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) Discreet Communication ............................................................................ 79
9.0 AIRCRAFT ARRESTING SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................... 79
9.1 Engineered Material Arresting Systems (EMAS) ............................................................................................................. 79
9.1.1 System Description .............................................................................................................................................................. 79
9.1.2 System Depiction .................................................................................................................................................................. 80
9.1.3 Pilot Considerations for Engagement ............................................................................................................................... 80
9.2 Military Aircraft Arresting Systems ................................................................................................................................. 80
9.2.1 Backgroun d ........................................................................................................................................................................... 80
9.2.2 Markings ................................................................................................................................................................................. 81
9.2.3 Operations .............................................................................................................................................................................. 81
9.2.4 Damage Hazards ................................................................................................................................................................... 81
9.2.5 Information for Pilots ........................................................................................................................................................... 81
v
TC AIM March 20, 202510.0 AIRPORT COLLABORATIVE DECISION MAKING (A-CDM) ......................................................................... 81
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................ 81
10.2 Operational Concept ........................................................................................................................................................... 81
10.3 Terms .................................................................................................................................................................................. 82
10.4 Scope of Applicability ........................................................................................................................................................ 82
10.5 Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) Procedures ...................................................................................... 83
10.5.1 Commercial Air Transport Operations — Procedures for Operators and Handling Agents ................................. 83
10.5.1.1 Requirement for All Flights to Have a Current Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) ...................................................... 83
10.5.1.2 Preferred Way of Providing the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) ................................................................................. 83
10.5.1.3 Access to the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) ................................................................................................................. 83
10.5.1.4 Pre-Departure Sequencing — Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) Generation ................................................ 83
10.5.1.5 Access to the Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) .................................................................................................. 83
10.5.1.6 Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) Swapping ........................................................................................................ 83
10.5.1.7 The Importance of Updating the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) .............................................................................. 83
10.5.1.8 Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) Update Limitations ...................................................................................................... 83
10.5.1.9 Methods for Updating the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) .......................................................................................... 83
10.5.2 Commercial Air Transport Operations — Flight Crew Procedures ........................................................................... 83
10.5.2.1 Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) and Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) Delivery Channels ........................ 83
10.5.2.2 Access to the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) ................................................................................................................. 84
10.5.2.3 Access to the Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) .................................................................................................. 84
10.5.2.4 Information Related to Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) on the Advanced Visual
Docking Guidance System (AVDGS) ................................................................................................................................ 84
10.5.2.5 Call Ready Procedure .......................................................................................................................................................... 84
10.5.2.6 Procedures for Extended Times Between Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) and Target Start-Up
Approval Time (TSAT) ........................................................................................................................................................ 84
10.5.2.7 Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM)-Imposed Waiting Time and On-Time Performance ........... 84
10.5.2.8 Pushback / Start-Up Approval ........................................................................................................................................... 84
10.5.2.9 Flight Crew Concerns About Meeting Constraints ........................................................................................................ 84
10.5.2.10 De-icing Operations ............................................................................................................................................................. 85
10.5.3 General and Business Aviation Operations — Air Operator Procedures ................................................................... 85
10.5.3.1 Prior Permission to Operate Required (Reservation) .................................................................................................... 85
10.5.3.2 Requirement to Provide the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) ....................................................................................... 85
10.5.3.3 Pre-Departure Sequencing — Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) Generation ................................................ 85
10.5.3.4 Access to the Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) .................................................................................................. 85
10.5.3.5 The Importance of Updating the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) .............................................................................. 85
10.5.3.6 Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) Update Limitations ...................................................................................................... 85
10.5.3.7 Method for Updating the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) ........................................................................................... 85
10.5.3.8 Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) and Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) Delivery Channels ........................ 85
10.5.3.9 Access to the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) ................................................................................................................. 85
10.5.3.10 Access to the Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) .................................................................................................. 86
10.5.3.11 Call Ready Procedure .......................................................................................................................................................... 86
10.5.3.12 Start-Up Procedures ............................................................................................................................................................. 86
10.5.3.13 Flight Crew Concerns About Meeting Constraints ........................................................................................................ 86
10.5.3.14 De-icing Operations ............................................................................................................................................................. 86
10.6 Contingency Operations .................................................................................................................................................... 86
COM—COMMUNICATIONS, NAVIGATION AND SURVEILLANCE 87
1.0 VOICE COMMUNICATIONS ................................................................................................................................ 87
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 87
1.2 Regulations and Guidance Material .................................................................................................................................. 87
1.3 Language ............................................................................................................................................................................. 87
1.4 Very High Frequency (VHF) Communication Frequencies—Channel Spacing ............................................................ 87
1.4.1 Remote Communications Outlets (RCOs) and Dial-Up Remote Communications Outlets (DRCOs) ................. 87
1.4.2 Emergency Frequency 121.5 MHz ..................................................................................................................................... 88
1.5 Very High Frequency (VHF) Allocations ......................................................................................................................... 88
1.6 Use of Frequency 5 680 kHz ............................................................................................................................................... 88
1.7 Phone Use During a Radio Communications Failure ...................................................................................................... 88
1.8 Canadian Base Operators (CBO) ....................................................................................................................................... 88
vi
March 20, 2025 TC AIM1.9 Other Telecommunication System Operators .................................................................................................................. 88
1.10 Satellite Voice Communications (SATVOICE) ................................................................................................................. 88
2.0 LOCATION INDICATORS ..................................................................................................................................... 89
3.0 DATA LINK COMMUNICATION ......................................................................................................................... 89
3.1 Data Link Applications ...................................................................................................................................................... 89
3.2 Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) and Future Air Navigation
Systems (FANS) 1/A ............................................................................................................................................................ 89
3.3 Aeronautical Telecommunications Network (ATN) ........................................................................................................ 90
3.4 Data Link Service Providers .............................................................................................................................................. 90
3.5 Data Link Networks ........................................................................................................................................................... 90
3.6 Aircraft Communications Addressing And Reporting System (ACARS) Initialization ............................................... 90
3.7 Data Link Automatic Terminal Information Service (D-ATIS) ...................................................................................... 90
3.8 Pre-Departure Clearance (PDC) ....................................................................................................................................... 90
3.9 Departure Clearance (DCL) ............................................................................................................................................... 91
3.10 Automatic Dependent Surveillance Contract (ADS-C) .................................................................................................... 91
3.11 Controller -Pilot Dat a Link Communications (CPDLC) ................................................................................................... 91
3.12 Air Traffic Services Facilities Notification (AFN) ........................................................................................................... 92
3.13 Current/Next Data Authorities ......................................................................................................................................... 92
4.0 GROUND-BASED RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS ................................................................................................. 92
4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
4.2 Accuracy, Availability and Integrity of Ground-based Navigation Aids ....................................................................... 92
4.3 Pilot Reporting of Abnormal Operation of Ground-Based Navigation Aids (NAVAIDs) ............................................. 93
4.4 Interference with Aircraft Navigational Equipment ........................................................................................................ 93
4.5 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) ................................................................................................................................ 93
4.5.1 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) Receiver Checks .................................................................................................. 94
4.5.2 Airborne VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) Check .................................................................................................. 94
4.6 Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) ........................................................................................................................................ 94
4.7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) ............................................................................................................................ 94
4.8 Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) ..................................................................................................................................... 95
4.9 VHF Omnidirectional Range and Tactical Air Navigation Aid (VORTAC) .................................................................. 95
4.10 Instrument Landing System (ILS) ..................................................................................................................................... 95
4.10.1 Localizer (LOC) .................................................................................................................................................................... 95
4.10.2 Glide Path (GP) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 95
4.10.3 Non-directional Beacon (NDB) ......................................................................................................................................... 96
4.10.4 Instrument Landing System (ILS)/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) ............................................................. 96
4.10.5 Instrument Landing System (ILS) Categories ................................................................................................................. 96
4.10.6 Category II/III Instrument Landing System (ILS) ......................................................................................................... 96
4.10.7 Caution Regarding Use of Instrument Landing System (ILS) ...................................................................................... 96
5.0 AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) ................................................................................................................................ 98
5.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) ...................................................................................................................... 98
5.2 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Constellations ............................................................................................. 98
5.2.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) ....................................................................................................................................... 98
5.2.2 Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) ............................................................................................ 99
5.2.3 Galileo Navigation Satellite System ................................................................................................................................... 99
5.2.4 BeiDou Navigation Satellite System .................................................................................................................................. 99
5.3 Augmentation Systems ....................................................................................................................................................... 99
5.3.1 Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS) ................................................................................................................ 99
5.3.2 Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) ............................................................................................................... 100
5.3.3 Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) .............................................................................................................. 100
5.4 Domestic Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Approval to Use Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
and Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) ........................................................................................................ 100
5.4.1 Domestic En Route and Terminal Operations ............................................................................................................... 101
5.4.2 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-Based Area Navigation (RNAV) Approach Procedures .................. 101
5.4.2.1 Area Navigation (RNAV) Approaches with Lateral Guidance Only .......................................................................... 101
5.4.2.2 Vertical Guidance on Area Navigation (RNAV) Approaches ..................................................................................... 102
vii
TC AIM March 20, 20255.4.2.3 Area Navigation (RNAV) Approaches with Vertical Guidance Based on Barometric Vertical
Navigation (Baro -VNAV) ................................................................................................................................................. 102
5.4.2.4 Area Navigation (RNAV) Approaches with Vertical Guidance Based on Wide Area Augmentation
System (WAAS) .................................................................................................................................................................. 102
5.5 Flight Planning .................................................................................................................................................................. 103
5.5.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) NOTAM ..................................................................................................................... 103
5.5.2 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) NOTAM ................................................................................................... 103
5.5.3 Procedures on the Fringe of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) Coverage ................................................ 103
5.5.4 Space Weather ...................................................................................................................................................................... 103
5.6 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight Plan Equipment Suffixes ................................................................................... 104
5.7 Avionics Databases ........................................................................................................................................................... 104
5.8 Use of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) in Lieu of Ground-based Aids ....................................................... 104
5.9 Area Navigation (RNAV) Approaches at Alternate Aerodromes .................................................................................. 104
5.9.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Approaches—Global Positioning System (GPS)
(TSO -C129/C129a) Avionics ............................................................................................................................................ 104
5.9.2 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Approaches—Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
Avionics ................................................................................................................................................................................ 105
5.10 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Vulnerability—Interference and Anomaly Reporting ............................ 105
5.11 Proper Use of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) ............................................................................................. 105
5.12 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) (RHO-THETA) System .................... 106
5.13 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME-DME [RHO-RHO]) System ............................................................................ 106
6.0 PERFORMANCE-BASED NAVIGATION (PBN) ................................................................................................ 106
6.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 106
6.2 Key Elements of Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) ................................................................................................ 106
6.2.1 Navigation Aid (NAVAID) Infrastructure ..................................................................................................................... 107
6.2.2 Navigation Specifications ................................................................................................................................................. 107
6.2.3 Navigation Application .................................................................................................................................................... 107
6.3 Navigation Specifications Expanded ................................................................................................................................ 107
6.3.1 Area Navigation (RNAV) 10 ............................................................................................................................................. 107
6.3.2 Area Navigation (RNAV) 5 ............................................................................................................................................... 108
6.3.3 Area Navigation (RNAV) 1 and RNAV 2 ....................................................................................................................... 108
6.3.4 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 4 .................................................................................................................. 108
6.3.5 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 2 .................................................................................................................. 108
6.3.6 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 1 .................................................................................................................. 108
6.3.7 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 0.3 ............................................................................................................... 109
6.3.8 Advanced Required Navigation Performance (A-RNP) .............................................................................................. 109
6.3.9 Required Navigation Performance Approach (RNP APCH) ...................................................................................... 109
6.3.10 Required Navigation Performance Authorization Required Approach (RNP AR APCH) ................................... 109
6.4 Fixed Radius Paths ........................................................................................................................................................... 109
6.4.1 Radius To Fix (RF) Path Terminator ................................................................................................................................ 110
6.4.2 Fixed Radius Transition (FRT) ......................................................................................................................................... 110
6.5 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Flight Plan Completion ................................................................ 110
6.6 Navigation Error Components ......................................................................................................................................... 110
7.0 SURVEILLANCE .................................................................................................................................................... 111
7.1 Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) ................................................................................................................................... 111
7.2 Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) ............................................................................................................................... 111
7.2.1 Code Assignment ................................................................................................................................................................ 111
7.3 Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast (ADS-B) .............................................................................................. 111
7.3.1 Aircraft Equipment ............................................................................................................................................................. 112
7.3.2 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Flight Plan Completion ............................................................ 112
7.3.3 Entry of Flight Identification ........................................................................................................................................... 112
7.3.4 Surveilla nce Phraseology ................................................................................................................................................... 113
7.4 Multilateration (MLAT) ................................................................................................................................................... 114
7.4.1 Code Assignment ................................................................................................................................................................ 114
8.0 TRANSPONDER OPERATION ............................................................................................................................ 114
8.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 114
8.2 Transponder Requirements ............................................................................................................................................. 114
viii
March 20, 2025 TC AIM8.3 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Operations in Other Low-Level Airspace ......................................................................... 115
8.4 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Operations ............................................................................................................................ 115
8.5 Phraseology ....................................................................................................................................................................... 115
8.6 Emergencies ...................................................................................................................................................................... 116
8.7 Communication Failure ................................................................................................................................................... 116
8.8 Unlawful Interference ....................................................................................................................................................... 116
9.0 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS) AND
AIRBORNE COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (ACAS) .................................................................................. 116
9.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 116
9.2 Transport Canada (TC) Regulations on Traffic Alert And Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)/Airborne
Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) ................................................................................................................................ 117
9.3 Use of the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) Outside of Canada ................................................. 118
9.4 Operational Approval ...................................................................................................................................................... 118
9.5 Aircraft Certification Approval ....................................................................................................................................... 118
9.6 Operational Considerations ............................................................................................................................................ 119
9.7 Pilot Action When Deviating From Clearances—Regulations and Information ......................................................... 119
9.8 Mode S Transponder Approval and Unique Codes ........................................................................................................ 120
9.9 Pilot/Controller Actions .................................................................................................................................................. 120
9.10 Pilot and Controller Phraseology ..................................................................................................................................... 121
10.0 SATELLITE SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................................... 121
10.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................... 121
10.2 Satellite Service Providers ................................................................................................................................................ 121
11.0 EMERGENCY AUTOMATION SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 121
11.1 Automated Emergency Descent Management Systems ................................................................................................... 121
11.2 Emergency Automatic Landing Systems ......................................................................................................................... 122
MET—METEOROLOGY 123
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................................................ 123
1.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 123
1.1.1 Meteorological Information ............................................................................................................................................. 123
1.1.2 Meteorological Services Available .................................................................................................................................. 123
1.1.3 Aviation Weather Services ............................................................................................................................................... 123
1.1.4 Weather Service Information ........................................................................................................................................... 124
1.1.5 Weather Information from Air Traffic Service (ATS) ................................................................................................. 124
1.1.6 Pilot Reports ........................................................................................................................................................................ 124
1.1.6.1 Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) ...................................................................................................................................... 124
1.1.7 Applicable International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) Documents .................................................................................................................................. 124
1.1.8 Differences from International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annex 3 ....................................................... 125
1.1.9 Pilot Responsibility ............................................................................................................................................................ 125
1.2 Meteorological Observation and Reports ...................................................................................................................... 125
1.2.1 Type and Frequency of Observations ............................................................................................................................. 125
1.2.2 Flight Weather Documentation ...................................................................................................................................... 125
1.2.3 Weather Services Definitions in Flight Publications .................................................................................................. 125
1.2.4 Automated Weather Observation Systems (AWOS) ..................................................................................................... 126
1.2.4.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................................................................. 126
1.2.4.2 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Weather Stations ................................................................................................................. 126
1.2.5 Automatic Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) and Limited Weather
Information System (LWIS) Reports ............................................................................................................................... 126
1.2.5.1 Automatic Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) ............................................................ 126
1.2.5.2 Limited Weather Information System (LWIS) Reports .............................................................................................. 127
1.2.6 Automatic (AUTO) Reports ............................................................................................................................................. 127
1.2.7 Weather Services in Support of Approach Unicom (AU) ............................................................................................ 127
1.2.8 Runway Visibility Assessment ......................................................................................................................................... 127
1.3 Meteorological Forecasts and Charts .............................................................................................................................. 128
1.3.1 Flight Information Centre (FIC) Hours of Service and Telephone Numbers .......................................................... 128
ix
TC AIM March 20, 20251.3.2 World Area Forecast System (WAFS) Charts ............................................................................................................... 128
1.3.3 Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs) ........................................................................................................................................... 128
1.3.4 Aerodrome Advisory Forecasts ....................................................................................................................................... 128
1.3.5 Coastal Weather .................................................................................................................................................................. 128
1.3.6 Graphic Area Forecasts (GFAs) and AIRMET .............................................................................................................. 128
1.3.7 Upper-Level Wind and Temperature Forecasts (FD and FB) .................................................................................... 128
1.3.8 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Weather Assistance ............................................................................................................ 129
1.3.9 Supplementary Information ............................................................................................................................................. 129
1.3.9.1 Weather Radar .................................................................................................................................................................... 129
1.3.9.2 CLDN ................................................................................................................................................................................... 129
1.3.9.3 ECCC/DND Weather Radar Network ............................................................................................................................ 130
1.4 In-flight Meteorological Information (VOLMET) .......................................................................................................... 131
2.0 PILOT WEATHER REPORTS (PIREPs) ............................................................................................................... 131
2.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 131
2.1.1 Pilot Weather Report (PIREP) Example ......................................................................................................................... 132
2.2 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) ............................................................................................................................................. 133
2.2.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................. 133
2.2.2 Turbulence Reporting Criteria .......................................................................................................................................... 133
2.3 Wind Shear (WS) .............................................................................................................................................................. 133
2.4 Airframe Icing ................................................................................................................................................................. 134
2.5 Volcanic Ash .................................................................................................................................................................... 134
2.6 Pilot Estimation of Surface Wind ................................................................................................................................... 134
3.0 CANADIAN WEATHER INFORMATION ......................................................................................................... 136
3.1 Aviation Forecasts and Charts ......................................................................................................................................... 136
3.2 Aviation Weather Reports ................................................................................................................................................. 137
3.3 Weather Charts ................................................................................................................................................................. 137
4.0 GRAPHIC AREA FORECASTS (GFA) ................................................................................................................ 138
4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 138
4.2 Issue and Valid Times ..................................................................................................................................................... 138
4.3 Coverage Area ................................................................................................................................................................... 138
4.4 Units of Measure .............................................................................................................................................................. 138
4.5 Abbreviations and Symbols ............................................................................................................................................ 138
4.6 Layout ............................................................................................................................................................................... 138
4.7 Title Box ............................................................................................................................................................................ 139
4.8 Legend Box ......................................................................................................................................................................... 139
4.9 Comments Box .................................................................................................................................................................. 139
4.10 Weather Information ....................................................................................................................................................... 140
4.11 Clouds and Weather Chart ............................................................................................................................................... 140
4.12 Icing, Turbulence and Freezing Level Chart .................................................................................................................... 143
4.13 Graphic Area Forecast (GFA) Amendments ................................................................................................................... 145
4.14 Graphic Area Forecast (GFA) Corrections ...................................................................................................................... 145
5.0 AIRMETs ............................................................................................................................................................... 145
5.1 Definition .......................................................................................................................................................................... 145
5.2 Issuance Criteria ............................................................................................................................................................... 145
5.3 Coordinate Points ............................................................................................................................................................. 146
5.4 Rules for the Use of Letters ............................................................................................................................................... 146
5.5 Rules for the Use of Numbers ........................................................................................................................................... 146
5.6 Validity .............................................................................................................................................................................. 146
5.7 Location of the Phenomenon ............................................................................................................................................ 147
5.7.1 Circle ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 147
5.7.2 Line ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 147
5.7.3 Polygon .................................................................................................................................................................................. 147
5.8 Flight Level and Extent ..................................................................................................................................................... 147
5.9 Movement or Expected Movement ................................................................................................................................... 147
5.10 Change in Intensity ........................................................................................................................................................... 148
x
March 20, 2025 TC AIM5.11 Remark .............................................................................................................................................................................. 148
5.12 Updated AIRMET ............................................................................................................................................................. 148
5.13 Cancellation ....................................................................................................................................................................... 148
5.14 Test AIRMET ..................................................................................................................................................................... 148
5.15 AIRMET Identifiers .......................................................................................................................................................... 149
5.16 AIRMET Examples ........................................................................................................................................................... 149
6.0 SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION (SIGMET) .................................................................. 150
6.1 Definition ......................................................................................................................................................................... 150
6.2 Issuance Criteria .............................................................................................................................................................. 150
6.3 Coordinate Points ............................................................................................................................................................. 151
6.4 Rules for the Use of Letters ............................................................................................................................................... 151
6.5 Rules for the Use of Numbers ........................................................................................................................................... 151
6.6 Validity .............................................................................................................................................................................. 151
6.7 Location of the Phenomenon ............................................................................................................................................ 151
6.7.1 Circle ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 152
6.7.2 Line ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 152
6.7.3 Polygon .................................................................................................................................................................................. 152
6.8 Flight Level and Extent ..................................................................................................................................................... 152
6.9 Movement or Expected Movement ................................................................................................................................... 152
6.10 Change in Intensity ........................................................................................................................................................... 152
6.11 Remark ............................................................................................................................................................................... 152
6.12 Updated Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET) ........................................................................................ 152
6.13 Cancellation ....................................................................................................................................................................... 153
6.14 Test Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET) Message ................................................................................. 153
6.15 Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET) Message Identifiers ...................................................................... 153
6.16 Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET) Message Examples ....................................................................... 154
7.0 AERODROME FORECASTS (TAFs) .................................................................................................................... 156
7.1 Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) Locations ............................................................................................................................. 156
7.2 General ............................................................................................................................................................................... 157
7.3 National Variations ........................................................................................................................................................... 157
7.4 Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) from Automatic Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) ......... 160
7.5 Amended Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) .............................................................................................................................. 160
8.0 AERODROME ROUTINE METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS (METARs) ........................................................... 161
8.1 The Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Report (METAR) Code ................................................................................. 161
8.2 National Variations .......................................................................................................................................................... 161
8.3 Aerodrome Special Meteorological Reports (SPECI) ..................................................................................................... 165
8.3.1 Criteria for Taking Aerodrome Special Meteorological Reports (SPECI) ................................................................ 165
8.3.2 Local Criteria ..................................................................................................................................................................... 166
8.3.2.1 Observer’s Initiative .......................................................................................................................................................... 166
8.3.2.2 Check Observations .......................................................................................................................................................... 166
8.4 Automatic Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) and Limited Weather Information
System (LWIS) Reports .................................................................................................................................................... 166
8.4.1 Automatic Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) ............................................................ 166
8.4.2 Limited Weather Information System (LWIS) Reports ................................................................................................ 167
8.4.3 Automated Weather Observation System (AWOS) and Limited Weather Information System (LWIS)
Performance Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 167
8.4.4 Automatic Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) and Human Observation
Comparison ......................................................................................................................................................................... 168
8.5 Voice Generation Systems ................................................................................................................................................. 170
9.0 UPPER LEVEL WINDS AND TEMPERATURES ............................................................................................... 171
9.1 Canadian Forecast Winds and Temperatures Aloft Network ......................................................................................... 171
9.2 Upper-Level Wind and Temperature Forecasts (FBs) .................................................................................................... 172
10.0 SURFACE WEATHER MAPS ............................................................................................................................... 172
xi
TC AIM March 20, 202511.0 UPPER LEVEL CHARTS ...................................................................................................................................... 173
11.1 Upper Level Analysis Charts ............................................................................................................................................ 173
11.2 Upper Level Prognostic Charts ........................................................................................................................................ 173
12.0 SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHARTS ........................................................................................ 174
12.1 Mid-Level Charts ............................................................................................................................................................... 174
12.2 High-Level Charts ............................................................................................................................................................. 175
13.0 VOLCANIC ASH PRODUCTS ............................................................................................................................. 177
14.0 SPACE WEATHER INFORMATION SERVICE ................................................................................................. 179
14.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 179
14.2 Nature of the Disturbances ............................................................................................................................................... 179
14.3 The ICAO Service Advisories ........................................................................................................................................... 179
14.4 Response to Advisories ..................................................................................................................................................... 179
14.5 Space Weather Advisory Message .................................................................................................................................... 180
14.6 Examples of Space Weather Advisories .......................................................................................................................... 180
15.0 ABBREVIATIONS—AVIATION FORECASTS ................................................................................................... 181
RAC—RULES OF THE AIR AND AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES 185
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................................................. 185
1.1 Air Traffic Services ........................................................................................................................................................... 185
1.1.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) and Information Services .................................................................................................. 185
1.1.2 Flight Advisory and Information Services .................................................................................................................... 186
1.1.2.1 Flight Information Centres (FICs) .................................................................................................................................. 186
1.1.2.2 Flight Service Stations (FSSs) ........................................................................................................................................... 186
1.1.2.3 Flight Information Centres (FICs) and Flight Service Stations (FSSs) ....................................................................... 187
1.1.2.4 International Flight Service Station (IFSS) ..................................................................................................................... 187
1.1.3 Arctic Territories ................................................................................................................................................................ 187
1.1.4 Military Flight Advisory Unit (MFAU) .......................................................................................................................... 187
1.2 Services Other Than Air Traffic Services (ATS) ............................................................................................................ 188
1.2.1 Universal Communications (UNICOM) ....................................................................................................................... 188
1.2.2 Airport Radio/Community Aerodrome Radio Station ............................................................................................... 188
1.2.3 Private Advisory Stations (PAS)—Controlled Airports ............................................................................................. 188
1.2.4 Apron Advisory Service .................................................................................................................................................... 189
1.3 Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) .......................................................................................................... 189
1.4 Use of Term “Ceiling and Visibility OK (CAVOK)” ....................................................................................................... 189
1.5 ATS Surveillance Service ................................................................................................................................................ 190
1.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 190
1.5.2 Procedures .......................................................................................................................................................................... 190
1.5.3 Air Traffic Service (ATS) Surveillance Traffic Information ...................................................................................... 190
1.5.4 ATS Surveillance Navigation Assistance to Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flights ....................................................... 191
1.5.5 Obstacle Clearance During Vectors ................................................................................................................................ 191
1.5.6 Misuse of Vectors ............................................................................................................................................................... 192
1.5.7 Canadian Forces Radar Assistance ................................................................................................................................ 192
1.5.8 The Use of ATS Surveillance in the Provision of Aerodrome Advisory Service (AAS) and Remote
Aerodrome Advisory Service (RAAS) by Flight Service Stations (FSS) ................................................................... 192
1.6 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Clearances, Instructions and Information ........................................................................ 192
1.6.1 Inability to Issue Clearance .............................................................................................................................................. 193
1.6.1.1 Examples .............................................................................................................................................................................. 193
1.7 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Service Priority ................................................................................................................... 196
1.7.1 Normal Conditions ............................................................................................................................................................ 196
1.7.2 Special Conditions ............................................................................................................................................................. 196
1.7.3 Minimum Fuel Advisory ................................................................................................................................................... 196
1.8 Collision Avoidance—Right of Way ( Canadian Aviation Regulations [CARs]) ........................................................... 196
1.9 Aerobatic Flight ( Canadian Aviation Regulations [CARs] 602.27 and 602.28) ........................................................... 197
xii
March 20, 2025 TC AIM1.10 Conservation .................................................................................................................................................................... 198
1.10.1 Fur and Poult ry Farms ...................................................................................................................................................... 198
1.10.2 Protection of Wildlife ....................................................................................................................................................... 198
1.10.3 National, Provincial and Municipal Parks, Reserves and Refuges ............................................................................ 198
2.0 AIRSPACE – REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES ....................................................................................... 198
2.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 198
2.2 Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) .............................................................................................................................. 198
2.2.1 Northern Domestic Airspace (NDA) .............................................................................................................................. 198
2.3 High- and Low-Level Airspace ........................................................................................................................................ 199
2.3.1 Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels Appropriate to Aircraft Track ....................................................................... 199
2.4 Flight Information Regions (FIRs) ................................................................................................................................. 199
2.5 Controlled Airspace ........................................................................................................................................................ 200
2.5.1 Use of Controlled Airspace by Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flights ............................................................................ 200
2.5.2 Aircraft Speed Limit Order .............................................................................................................................................. 200
2.6 High-Level Controlled Airspace ...................................................................................................................................... 201
2.7 Low-Level Controlled Airspace ...................................................................................................................................... 201
2.7.1 Low-Level Airways ............................................................................................................................................................ 201
2.7.2 Control Area Extensions .................................................................................................................................................. 202
2.7.3 Control Zones .................................................................................................................................................................... 202
2.7.4 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Over-the-Top ....................................................................................................................... 203
2.7.5 Transition Areas ................................................................................................................................................................ 204
2.7.6 Terminal Control Areas ................................................................................................................................................... 204
2.8 Airspace Classification .................................................................................................................................................... 204
2.8.1 Class A Airspace ................................................................................................................................................................. 205
2.8.2 Class B Airspace ................................................................................................................................................................. 205
2.8.3 Class C Airspace ................................................................................................................................................................ 206
2.8.4 Class D Airspace ................................................................................................................................................................ 206
2.8.5 Class E Airspace .................................................................................................................................................................. 206
2.8.6 Class F Airspace ................................................................................................................................................................. 207
2.8.6.1 Charting of Class F Airspace .......................................................................................................... 207
2.8.6.2 Danger Area (International Waters) ............................................................................................................................... 207
2.8.6.3 Advisory Airspace ............................................................................................................................................................. 207
2.8.6.4 Restricted Airspace ........................................................................................................................................................... 208
2.8.6.5 Joint-Use Airspace ............................................................................................................................................................. 208
2.8.6.6 NOTAM .............................................................................................................................................................................. 208
2.8.7 Class G Airspace ................................................................................................................................................................ 208
2.9 Other Airspace Divisions ................................................................................................................................................ 208
2.9.1 Altitude Reservation ......................................................................................................................................................... 208
2.9.2 Temporary Flight Restrictions—Forest Fires ............................................................................................................... 209
2.9.3 Flight Operations Over or in the Vicinity of Nuclear Power Plants .......................................................................... 209
2.9.4 Military Operations Areas ................................................................................................................................................ 209
2.10 Altimeter Setting Region ................................................................................................................................................ 209
2.11 Standard Pressure Region ............................................................................................................................................... 209
2.12 Mountainous Regions ....................................................................................................................................................... 210
2.13 Emergency Communications and Security ...................................................................................................................... 211
3.0 FLIGHT PLANNING .............................................................................................................................................. 211
3.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 211
3.2 Pilot Briefing Service ........................................................................................................................................................ 211
3.3 Aeronautical Information ................................................................................................................................................ 211
3.4 Weight and Balance Control ............................................................................................................................................ 212
3.4.1 Definitions ........................................................................................................................................................................... 212
3.4.2 Weight Control ................................................................................................................................................................... 213
3.4.3 Balance .................................................................................................................................................................................. 213
3.4.4 Operational Requirements ................................................................................................................................................. 213
3.4.5 Computeri zed Systems ....................................................................................................................................................... 214
3.4.6 Segmented Weights ............................................................................................................................................................. 214
3.4.6.1 Derivation of Segmented Weights .................................................................................................................................... 214
xiii
TC AIM March 20, 20253.4.7 Computation of Passenger and Baggage Weights .......................................................................................................... 214
3.4.8 Fuel and Oil We ights ........................................................................................................................................................... 216
3.5 Flight Plans and Flight Itineraries .................................................................................................................................. 217
3.5.1 When Requir ed ................................................................................................................................................................... 217
3.5.2 Filing ( Canadian Aviation Regulation [RAC] 602.75) .................................................................................................. 217
3.5.3 Flight Plan Requirements—Flights Between Canada and a Foreign State ............................................................... 217
3.5.4 Opening a Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary ....................................................................... 217
3.6 Changes To The Information In A Flight Plan Or Flight Itinerary .............................................................................. 217
3.6.1 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary ........................................................................................... 218
3.6.2 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary .................................................................................... 218
3.7 Composite Flight Plan Or Flight Itinerary—Visual Flight Rules (VFR) And Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) ........... 218
3.8 Defence Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight Plans and Defence Flight Itineraries ( Canadian Aviation Regulation
[CAR] 602.145) .................................................................................................................................................................. 218
3.9 Intermediate Stops ........................................................................................................................................................... 219
3.9.1 Consecutive Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight Plans ............................................................................................ 219
3.10 Cross-country Instrument Training Flights ................................................................................................................... 219
3.11 Closing a Flight Plan ......................................................................................................................................................... 219
3.11.1 Arrival Report .................................................................................................................................................................... 220
3.11.2 Closing of a Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary Prior to Landing .................................................................................... 220
3.12 Fuel Requirements ........................................................................................................................................................... 220
3.12.1 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight .................................................................................................................................... 220
3.12.2 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight ............................................................................................................................. 220
3.13 Requirements for Alternate Aerodrome — Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight ....................................................... 221
3.13.1 Alternate Aerodrome Weather Minima Requirements ............................................................................................... 221
3.14 Completion of Canadian Flight Plans and Flight Itineraries and International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Flight Plans .................................................................................................................................. 222
3.14.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 222
3.14.2 Canadian ............................................................................................................................................................................. 222
3.14.3 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) ..................................................................................................... 222
3.14.4 Instructions for Completing the Form .......................................................................................................................... 223
3.14.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 223
3.14.4.2 Instructions for Insertion of ATS Data ........................................................................................................................... 223
3.15 Contents of a Flight Plan and Flight Itinerary .............................................................................................................. 223
3.15.1 Item 7: Aircraft Identification (not exceeding seven alphanumeric characters and without hyphens
or symbols) ......................................................................................................................................................................... 223
3.15.2 Item 8: Flight Rules and Type of Flight .......................................................................................................................... 223
3.15.2.1 Flight Rules (one character) (Canadian and ICAO) .................................................................................................... 223
3.15.2.2 Type of Flight (up to two characters, as applicable) ..................................................................................................... 224
3.15.3 Item 9: Number and Type of Aircraft and Wake Turbulence Category ................................................................... 224
3.15.3.1 Number of Aircraft (one or two characters) ................................................................................................................. 224
3.15.3.2 Type of Aircraft (two to four characters) ........................................................................................................................ 224
3.15.3.3 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Wake Turbulence Category (one character) ....................... 224
3.15.4 Item 10: Equipment (Canadian and International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)) .................................... 224
3.15.4.1 Radio Communication, Navigation and Approach Aid Equipment and Capabilities .......................................... 224
3.15.4.2 Surveillance Equipment and Capabilities ...................................................................................................................... 225
3.15.5 Item 13: Departure Aerodrome and Time ..................................................................................................................... 226
3.15.5.1 Departure Aerodrome (maximum four characters) .................................................................................................... 226
3.15.5.2 Time (maximum four characters) .................................................................................................................................. 226
3.15.6 Item 15: Cruising Speed, Altitude/Level and Route .................................................................................................... 226
3.15.6.1 Flights Along Designated Air Traffic Service (ATS) Routes: ..................................................................................... 227
3.15.6.2 Flights Outside Designated Air Traffic Service (ATS) Routes: .................................................................................. 227
3.15.7 Item 16: Destination Aerodrome, Total Estimated Elapse Time (EET), Search And Rescue (SAR) Time (for
flights in Canada only) and Destination Alternate Aerodrome(s) ........................................................................... 228
3.15.7.1 Destination Aerodrome and Total Estimated Elapse Time (EET) (maximum 10 characters) ............................. 228
3.15.7.2 Destination Alternate Aerodrome(s) ............................................................................................................................. 228
3.15.8 Item 18: Other Information ............................................................................................................................................. 229
3.15.9 Item 19: Supplementary Information .............................................................................................................................. 231
3.15.9.1 Endurance ............................................................................................................................................................................ 231
3.15.9.2 Persons On Board ............................................................................................................................................................... 231
3.15.9.3 Emergency and Survival Equipment ............................................................................................................................... 231
xiv
March 20, 2025 TC AIM4.0 AIRPORT OPERATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 233
4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 233
4.1.1 Wake Turbulence ............................................................................................................................................................... 234
4.1.2 Noise Abatement ............................................................................................................................................................... 235
4.1.3 Preferential Runway Assignments .................................................................................................................................. 236
4.1.4 Runway Protected Area .................................................................................................................................................... 236
4.2 Departure Procedures — Controlled Airports .............................................................................................................. 236
4.2.1 Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) Broadcasts ................................................................................... 236
4.2.2 Clearance Delivery ............................................................................................................................................................ 236
4.2.3 Radio Checks ...................................................................................................................................................................... 237
4.2.4 Requests for Push-back or Power-back .......................................................................................................................... 237
4.2.5 Taxi Information ............................................................................................................................................................... 237
4.2.5.1 Oblique Angle Intersection Use ....................................................................................................................................... 237
4.2.5.2 Best Practices for Pilots ..................................................................................................................................................... 238
4.2.6 Taxi Holding Positions ..................................................................................................................................................... 238
4.2.7 Taxiway Holding Positions During Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Operations .................................................... 238
4.2.7.1 Glide Path Signal Protection Procedures ...................................................................................................................... 238
4.2.8 Take-off Clearance ............................................................................................................................................................ 238
4.2.8.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Phraseology When a Runway Is Temporarily Shortened Due to Construction .....239
4.2.8.2 Clearance for Aborting a Takeoff ................................................................................................................................... 239
4.2.9 Release from Tower Frequency ........................................................................................................................................ 239
4.2.10 Departure Procedures - No Radio (NORDO) Aircraft .............................................................................................. 239
4.2.11 Visual Signals ..................................................................................................................................................................... 239
4.2.12 Departure Procedures – Receiver Only (RONLY) Aircraft ....................................................................................... 239
4.3 Traffic Circuits — Controlled Aerodromes ................................................................................................................... 240
4.4 Arrival Procedures — Controlled Airports ................................................................................................................... 241
4.4.1 Initial Contact .................................................................................................................................................................... 241
4.4.2 Initial Clearance ................................................................................................................................................................ 241
4.4.3 Landing Clearance ............................................................................................................................................................ 242
4.4.3.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Phraseology When a Runway Is Temporarily Shortened Due to Construction .....242
4.4.4 Taxiing ................................................................................................................................................................................. 243
4.4.5 Arrival Procedures – No Radio (NORDO) Aircraft ................................................................................................... 243
4.4.6 Arrival Procedures – Receiver Only (RONLY) Aircraft ............................................................................................. 243
4.4.7 Visual Signals ..................................................................................................................................................................... 244
4.4.8 Communications Failure - Visual Flight Rules (VFR) ............................................................................................... 244
4.4.9 Operations on Intersecting Runways ............................................................................................................................. 244
4.4.10 High Intensity Runway Operations (HIRO) .................................................................................................................. 247
4.5 Aircraft Operations—Uncontrolled Aerodromes ......................................................................................................... 247
4.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 247
4.5.2 Traffic Circuit Procedures — Uncontrolled Aerodromes .......................................................................................... 248
4.5.3 Helicopter Operations ....................................................................................................................................................... 251
4.5.4 Mandatory Frequency (MF) ............................................................................................................................................. 251
4.5.5 Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF) .............................................................................................................................. 251
4.5.6 Use of Mandatory Frequency (MF) and Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF) ...................................................... 252
4.5.7 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Communication Procedures at Uncontrolled Aerodromes with Mandatory
Frequency (MF) and Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF) Areas ............................................................................ 253
4.5.8 Aircraft Without Two-Way Radio (No Radio [NORDO]/ Receiver O nly [RONLY]) .............................................. 253
4.5.8.1 Prior Arrangements .......................................................................................................................................................... 253
4.5.8.2 Traffic Circuits - No Radio [NORDO]/Receiver Only [RONLY] .............................................................................. 254
4.5.8.3 Receiver Only (RONLY) ................................................................................................................................................... 254
4.6 Helicopter Operations at Controlled Airports .............................................................................................................. 254
5.0 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) EN ROUTE PROCEDURES ...................................................................................... 254
5.1 Monitoring, Broadcasting on 126.7 MHz and Position Reporting En Route ............................................................... 254
5.2 Acknowledgement of Clearances .................................................................................................................................... 255
5.3 Altitudes and Flight Levels — Visual Flight Rules (VFR) ............................................................................................. 255
5.4 Minimum Altitudes—Visual Flight Rules (VFR) ( Canadian Aviation Regulations [CARs] 602.14 and 602.15) ....... 255
5.5 Minimum Altitudes — Overflying Aerodromes [ Canadian Aviation Regulations [CARs] 602.96(4)and(5)] ............ 255
5.6 Controlled Visual Flight Rules (CVFR) Procedures ..................................................................................................... 256
5.7 En route Air Traffic Service (ATS) Surveillance ............................................................................................................ 256
xv
TC AIM March 20, 20255.8 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Operations Within Class C Airspace ................................................................................. 256
6.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) — GENERAL ........................................................................................ 257
6.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Clearance ............................................................................................................................. 257
6.2 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flights in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) ................................................. 257
6.2.1 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Clearance with Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Restrictions ....................................... 257
6.2.2 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Release of an Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Aircraft .................................................. 258
6.3 Emergencies and Equipment Failures — Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) .................................................................... 258
6.3.1 Declaration of Emergency ................................................................................................................................................ 258
6.3.2 Two-Way Communications Failure ............................................................................................................................... 258
6.3.2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 258
6.3.2.2 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight Plan .................................................................................................................... 258
6.3.3 Reporting Malfunctions of Navigation and Communications Equipment ............................................................ 259
6.3.4 Fuel Dumpin g .................................................................................................................................................................... 260
6.4 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Separation ..................................................................................................................... 260
6.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 260
6.4.2 Vertical Separation — General ........................................................................................................................................ 260
6.4.3 Vertical Separation Between Flight Levels and Altitudes Above Sea Level (ASL) ................................................. 260
6.4.4 Longitudinal Separation—Distance-Based .................................................................................................................. 260
6.4.5 Lateral Separation — General ......................................................................................................................................... 260
6.4.6 Lateral Separation — Airways and Tracks .................................................................................................................... 260
6.4.7 Lateral Separation — Instrument Approach Procedure ............................................................................................. 261
6.5 Visual Separation ............................................................................................................................................................. 261
6.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 261
6.5.2 Speed Control Instructions on Departure ..................................................................................................................... 261
6.5.3 Controller-Applied Visual Separation ............................................................................................................................ 261
6.5.4 Pilot-Applied Visual Separation ...................................................................................................................................... 261
6.6 Development of Instrument Procedures ........................................................................................................................ 262
7.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES – DEPARTURE PROCEDURES ..................................................................... 262
7.1 Aerodrome Operations ................................................................................................................................................... 262
7.2 Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) Broadcasts ...................................................................................... 262
7.3 Initial Contact ................................................................................................................................................................. 262
7.4 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Clearances ..................................................................................................................... 262
7.5 PRE-TAXI CLEARANCE (PTC) PROCEDURES AT STAFFED FLIGHT SERVICE STATION (FSS) SITES .......... 262
7.6 Standard Instrument Departure (SID) .......................................................................................................................... 263
7.7 Noise Abatement Procedures — Departure ................................................................................................................... 264
7.7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 264
7.7.2 Noise Preferential Runways ............................................................................................................................................. 264
7.7.3 Noise Abatement Departure Procedure (NADP) ........................................................................................................ 265
7.7.3.1 NADP 1 (Criteria for a Close-in Noise-sensitive Area) Description ......................................................................... 265
7.7.3.2 NADP 2 (Criteria for a More Distant Noise-sensitive Area) Description ................................................................. 266
7.8 Obstacle and Terrain Clearance ..................................................................................................................................... 266
7.8.1 Visual Climb Over The Airport (VCOA) ....................................................................................................................... 267
7.8.2 Low, Close-in Obstacles ..................................................................................................................................................... 267
7.9 Release from Tower Frequency ....................................................................................................................................... 268
7.10 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Departures from Uncontrolled Airports .................................................................... 268
7.11 Alerting Service Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Departures from Uncontrolled Airports ........................................ 268
8.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) – EN ROUTE PROCEDURES .............................................................. 268
8.1 Position Reports .............................................................................................................................................................. 268
8.2 Mach Number/True Airspeed—Clearances and Reports .............................................................................................. 269
8.2.1 Mach Number .................................................................................................................................................................... 269
8.2.2 True Airspeed (TAS) ......................................................................................................................................................... 269
8.3 Altitude Reports .............................................................................................................................................................. 269
8.4 Climb or Descent .............................................................................................................................................................. 270
8.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 270
8.4.2 Visual Climb and Descent ............................................................................................................................................... 270
8.4.2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 270
8.4.2.2 Visual Separation from Other Aircraft ......................................................................................................................... 270
xvi
March 20, 2025 TC AIM8.5 Minimum Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Altitudes ...................................................................................................... 270
8.6 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Assignment of Altitudes ..................................................................................................... 271
8.6.1 Minimum Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Altitude ..................................................................................................... 271
8.6.1.1 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Intersections on a Minimum En-Route Altitude (MEA) .................... 271
8.6.2 Altitudes and Direction of Flight .................................................................................................................................... 272
8.7 “1 000-ft-on-Top” Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight ............................................................................................. 272
8.8 Clearances—Leaving or Entering Controlled Airspace ................................................................................................ 272
8.9 Clearance Limit ............................................................................................................................................................... 273
8.10 Class G Airspace—Recommended Operating Procedures—En-Route ........................................................................ 273
9.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) —ARRIVAL PROCEDURES ................................................................ 273
9.1 Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) Broadcasts ...................................................................................... 273
9.2 Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR), Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA) and Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) ............. 273
9.2.1 Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA) .................................................................................................................................... 273
9.2.2 Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) ........................................................................................................................................... 274
9.2.3 Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) ................................................................................................................................. 274
9.2.3.1 Conventional Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) ......................................................................................................... 274
9.2.3.2 Performance-based Navigation (PBN) Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) ............................................................. 274
9.2.3.3 Flight Planning ................................................................................................................................................................... 275
9.2.3.4 Procedure Identification ................................................................................................................................................... 275
9.2.3.5 Altitude Restrictions ......................................................................................................................................................... 275
9.2.3.6 Speed Restrictions ............................................................................................................................................................... 276
9.2.3.7 Operating Procedures ........................................................................................................................................................ 276
9.2.3.8 Top of Descent (TOD) ........................................................................................................................................................ 276
9.2.3.9 Descent Planning ................................................................................................................................................................. 276
9.2.3.10 Closed Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Procedures ............................................................................................... 276
9.2.3.11 Open Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Procedures ................................................................................................ 277
9.2.3.12 Transitioning from an Open Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) to an Approach Procedure ............................. 277
9.2.3.13 Approach Clearances ......................................................................................................................................................... 278
9.2.3.14 Vectors to Final ................................................................................................................................................................... 278
9.2.3.15 Amending Routes .............................................................................................................................................................. 278
9.2.3.16 Direct Routings to an Initial Approach Waypoint (IAWP)/Intermediate Waypoint (IWP) ................................ 278
9.2.3.17 Cancelling Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Procedures ..................................................................................... 279
9.2.3.18 Communication Failures on a Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Procedure ....................................................... 279
9.3 Approach Clearance ........................................................................................................................................................ 279
9.4 Descent Out of Controlled Airspace .............................................................................................................................. 280
9.5 Advance Notice of Intent in Minimum Weather Conditions ....................................................................................... 280
9.6 Contact and Visual Approaches ..................................................................................................................................... 280
9.6.1 Contact Approach ............................................................................................................................................................. 280
9.6.2 Visual Approach ................................................................................................................................................................ 281
9.6.2.1 Missed Approach ................................................................................................................................................................ 281
9.7 Arrivals ............................................................................................................................................................................ 282
9.7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 282
9.7.2 ATS Surveillance Required .............................................................................................................................................. 282
9.7.3 Speed Adjustment – ATS Surveillance-Controlled Aircraft ...................................................................................... 282
9.7.4 Precision Radar Approaches ............................................................................................................................................ 283
9.8 Initial Contact with Control Towers .............................................................................................................................. 283
9.9 Approach Position Reports— Controlled Airports ....................................................................................................... 283
9.10 Control Transfer— Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Units to Towers ............................................................................ 283
9.11 Initial Contact with Air-Ground Facility at Uncontrolled Aerodromes ...................................................................... 283
9.12 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Reporting Procedures at Uncontrolled Aerodromes ................................................. 284
9.13 Instruments Flight Rules (IFR) Procedures at an Uncontrolled Aerodrome in Uncontrolled Airspace ................... 284
9.14 Outbound Report ............................................................................................................................................................ 285
9.15 Straight-In Approach ...................................................................................................................................................... 285
9.16 Straight-In Approaches from an Intermediate Fix ........................................................................................................ 285
9.17 Procedure Altitudes and Current Altimeter Setting ..................................................................................................... 285
9.17.1 Corrections for Temperature ........................................................................................................................................... 285
9.17.2 Remote Altimeter Setting ................................................................................................................................................ 288
9.18 Departure, Approach and Alternate Minima ................................................................................................................ 288
9.18.1 Category II Instrument Landing System (ILS) Approach Minima .......................................................................... 288
xvii
TC AIM March 20, 20259.19 Application of Minima .................................................................................................................................................... 289
9.19.1 Takeoff Minima ................................................................................................................................................................. 289
9.19.2 Approach Ban ..................................................................................................................................................................... 290
9.19.2.1 General Aviation—Non-Precision Approach (NPA), Approach Procedure with Vertical Guidance (APV),
CAT I or CAT II Precision Approach ............................................................................................................................. 290
9.19.2.2 Approach Ban—General Aviation—CAT III Precision Approach ............................................................................. 291
9.19.2.3 Approach Ban—Commercial Operators—General—Non-Precision Approach (NPA), Approach Procedure
with Vertical Guidance (APV), or CAT I Precision Approach .................................................................................... 291
9.19.2.4 Approach Ban—Commercial Operators—CAT II and CAT III Precision Approach ............................................ 292
9.19.2.5 Approach Ban—Commercial Operators—Operations Specification—Non-Precision Approach (NPA),
Approach Procedure with Vertical Guidance (APV), or CAT I Precision Approach ............................................. 292
9.19.2.6 Runway Visibility ............................................................................................................................................................... 293
9.19.2.7 Localized Phenomenon ..................................................................................................................................................... 293
9.19.2.8 Effects of the High-Intensity Approach Lighting (HIAL) System on Canada Air Pilot (CAP)
Advisory Visibility and on Runway Certification ........................................................................................................ 293
9.19.3 Landing Mi nima ................................................................................................................................................................ 294
9.20 Runway Visual Range (RVR) .......................................................................................................................................... 295
9.20.1 Definitions .......................................................................................................................................................................... 295
9.20.2 Operational Use of Runway Visual Range (RVR) ........................................................................................................ 295
9.21 Aircraft Approach Categories ........................................................................................................................................ 296
9.22 Straight-In Landing Minima .......................................................................................................................................... 296
9.23 Circling ............................................................................................................................................................................ 297
9.23.1 Standard Circling Approach Radii .................................................................................................................................. 297
9.23.2 Expanded Circling Approach Radii ................................................................................................................................ 298
9.24 Circling Procedures ......................................................................................................................................................... 299
9.25 Missed Approach Procedure While Visually Manoeuvring in the Vicinity of the Aerodrome .................................. 299
9.26 Missed Approach Procedures ......................................................................................................................................... 299
9.27 Simultaneous Precision Instrument Approaches - Parallel Runways .......................................................................... 299
9.28 Simultaneous Precision Instrument Approaches - Converging Runways ................................................................... 300
10.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) — HOLDING PROCEDURES ............................................................ 300
10.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 300
10.2 Holding Clearance ........................................................................................................................................................... 300
10.3 Standard Holding Pattern ................................................................................................................................................ 301
10.4 Non-Standard Holding Pattern ....................................................................................................................................... 301
10.5 Entry Procedures .............................................................................................................................................................. 301
10.6 Timing .............................................................................................................................................................................. 302
10.7 Speed Limitations ............................................................................................................................................................ 302
10.8 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Procedures ..................................................................................................... 302
10.9 Shuttle Procedure ............................................................................................................................................................ 302
10.10 Holding Patterns Published on Enroute and Terminal Charts .................................................................................... 303
11.0 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC) SPECIAL PROCEDURES .............................................................................. 303
11.1 Adherence to Mach Number ........................................................................................................................................... 303
11.2 Parallel Offset Procedures .............................................................................................................................................. 303
11.3 Structured Airspace ........................................................................................................................................................ 303
11.4 Canadian Domestic Routes ............................................................................................................................................. 303
11.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 303
11.4.2 North American Route Program (NRP) ........................................................................................................................ 303
11.4.2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 303
11.4.2.2 Eligibility ............................................................................................................................................................................. 304
11.4.2.3 Procedures .......................................................................................................................................................................... 304
11.4.3 Mandatory Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Routes ...................................................................................................... 304
11.4.4 Fixed Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes ......................................................................................................................... 304
11.4.5 Northern Control Area (NCA) Random Routes .......................................................................................................... 304
11.4.6 Arctic Control Area (ACA) Random Routes ................................................................................................................ 304
11.4.7 Polar Routes ......................................................................................................................................................................... 305
11.4.7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 305
11.4.7.2 Flight Planning and Position Reporting ......................................................................................................................... 305
11.4.7.3 Altitude Assignment .......................................................................................................................................................... 305
xviii
March 20, 2025 TC AIM11.5 Northern American Route (NAR) System ...................................................................................................................... 305
11.6 Emergency Security Control of Air Traffic (escat) Plan ................................................................................................ 305
11.7 Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) ........................................................................................................... 305
11.7.1 Definitions .......................................................................................................................................................................... 305
11.7.2 Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) Airspace ....................................................................................... 305
11.7.3 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 305
11.7.4 In-Flight Procedures ......................................................................................................................................................... 306
11.7.5 Flight Planning Requirements ........................................................................................................................................ 306
11.7.6 Operation of Non-Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (Non-RVSM) Aircraft in RVSM Airspace ............. 306
11.7.7 Delivery Flights for Aircraft that are Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)-Compliant on
Delivery ............................................................................................................................................................................... 307
11.7.8 Airworthiness and Operational Approval and Monitoring ....................................................................................... 307
11.7.9 Monitoring .......................................................................................................................................................................... 307
11.7.10 North American Approvals Registry and Monitoring Organization (NAARMO) ............................................... 308
11.7.11 Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) II/Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) II
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) Requirements ............................................................................... 308
11.7.12 Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) .................................................................................................................................... 308
11.7.13 Wake Turbulence ............................................................................................................................................................... 308
11.7.14 In-Flight Contingencies .................................................................................................................................................... 309
11.8 Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW) ..................................................................................................................... 310
11.8.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................. 310
11.8.2 Procedures ............................................................................................................................................................................ 311
11.8.3 Pilot-Initiated Terrain Avoidance Procedure ................................................................................................................. 311
11.8.4 Air Traffic Control (ATC)-Initiated Terrain Avoidance Procedure ........................................................................... 311
11.8.5 Assistance to Aircraft in Distress ..................................................................................................................................... 311
11.9 Formation Flights .............................................................................................................................................................. 311
12.0 RAC ANNEX ........................................................................................................................................................... 312
12.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 312
12.2 Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) ......................................................................................................................... 312
12.3 Transportation of Dangerous Goods (TDG) by Air ....................................................................................................... 320
NAT—NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT) OPERATIONS 323
1.0 NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT) OPERATIONS ........................................................................................................ 323
1.1 Regulation, Reference Documents and Guidance Material .......................................................................................... 323
1.1.1 Regulation ........................................................................................................................................................................... 323
1.1.2 North Atlantic (NAT) Documentation ......................................................................................................................... 323
1.2 General Aviation Aircraft ............................................................................................................................................... 323
1.3 North American Routes (NAR) ...................................................................................................................................... 323
1.4 Gander Oceanic Transition Area (GOTA) ..................................................................................................................... 323
1.5 North Atlantic (NAT) Organized Track System (OTS) ................................................................................................. 324
1.6 Flight Rules ....................................................................................................................................................................... 324
1.7 Flight Planning Procedures ............................................................................................................................................ 324
1.7.1 Routes .................................................................................................................................................................................. 324
1.7.2 Airspeed .............................................................................................................................................................................. 325
1.7.3 Altitude ............................................................................................................................................................................... 325
1.7.4 Estimated Times ................................................................................................................................................................ 326
1.7.5 Aircraft Approval Status and Registration ................................................................................................................... 326
1.7.6 Filing .................................................................................................................................................................................... 326
1.8 Preferred Route Message (PRM) ..................................................................................................................................... 326
1.9 Clearances ......................................................................................................................................................................... 326
1.10 Position Reports ............................................................................................................................................................... 327
1.10.1 Requirements ..................................................................................................................................................................... 327
1.10.2 Communications with Air Traffic Control (ATC) ...................................................................................................... 327
1.11 Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (MNPS) for operations within the North Atlantic High-Level
Airspace (NAT HLA) ......................................................................................................................................................... 327
1.11.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 327
1.11.2 Aircraft Without Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (MNPS) for the North-Atlantic High-Level
Airspace (NAT HLA) Operations ................................................................................................................................... 328
xix
TC AIM March 20, 20251.12 Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)—Minimum Aircraft System Performance
Specifications (MASPS) ................................................................................................................................................... 328
1.13 Adherence to Mach Setting ............................................................................................................................................. 328
1.14 Operation of Transponders ............................................................................................................................................. 328
1.15 Meteorological Reports ................................................................................................................................................... 328
1.16 Altitude Reports .............................................................................................................................................................. 328
1.17 Contingency and Emergency Procedures ...................................................................................................................... 329
1.17.1 In-flight Contingencies .................................................................................................................................................... 329
1.18 Communications Failure—North Atlantic (NAT) Traffic ............................................................................................ 329
1.19 North Atlantic High-Level Airspace (NAT HLA) .......................................................................................................... 329
1.19.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 329
1.19.2 Time Keeping Procedures ................................................................................................................................................ 330
1.19.3 Aircraft Without Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (MNPS) Capability .................................. 330
1.19.4 Monitoring of Gross Navigation Errors ........................................................................................................................ 330
1.20 North Atlantic (NAT) Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) ..................................................................... 330
1.20.1 Geographic Boundaries .................................................................................................................................................... 330
1.20.2 Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) Details and Procedures ............................................................. 330
1.20.3 Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS) .......................................................................................................................... 330
1.20.3.1 Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS) Procedures ..................................................................................................... 330
1.20.3.2 Organized Track System (OTS) ........................................................................................................................................ 331
1.20.3.3 Organized Track System (OTS) Changeover Periods .................................................................................................. 331
1.20.3.4 Night Datum L ine ............................................................................................................................................................... 332
1.20.3.5 North Datum Line ............................................................................................................................................................... 332
1.20.4 North Atlantic (NAT) Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) Aircraft Approvals .............................. 333
1.20.5 Central Monitoring Agency (CMA) ................................................................................................................................. 333
1.20.6 Data Link Mandate (DLM) Airspace .............................................................................................................................. 333
1.20.6.1 General Information .......................................................................................................................................................... 333
1.20.6.2 Data Link Mandate (DLM) Flight Levels ....................................................................................................................... 333
1.20.6.3 Flights Permitted to Operate Within NAT DLM Airspace ......................................................................................... 333
1.20.6.4 Operational Policies .......................................................................................................................................................... 334
1.20.6.5 Equipment Failure of Either ADS-C or CPLDC Systems ........................................................................................... 334
1.20.7 Height Monitoring ............................................................................................................................................................ 334
1.20.7.1 In-flight Procedures .......................................................................................................................................................... 334
1.20.7.2 Post-flight Procedures ...................................................................................................................................................... 334
1.21 Strategic Lateral Offset Procedure (SLOP) ..................................................................................................................... 334
2.0 INTERNATIONAL AIR-GROUND SERVICE ..................................................................................................... 335
2.1 High Frequency (HF) Aeromobile Operations in the North Atlantic (NAT) ................................................................ 335
2.2 Availability of Single Sideband (SSB) ............................................................................................................................... 335
2.3 Selective Calling System (SELCAL) .................................................................................................................................. 335
2.4 Use of General Purpose Very High Frequency (VHF) or Satellite Voice Communications (SATVOICE)
in lieu of International High Frequency (HF) Air-Ground Frequencies ....................................................................... 335
2.5 ARINC 424 Identifiers for
HalfDegree Waypoints in the Gander Oceanic Control Area (OCA) ........................................................................... 336
SAR—SEARCH AND RESCUE 337
1.0 RESPONSIBLE AUTHORITY .............................................................................................................................. 337
1.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 337
1.2 Types of Service Available ................................................................................................................................................ 337
1.3 Search and Rescue (SAR) Agreements ............................................................................................................................ 337
2.0 FLIGHT PLANNING ............................................................................................................................................ 338
2.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 338
2.2 Request for Search and Rescue (SAR) Assistance .......................................................................................................... 338
2.3 Missing Aircraft Notice (MANOT) ................................................................................................................................. 338
2.4 Aiding Persons in Distress ............................................................................................................................................... 339
3.0 EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER (ELT) ............................................................................................. 340
3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 340
xx
March 20, 2025 TC AIM3.2 Types of Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) ........................................................................................................... 340
3.3 Installation and Maintenance Requirements ................................................................................................................ 340
3.4 Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) Operating Instructions (Normal Use) ........................................................... 340
3.5 Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) Operating Instructions (Emergency Use) ..................................................... 341
3.6 Maximizing the Signal .................................................................................................................................................... 341
3.7 Accidental Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) Transmissions .............................................................................. 342
3.8 Testing Procedures .......................................................................................................................................................... 342
3.8.1 406 MHz Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELTs) ...................................................................................................... 342
3.8.2 121.5/243 MHz Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELTs) ........................................................................................... 342
3.9 Schedule of Requirements ............................................................................................................................................... 343
4.0 AIRCRAFT EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE ........................................................................................................... 343
4.1 Declaring an Emergency ................................................................................................................................................. 343
4.2 Action by the Pilot During Emergency Conditions ....................................................................................................... 343
4.3 Transponder Alerting ..................................................................................................................................................... 344
4.4 Radar Alerting Manoeuvres ........................................................................................................................................... 344
4.5 Emergency Radio Frequency Capability ......................................................................................................................... 344
4.6 Interception Procedures (Canadian Aviation Regulation (CAR) 602.144) .................................................................. 345
4.7 Downed Aircraft Procedures .......................................................................................................................................... 348
4.7.1 Ground-to-Air Signals ...................................................................................................................................................... 348
4.7.2 Survival ............................................................................................................................................................................... 348
4.8 Canada Shipping Act, 2001 (2001, C. 26) EXTRACT—PART 5, SECTIONS 130–133 ................................................ 349
MAP—AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS 351
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................................................. 351
2.0 AERONAUTICAL PUBLICATIONS .................................................................................................................... 351
2.1 AIP Canada ....................................................................................................................................................................... 351
2.2 AIP Canada Supplements ................................................................................................................................................ 351
2.3 AIP Canada Aeronautical Information Circulars .......................................................................................................... 351
2.4 Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC) Canada .......................................................................... 351
2.5 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Aeronautical Information ............................................................................................................ 352
2.5.1 VFR Navigation Chart (VNC) .......................................................................................................................................... 352
2.5.2 VFR Terminal Area Chart (VTA) ..................................................................................................................................... 352
2.5.3 Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) ...................................................................................................................................... 352
2.5.4 Canada Water Aerodrome Supplement (CWAS) ........................................................................................................... 352
2.5.5 Aeronautical Charts ........................................................................................................................................................... 352
2.6 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Aeronautical Information ............................................................................................. 352
3.0 NOTAM ................................................................................................................................................................. 352
3.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 352
3.2 NOTAM Format ............................................................................................................................................................... 353
3.2.1 Format Desc ription ............................................................................................................................................................ 353
3.2.2 Item Q Description ............................................................................................................................................................. 353
3.2.3 Items Description ............................................................................................................................................................... 353
3.2.3.1 NOTAM Number and Type ............................................................................................................................................... 353
3.2.3.2 Item Q) Coded Line ............................................................................................................................................................ 353
3.2.3.3 Item A) Location Indicator(s) ............................................................................................................................................ 353
3.2.3.4 Items B) and C) Start and End Time ............................................................................................................................... 354
3.2.3.5 Item D) Schedule ................................................................................................................................................................ 354
3.2.3.6 Item E) NOTAM Text ........................................................................................................................................................ 355
3.2.3.7 Items F) and G) Lower and Upper Vertical Limits ....................................................................................................... 355
3.3 NOTAM Types ................................................................................................................................................................. 355
3.4 NOTAM Issued Under a Flight Information Region (FIR) or an Aerodrome ............................................................. 356
3.5 NOTAM Distribution ...................................................................................................................................................... 356
3.6 Criteria for Issuing a NOTAM ......................................................................................................................................... 357
3.7 Automatic Query/Response—Canadian NOTAM Database ........................................................................................ 358
3.8 Runway Surface Condition (RSC)/RSC NOTAM ........................................................................................................... 358
xxi
TC AIM March 20, 20254.0 PROCUREMENT OF AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS .................................................... 358
4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 358
4.2 NAV CANADA Publications ........................................................................................................................................... 359
4.2.1 Individual Purchase .......................................................................................................................................................... 359
4.2.2 Subscriptions ...................................................................................................................................................................... 359
5.0 CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS FOR INTERNATIONAL FLIGHTS .............................................................. 360
LRA—LICENSING, REGISTRATION AND AIRWORTHINESS 361
1.0 FLIGHT CREW LICENSING ............................................................................................................................... 361
1.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 361
1.2 Aviation Document Booklet (ADB) ................................................................................................................................ 361
1.3 Aviation Language Proficiency ....................................................................................................................................... 361
1.4 Permits and Licences issued by Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) .................................................................. 361
1.4.1 Permits ................................................................................................................................................................................. 361
1.4.2 Licences ............................................................................................................................................................................... 362
1.5 Definitions of Flight Experience .................................................................................................................................... 362
1.6 Summary of Requirements for Permits .......................................................................................................................... 363
1.6.1 Student Pilot Permits (SPP) .............................................................................................................................................. 363
1.6.2 Pilot Permits ....................................................................................................................................................................... 364
1.7 Summary of Requirements for Licences ......................................................................................................................... 365
1.7.1 Pilot Licence ........................................................................................................................................................................ 365
1.7.2 Private Pilot Licence (PPL) ................................................................................................................................................ 365
1.7.3 Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL) ..................................................................................................................................... 366
1.7.4 Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) ........................................................................................................................ 366
1.7.5 Flight Engineer (FE) Licence ............................................................................................................................................ 367
1.8 Differences Between the National Regulations and the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO)
Annex 1 Standards and Recommended Practices .......................................................................................................... 367
1.9 Medical Fitness for Permits and Licences ....................................................................................................................... 367
1.9.1 Medical Validity Periods ................................................................................................................................................... 367
1.9.2 Medical Fitness—Renewals of Category 1, 2 or 3 Medical Certificates (Assessed Fit) ........................................... 368
1.9.3 Medical Fitness—Renewal of a Category 4 Medical Certificate ................................................................................ 368
1.9.4 Medical Fitness—Assessed Unfit ..................................................................................................................................... 369
1.10 Refusal to Issue a Permit, Licence, Rating or Medical Certificate ................................................................................ 369
1.11 Reinstatement of a Suspended Permit, Licence or Rating .............................................................................................. 369
1.12 Recency Requirements .................................................................................................................................................... 369
1.13 Flight Crew Licensing Conversion Agreement Between Canada and the United States ............................................... 370
1.14 Flight Crew Licensing Administration ........................................................................................................................... 370
1.14.1 Flight Crew Licensing Change of Address Request ..................................................................................................... 370
1.14.2 Application for Re-Issue of Civil Aviation Licensing Document ............................................................................... 370
1.14.3 Flight Crew Licensing Declaration of Name .................................................................................................................. 370
1.14.4 Change of Citizenship ...................................................................................................................................................... 370
2.0 CIVIL AVIATION MEDICINE ............................................................................................................................. 370
2.1 Medical Assessment Process ............................................................................................................................................ 370
2.1.1 Medical Examination Report .......................................................................................................................................... 370
2.1.2 Category 4 Medical Declaration ...................................................................................................................................... 371
2.2 Medical Examination Requirements ................................................................................................................................ 372
2.3 Periodic Medical Exam Categories 1, 2 and 3—Medically Fit ....................................................................................... 373
2.4 Aviation Medical Review Board ...................................................................................................................................... 373
2.5 Unfit Assessment .............................................................................................................................................................. 373
2.6 Review by the Transportation Appeal Tribunal of Canada (TATC) ............................................................................. 373
3.0 FLIGHT CREW EXAMINATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 374
3.1 Examination Offices ......................................................................................................................................................... 374
3.2 Cheating on an Exam ........................................................................................................................................................ 374
3.3 Use of Hand-Held Calculators or Computers .................................................................................................................. 374
xxii
March 20, 2025 TC AIM4.0 AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION, MARKING, REGISTRATION AND INSURANCE ........................................... 375
4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................... 375
4.2 Aircraft Identification ..................................................................................................................................................... 375
4.3 Nationality and Registration Marks ................................................................................................................................ 375
4.4 Change of Ownership—Canadian-Registered Aircraft ................................................................................................. 376
4.5 Initial Registration ........................................................................................................................................................... 376
4.6 Importation of Aircraft ................................................................................................................................................... 376
4.7 Exportation of Aircraft .................................................................................................................................................... 376
4.8 Liability Insurance ........................................................................................................................................................... 376
5.0 AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS .......................................................................................................................... 376
5.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 376
5.2 Aircraft Design Requirements ........................................................................................................................................ 377
5.2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 377
5.2.2 Canadian Type Certificate ............................................................................................................................................... 377
5.3 Flight Authority and Noise Compliance ........................................................................................................................ 377
5.3.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 377
5.3.2 Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A) ............................................................................................................................. 377
5.3.3 Special Certificate of Airworthiness (Special C of A) ................................................................................................. 378
5.3.4 Flight Permit ...................................................................................................................................................................... 378
5.3.5 Noise Compliance ............................................................................................................................................................. 378
5.4 Maintenance Certification ............................................................................................................................................... 378
5.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 378
5.4.2 Certification of Maintenance Performed Outside Canada ........................................................................................ 379
5.5 Annual Airworthiness Information Report (AAIR) ....................................................................................................... 379
5.6 Maintenance Requirements for Canadian-Registered Aircraft .................................................................................... 379
5.6.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 379
5.6.2 Maintenance Schedules ..................................................................................................................................................... 379
5.6.3 Maintenance Performance ................................................................................................................................................ 379
5.6.4 Aircraft Technical Records ............................................................................................................................................... 380
5.6.5 Service Difficulty Reporting Program ............................................................................................................................ 380
5.7 Airworthiness Directives (ADs) ...................................................................................................................................... 380
5.7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 380
5.7.2 Availability of Airworthiness Directives (ADs) ............................................................................................................ 380
5.7.3 Airworthiness Directive (AD) Schedule and Compliance Records ........................................................................... 380
6.0 THE TRANSPORTATION APPEAL TRIBUNAL OF CANADA (TATC) ......................................................... 380
6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 380
6.2 Refusal to Issue or Amend a Canadian Aviation Document .......................................................................................... 381
6.3 Suspension, Cancellation or Refusal to Renew a Canadian Aviation Document ......................................................... 381
6.4 Monetary Penalties ........................................................................................................................................................... 381
6.5 Appeals ............................................................................................................................................................................. 382
AIR—AIRMANSHIP 383
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................................................. 383
1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 383
1.2 Pilot Vital Action Checklists .......................................................................................................................................... 383
1.3 Aviation Fuels .................................................................................................................................................................. 383
1.3.1 Fuel Grades ......................................................................................................................................................................... 383
1.3.2 Aviation Fuel Handling .................................................................................................................................................... 383
1.3.3 Fuel Anti-Ic ing Additives ................................................................................................................................................. 383
1.3.4 Refuelling—Fires and Explosions ................................................................................................................................... 384
1.3.4.1 Understanding Flashpoint, Static and Auto-ignition ................................................................................................... 384
1.4 Aircraft Hand Fire Extinguishers .................................................................................................................................. 384
1.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 384
1.4.2 Classification of Fires ........................................................................................................................................................ 384
1.4.3 Types of Extinguishers ..................................................................................................................................................... 384
xxiii
TC AIM March 20, 20251.5 Pressure Altimeter .......................................................................................................................................................... 385
1.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 385
1.5.2 Calibration of the Pressure Altimeter ............................................................................................................................ 385
1.5.3 Incorrect Setting on the Subscale of the Altimeter ...................................................................................................... 385
1.5.4 Non-Standard Temperatures ........................................................................................................................................... 386
1.5.5 Standard Pressure Region ................................................................................................................................................ 386
1.5.6 Effect of Mountains ........................................................................................................................................................... 386
1.5.7 Downdraft and Turbulence ............................................................................................................................................. 387
1.5.8 Pressure Drop ..................................................................................................................................................................... 387
1.5.9 Abnormally High Altimeter Settings ............................................................................................................................. 387
1.6 Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) ....................................................................................................................... 387
1.6.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 387
1.6.2 Reduced Runway Coefficients of Friction and Aircraft Performance ..................................................................... 387
1.6.3 Description of Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) and Method of Measurement ..................................... 387
1.6.4 Description of Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) Reporting Method ......................................................... 387
1.6.5 Aircraft Movement Surface Condition Reports (AMSCR) ......................................................................................... 388
1.6.6 Wet Runways ....................................................................................................................................................................... 388
1.6.7 Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) Application to Aircraft Performance ................................................... 389
1.7 Jet and Propeller Blast Danger ....................................................................................................................................... 393
1.8 Marshalling Signals ......................................................................................................................................................... 394
2.0 FLIGHT OPERATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 398
2.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 398
2.2 Crosswind Landing Limitations ..................................................................................................................................... 398
2.3 Carburetor Icing .............................................................................................................................................................. 398
2.4 Low Flying ........................................................................................................................................................................ 399
2.4.1 Birds and Sensitive Fauna ................................................................................................................................................. 399
2.4.2 Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) ..................................................................................................................................... 399
2.4.3 Flying Near High-Voltage Power Lines ......................................................................................................................... 399
2.4.4 Transmission Line Catenaries .......................................................................................................................................... 400
2.4.5 Logging Operations .......................................................................................................................................................... 400
2.4.6 Hydrokinetic Energy System ............................................................................................................................................ 400
2.4.7 Wind Farms with a Dimming System ............................................................................................................................ 401
2.4.8 Blasting Operations ............................................................................................................................................................ 401
2.5 Flight Operations in Rain ............................................................................................................................................... 401
2.6 Flight Operations In Volcanic Ash ................................................................................................................................. 401
2.7 Flight Operation Near Thunderstorms .......................................................................................................................... 402
2.7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 402
2.7.2 Considerations ................................................................................................................................................................... 402
2.8 Low-Level Wind Shear (WS) .......................................................................................................................................... 403
2.9 Wake Turbulence ............................................................................................................................................................. 403
2.9.1 Vortex Characteristics ...................................................................................................................................................... 404
2.9.2 Considerations ................................................................................................................................................................... 404
2.10 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) ............................................................................................................................................ 405
2.11 Flight Operations on Water ............................................................................................................................................ 406
2.11.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 406
2.11.2 Ditching .............................................................................................................................................................................. 406
2.11.3 Life-Saving Equipment For Aircraft Operating Over Water ..................................................................................... 406
2.11.4 Landing Seaplanes on Glassy Water ............................................................................................................................... 406
2.12 Flight Operations in Winter ........................................................................................................................................... 407
2.12.1 Fan Blade Ice Shedding Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 407
2.12.2 Aircraft Contamination on the Ground – Frost, Ice or Snow ................................................................................... 407
2.12.3 Aircraft Contamination in Flight – In-flight Airframe Icing .................................................................................... 410
2.12.3.1 Types of Ice .......................................................................................................................................................................... 410
2.12.3.2 Aerodynamic Effects of Airborne Icing ......................................................................................................................... 410
2.12.3.3 Roll Upset ............................................................................................................................................................................. 411
2.12.3.4 Tail Plane Stall ..................................................................................................................................................................... 411
2.12.3.5 Freezing Rain, Freezing Drizzle, and Large Super-Cooled Droplets ........................................................................ 412
2.12.3.6 Detecting Large Super-Cooled Droplets Conditions in Flight .................................................................................. 412
2.12.3.7 Flight Planning or Reporting .......................................................................................................................................... 412
xxiv
March 20, 2025 TC AIM2.12.4 Landing Wheel-Equipped Light Aircraft on Snow Covered Surfaces ...................................................................... 412
2.12.5 Use of Seaplanes on Snow Surfaces ................................................................................................................................. 413
2.12.6 Landing Seaplanes on Unbroken Snow Conditions ..................................................................................................... 413
2.12.7 Whiteout .............................................................................................................................................................................. 413
2.12.8 Flat-Light Conditions .......................................................................................................................................................... 413
2.13 Flight Operations in Mountainous Areas ....................................................................................................................... 414
2.14 Flight Operations in Sparsely Settled Areas of Canada ................................................................................................. 414
2.14.1 Single-Engine Aircraft Operations in Northern Canada ............................................................................................ 414
2.15 Flight Operations at Night ............................................................................................................................................... 414
2.16 Vertical Path Control on Non-Precision Approaches (NPAs) ........................................................................................ 414
2.16.1 Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) ............................................................................................................................. 414
2.16.2 Stabilized Approach ............................................................................................................................................................ 414
2.16.3 Vertical Path Control Techniques .................................................................................................................................... 415
3.0 MEDICAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................................................ 415
3.1 General Health .................................................................................................................................................................. 415
3.1.1 Mandatory Medical Reporting ........................................................................................................................................ 416
3.2 Specific Aeromedical Factors ........................................................................................................................................... 416
3.2.1 Hypoxia ................................................................................................................................................................................. 416
3.2.2 Carbon Monoxide ............................................................................................................................................................... 416
3.2.3 Hyperventilation ................................................................................................................................................................. 416
3.3 Decompression Sickness ................................................................................................................................................... 417
3.4 Scuba Diving ...................................................................................................................................................................... 417
3.5 Vision ................................................................................................................................................................................. 417
3.6 Middle-Ear and Sinus Discomfort or Pain ...................................................................................................................... 417
3.7 Disorientation ................................................................................................................................................................... 418
3.8 Fatigue ............................................................................................................................................................................... 418
3.9 Alcohol ............................................................................................................................................................................... 418
3.10 Medications, Natural Health Products, Cannabis, and Other Recreational Drugs ...................................................... 418
3.11 Anaesthetics ....................................................................................................................................................................... 419
3.12 Blood Donation ................................................................................................................................................................. 419
3.13 Immunizations .................................................................................................................................................................. 419
3.14 Pregnancy ......................................................................................................................................................................... 419
3.15 Positive and Negative G .................................................................................................................................................... 420
3.15.1 What is G? ........................................................................................................................................................................... 420
3.15.2 The Effects of G .................................................................................................................................................................. 420
3.15.3 G Strainin g Manoeuvres ................................................................................................................................................... 421
3.15.4 Dealing with G .................................................................................................................................................................... 421
4.0 MISCELLANEOUS ............................................................................................................................................... 421
4.1 Air Time and Flight Time ............................................................................................................................................... 421
4.2 Conduct of Experimental Test Flights ........................................................................................................................... 421
4.3 Practice Spins .................................................................................................................................................................. 422
4.4 Cargo Restraint ............................................................................................................................................................... 422
4.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................ 422
4.4.2 Regulations ......................................................................................................................................................................... 422
4.4.3 Guidelines ........................................................................................................................................................................... 422
4.4.4 References ........................................................................................................................................................................... 422
4.4.5 Approval .............................................................................................................................................................................. 422
4.5 Collision Avoidance – Use of Landing Lights ................................................................................................................ 423
4.6 Use of Strobe Lights ......................................................................................................................................................... 423
4.7 Manned Free Balloon Operations .................................................................................................................................. 423
4.7.1 Balloon Operations with Fare-Paying Passengers ........................................................................................................ 423
4.8 Parachute Jumping/Skydiving ........................................................................................................................................ 423
4.9 Hang Glider and Paraglider Operations ........................................................................................................................ 423
4.10 Ultra-light Aeroplane ...................................................................................................................................................... 424
4.11 Circuit Breakers and Alerting Devices .......................................................................................................................... 424
4.12 Design Eye Reference Point ............................................................................................................................................. 424
4.13 First Aid Kits on Privately Owned and Operated Aircraft ........................................................................................... 424
4.14 Survival Advisory Information ...................................................................................................................................... 425
xxv
TC AIM March 20, 20254.15 Potential Flight Hazards for Aircraft ............................................................................................................................. 425
4.15.1 Avoid Flight in the Vicinity of Exhaust Plumes ............................................................................................................ 425
4.15.2 Pilot Procedures When Exposed to Laser and Other Directed Bright Light Sources ............................................ 425
4.15.2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 425
4.15.2.2 Procedures ........................................................................................................................................................................... 426
4.15.2.2.1 Preventive Procedures ....................................................................................................................................................... 426
4.15.2.2.2 Incident Procedures ........................................................................................................................................................... 426
4.15.2.2.3 Medical Follow-up Procedures After an
In-flight Illumination ........................................................................................................................................................ 426
4.16 Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) ..................................................................................................................................... 428
RPA—REMOTELY PILOTED AIRCRAFT 429
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................................................ 429
2.0 MICRO REMOTELY PILOTED AIRCRAFT (RPA)—LESS THAN 250 g ......................................................... 430
3.0 SMALL REMOTELY PILOTED AIRCRAFT (RPA)—250 g TO 25 kg ................................................................ 431
3.1 Registration of Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) ............................................................................................................ 431
3.1.1 Modifying a Registration ................................................................................................................................................... 431
3.1.1.1 Cancelling a Registration ................................................................................................................................................... 431
3.1.1.2 Change of Name or Address .............................................................................................................................................. 431
3.1.1.3 Edit RPA Registration ......................................................................................................................................................... 431
3.2 General Operation and Flight Rules ............................................................................................................................... 432
3.2.1 Line-of-sight ....................................................................................................................................................................... 432
3.2.1.1 Visual line-of-sight (VLOS) .............................................................................................................................................. 432
3.2.1.2 Radio line-of-sight (RLOS) ............................................................................................................................................... 432
3.2.2 Emergency Security Perimeters ...................................................................................................................................... 432
3.2.3 Airspace ................................................................................................................................................................................ 432
3.2.3.1 Canadian Domestic Airspace ........................................................................................................................................... 432
3.2.3.2 Controlled Airspace ........................................................................................................................................................... 433
3.2.3.3 Restricted Airspace ............................................................................................................................................................ 434
3.2.3.4 Drone Site Selection Tool .................................................................................................................................................. 434
3.2.3.5 Inadvertent Entry Into Controlled or Restricted Airspace ......................................................................................... 435
3.2.4 Flight Safety ........................................................................................................................................................................ 435
3.2.5 Right of Way ....................................................................................................................................................................... 435
3.2.6 Detecting and Avoiding Traffic ...................................................................................................................................... 435
3.2.6.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 435
3.2.6.2 Seeing Traffic ...................................................................................................................................................................... 435
3.2.6.3 Hearing Traffic ................................................................................................................................................................... 436
3.2.6.4 Avoiding a Collision ........................................................................................................................................................... 437
3.2.7 Fitness of Crew Members .................................................................................................................................................. 437
3.2.8 Visual Observers ................................................................................................................................................................. 437
3.2.9 Compliance With Instructions ........................................................................................................................................ 438
3.2.10 Living Creatures ................................................................................................................................................................. 438
3.2.11 Procedures ........................................................................................................................................................................... 438
3.2.11.1 Normal Operating Procedures ......................................................................................................................................... 438
3.2.11.2 Emergency Procedures ...................................................................................................................................................... 438
3.2.12 Pre-flight Information ....................................................................................................................................................... 439
3.2.12.1 Pre-flight Inspections ........................................................................................................................................................ 439
3.2.12.2 Fuel and/or En ergy ............................................................................................................................................................. 439
3.2.13 Maximum Altitude ............................................................................................................................................................ 439
3.2.13.1 Types of Altitudes ............................................................................................................................................................... 439
3.2.13.2 Measuring A ltitude ............................................................................................................................................................ 440
3.2.14 Horizontal Distance ........................................................................................................................................................... 440
3.2.15 Site Survey ............................................................................................................................................................................ 441
3.2.15.1 Understanding Your Area of Operation ......................................................................................................................... 441
3.2.15.2 Locating Local Aerodromes and Airports ..................................................................................................................... 441
3.2.15.3 Identifying Classes of Airspace ........................................................................................................................................ 441
3.2.16 Other Pre-flight Requirements ........................................................................................................................................ 441
xxvi
March 20, 2025 TC AIM3.2.17 Serviceability of the RPAS ................................................................................................................................................ 442
3.2.17.1 Airframe (All Types) .......................................................................................................................................................... 442
3.2.17.2 Landing Gear ...................................................................................................................................................................... 442
3.2.17.3 Powerplant ........................................................................................................................................................................... 442
3.2.17.4 Propellers ............................................................................................................................................................................. 442
3.2.17.5 Battery—Lithium Polymer ............................................................................................................................................... 442
3.2.17.6 RPAS Control Station/Receiver/Transmitters ............................................................................................................... 443
3.2.18 Availability of RPAS Operating Manuals ....................................................................................................................... 443
3.2.19 Manufacturer’s Instructions ............................................................................................................................................. 443
3.2.20 Control of RPAS .................................................................................................................................................................. 443
3.2.21 Takeoffs, Launches, Approaches, Landings, and Recovery ........................................................................................ 443
3.2.22 Minimum Weather Conditions ....................................................................................................................................... 443
3.2.22.1 Sources of Weather Information ...................................................................................................................................... 443
3.2.22.2 Micro vs. Macro Climate Environments ........................................................................................................................ 444
3.2.22.3 Wind ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 444
3.2.22.4 Visibility ............................................................................................................................................................................... 444
3.2.22.5 Clouds ................................................................................................................................................................................... 445
3.2.22.6 Precipitation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 445
3.2.22.7 Fog ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 445
3.2.22.8 Temperature ........................................................................................................................................................................ 445
3.2.22.9 Urban Airflow ..................................................................................................................................................................... 446
3.2.22.10 Sun ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 446
3.2.23 Icing ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 446
3.2.24 Formation Flight ................................................................................................................................................................. 447
3.2.25 Operation of Moving Vehicles, Vessels, and Traditional Aircraft ............................................................................. 447
3.2.26 First-person View (FPV) Devices .................................................................................................................................... 447
3.2.27 Night Flight ......................................................................................................................................................................... 447
3.2.27.1 Detecting Aircraft During Night Operations ................................................................................................................ 447
3.2.27.2 Aircraft Lighting ................................................................................................................................................................ 448
3.2.27.3 Use of Lights ........................................................................................................................................................................ 448
3.2.27.4 Night Vision Goggles ......................................................................................................................................................... 448
3.2.28 Multiple Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) ..................................................................................................................... 448
3.2.29 Special Events ...................................................................................................................................................................... 448
3.2.29.1 Special Aviation Events ...................................................................................................................................................... 448
3.2.29.2 Advertised Events ............................................................................................................................................................... 448
3.2.30 Handovers ............................................................................................................................................................................ 449
3.2.31 Payloads ................................................................................................................................................................................ 449
3.2.32 Flight Termination Systems .............................................................................................................................................. 449
3.2.33 Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT) ......................................................................................................................... 449
3.2.34 Transponders and Automatic Pressure-Altitude Reporting Equipment .................................................................. 450
3.2.34.1 Transponder-required Airspace ....................................................................................................................................... 450
3.2.34.2 Transponder Requirements .............................................................................................................................................. 450
3.2.35 Operations at or in the Vicinity of an Aerodrome, Airport or Heliport ................................................................... 450
3.2.36 Records ................................................................................................................................................................................. 451
3.2.37 Incidents and Accidents .................................................................................................................................................... 451
3.2.38 Tethered Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) ................................................................................................................................ 452
3.3 Basic Operations ............................................................................................................................................................... 452
3.3.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 452
3.3.2 Pilot Requirements ............................................................................................................................................................. 452
3.3.2.1 Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) Pilot Certificate ....................................................................................................... 452
3.3.2.2 Recency Requirements ...................................................................................................................................................... 452
3.3.2.3 Access to Certificate and Proof of Currency ................................................................................................................. 453
3.3.2.4 Examination Rules ............................................................................................................................................................. 453
3.3.3 Small Remot e Pilot Aircraft (RPA) Requirement ......................................................................................................... 453
3.4 Advanced Operations ....................................................................................................................................................... 453
3.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 453
3.4.2 Pilot Requirements ............................................................................................................................................................. 453
3.4.2.1 Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) Pilot Certificate ........................................................................................................ 453
3.4.2.2 Recency Requirements ...................................................................................................................................................... 454
3.4.2.3 Access to Certificate and Proof of Currency ................................................................................................................. 454
xxvii
TC AIM March 20, 20253.4.2.4 Examination Rules ............................................................................................................................................................. 454
3.4.3 Manufacturer Declaration ................................................................................................................................................ 454
3.4.4 Operations in Controlled Airspace ................................................................................................................................. 454
3.4.5 Operations at or in the Vicinity of an Airport or Heliport—Established Procedure ............................................ 455
3.4.6 Operations Near People ..................................................................................................................................................... 455
3.4.7 Operations Over People .................................................................................................................................................... 455
3.4.8 RPA Modification ............................................................................................................................................................... 456
3.5 Flight Reviewers ............................................................................................................................................................... 456
3.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 456
3.5.2 Pilot Requirements ............................................................................................................................................................. 456
3.5.2.1 Flight Reviewer Rating ...................................................................................................................................................... 456
3.5.2.2 Examination ........................................................................................................................................................................ 456
3.5.3 Conduct of Flight Reviews ................................................................................................................................................ 457
3.6 Special Flight Operations—RPAS ................................................................................................................................... 457
3.6.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................. 457
3.6.2 Application for a Special Flight Operations Certificate (SFOC)—Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) .......... 457
xxviii
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENGEN—GENERAL
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
1.1.1 Aeronautical Authority
Transport Canada is the responsible aeronautical authority
in Canada.
Postal Address:
Assistant Deputy Minister
Transport Canada, Safety and Security
330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
The Transport Canada, Aerodromes and Air Navigation Branch
is responsible for the establishment and administration of the
Regulations and Standards for the provision of AIS in Canada.
Enquiries relating to regulations and standards for AIS should
be addressed to:
Postal Address:
Flight Standards (AARTA)
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: .................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ........................................................................ 613-952-3298
E-mail: ...TC.Flights.Standards-Normesdevol.TC@tc.gc.ca
TRANSPORT CANADA REGIONAL OFFICES
Transport Canada has five Regional Offices:
Pacific Region
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
Suite 820
800 Burrard Street
Vancouver BC V6Z 2J8Tel.:
.................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: .................................................................... 1-855-618-6288Prairie and Northern Region
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
344 Edmonton Street
Winnipeg MB R3C 0P6Tel:
..................................................................... 1-888-463-0521
Fax: ................................................................... 1-800-824-4442
Ontario Region
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
4900 Yonge Street, 4th Floor
Toronto ON M2N 6A5
Tel: ..................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: .................................................................... 1-877-822-2129
Quebec Region
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
700 Leigh-Capreol Place
Dorval QC H4Y 1G7Tel:
..................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: .................................................................... 1-855-633-3697
Atlantic Region
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
95 Foundry Street
PO Box 42
Moncton NB E1C 8K6Tel:
..................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: .................................................................... 1-855-726-7495
Figure 1.1—Transport Canada Regions
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN1.1.2 Aeronautical Information
Management (AIM)
NAV CANADA’s AIM group is responsible for the collection,
evaluation and dissemination of aeronautical information
published in the state AIP and associated aeronautical charts.
In addition, the AIM group assigns and controls Canadian
location indicators and aircraft operating agency designators.
(For information on the dissemination of aeronautical information
and aeronautical products, see the MAP chapter.)
The AIM group postal address is:
NAV CANADA
Aeronautical Information Management
1601 Tom Roberts Avenue PO BOX 9824 STN T CSC
Ottawa ON K1G 9Z9
Tel. (Toll free, North America only):
........... 1-866-577-0247
Tel. (Outside North America): ...................... 1-613-248-4087
Fax: .................................................................... 1-613-248-4093
Email: .................................................. aimdata@navcanada.ca
Comments on the Air Navigation System
Any errors, omissions, anomalies, suggestions or comments on
the air navigation system can be submitted via any FIC.
To report any concerns about the safety or quality of services
provided by NAV CANADA, pleas e contact the local
NAV CANADA Site Manager or our Customer Service Centre at:
NAV CANADA
Customer Service
77 Metcalfe Street
PO BOX 3411 STN T
Ottawa ON K1P 5L6
Tel. (Toll-free, North America only):
......... 1-800-876-4693
Tel. (Outside North America): ...................... 1-613-563-5588
Fax (Toll-free, North America only): .......... 1-877-663-6656
Fax (Outside North America): ...................... 1-613-563-3426
E-mail: .................................................. service@navcanada.ca
Regular hours of operation: .............. 08:00–18:00 EST/EDT
1.1.3 Transport Canada Aero nautical Information
Manual (TC AIM)
The TC AIM provides flight crews with reference material useful
for aircraft operation in Canadian airspace. It includes those
sections of the CARs that are of interest to pilots.
The TC AIM supplements the rules of the air and procedures
for aircraft operation in Canadian airspace found in AIP Canada
(see MAP 2.1).
Throughout the TC AIM, the term “should” implies that TC
encourages all pilots to conform with the applicable procedure.
The term “shall” implies that the applicable procedure is
mandatory because it is supported by regulations.As much as possible, the rules of the air and ATC procedures
have been incorporated into the TC AIM in plain language.
Where this was not possible, the CARs have been incorporated
verbatim. Editorial liberties have been taken in the deletion of definitions not considered essential to the understanding of the
intent of the CARs. This has been done to enhance comprehension
of the rules and procedures essential to the safety of flight. The inclusion of these rules and procedures in this format does not
relieve persons concerned with aviation from their responsibilities
to comply with the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs), the
Aeronautics Act and other regulations made under the Act.
Where the subject matter of the TC AIM makes reference to the CARs, the relevant provisions are indicated.
Care has been taken to ensure that the information contained
in the TC AIM is accurate and complete. Any correspondence concerning the content of the TC AIM is to be referred to:
TC AIM Co-ordinator (AARTT)
Transport Canada 330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.:
........................................................................ 613-993-4502
Fax: ......................................................................... 613-952-3298
E-mail: ....................... TC.AeronauticalInformationManual-
Manueldinformationaeronautique.TC@tc.gc.ca
1.1.4 Transport Canada Aeronautical Information
Manual (TC AIM) Publicat ion Information
Individual copies of the TC AIM may be purchased by logging
onto the Transport Canada Publication Storefront Web site
at <https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/publications-
how-order >. All information with respect to purchases and
subscriptions to the TC AIM will be available on this Web
site, or by contacting the Order Desk.
This edition of the TC AIM is designed to be as inexpensive as
possible since it is intended primarily for student pilots and
foreign pilots for use over a short period of time.
The TC AIM is available on the TransportCanada Web site at:
<https://www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/aviation/publications/tc-aim.
html >.
Amendment Service
This document is intended to provide users of Canadian airspace
with current information. A regular amendment service is
established to advise individuals of changes to the airspace,
regulations or procedures. New editions of the TC AIM are
issued twice a year in phase with the ICAO AIRAC schedule.
Future issue dates are as follows:
2025-02 – October 2, 2025 2026-01 – Marc h 19, 2026
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENEach new edition of the TC AIM includes an explanation of
changes section that highlights the most significant changes
made to the TC AIM and may provide a reference to detailed
information on the change.
Distribution
To ensure uninterrupted service, rectify any distribution problems
or make a change of address, please contact the TC Publications
Order Desk using one of the methods listed below.
Transport Canada Publications Order Desk
Operational Support Services (AAFBD) 2655 Lancaster Road
Ottawa ON K1B 4L5
Tel. (toll-free in North America):
................. 1-888-830-4911
................................................................................ 613-991-4071
Fax: ........................................................................ 613-991-1653
E-mail: ................................................... publications@tc.gc.ca
Web site: .......... https://tc.canada.ca/en/c orporate-services/
publicati ons-how-or der
1.1.5 NOTAM
NAV CANADA, International NOTAM Office (NOF), is
responsible for the collection, evaluation and dissemination of
NOTAMs. A complete description of the Canadian NOTAM
system is located in MAP 3.0.
Postal Address
NAV CANADA
International NOTAM Office
Combined ANS Facility
1601 Tom Roberts Avenue
PO Box 9824 Stn. T
Ottawa ON K1G 6R2
Tel.: ....................................................................... 613-248-4000
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-248-4001
AFTN: .................................................................. CYHQYNYX
1.1.6 Aerodromes
Complete information for all Canadian aerodromes is published
in the CFS. ICAO Type A Charts are available from NAV CANADA’s
AIM group (see MAP 4.2.1 and AIP Canada GEN 3.2).
1.2 SUMMARY OF NATIONAL
REGULATIONS
Civil aviation in Canada is regulated by the Aeronautics Act and
the CARs. (See MAP 4.1 to find out where to find the CARs). A
legislation index is located in GEN 5.3.1.3 DIFFERENCES WITH THE
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION
ORGANIZATION (ICAO) STANDARDS,
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES AND PROCEDURES
Differences with ICAO Annexes, which comprise international
standards, recommended practices and procedures, are listed
in AIP Canada , GEN 1.7.
1.3.1 International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO)’s Procedures for Air
Navigation Services—Aircraft Operations
(PANS OPS)
(See AIP Canada GEN 1.7)
1.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The imperial system of units is used for all information contained
on aeronautical charts and publications.
1.4.1 Other Units
Other units are given in the following table and apply to specific
situations.
Table 1.1—Other Units of Measurement Used in Aviation
MEASUREMENT UNITS SYMBOLS
Altimeter setting inches of
mercuryin. Hg
Altitudes, elevations and heightsfeet ft
Distance used in navigation nautical miles NM
Horizontal speed knots kt
Relatively short distances feet ft
Runway Visual Range (RVR)feet ft
Temperature degrees Celsius°C
Tire pressure pounds per square inch megapascalspsi
MPa
Vertical speed feet per minute ft/min
Visibility statute miles SM
Weight pounds
kilograms
kilonewtonslbkgkN
Wind direction, except for
landing and takeoffdegrees true °True
Wind direction observations for landing and takeoff
*Degrees true in the NDAdegrees
magnetic°Mag
Wind speed knots kt
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN1.4.2 Geographic Reference
Geographic coordinates are determined using the North
American Datum 1983 (NAD83). Canada has deemed NAD83
coordinates to be equivalent to the World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS-84) for aeronautical purposes.
1.5 TIME SYSTEM
Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated UTC, Zulu (Z) or
spoken Universal, is used in Canadian aviation operations and
is given to the nearest minute. Time checks are given to the
nearest 15 seconds. The day begins at 0000 hours and ends at
2359 hours.
1.5.1 Date-Time Group
(See AIP Canada GEN 2.1)1.5.2 Morning and Evening Twilight Charts
In the morning, civil twilight begins when the centre of the sun’s
disc is 6° below the horizon and is ascending, and ends at sunrise,
approximately 25 min later. In the evening, civil twilight begins
at sunset, and ends when the centre of the sun’s disc is 6° below the horizon and is descending, approximately 25 min later.
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Start at the top or bottom of the scale with the appropriate
date and move vertically, up or down to the curve of the
observer’s latitude.
2. From the intersection move horizontally and read the
local time.
3. To find the exact zone or standard time, ADD 4 minutes
for each degree west of the standard meridian, or SUBTRACT
4 minutes for each degree east of the standard meridian.
The standard meridians in Canada are: AST-60W; EST-75W;
CST-90W; MST-105W; PST-120W
Figure 1.2—Beginning of Morning Civil Twilight on Standard Meridian of Time Zone
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENFigure 1.3—End of Evening Civil Twilight on Standard Meridian of Time Zone
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN1.5.3 Time Zone
Where daylight saving time is observed in Canada, clocks are
advanced one hour. Daylight saving time is in effect from 02:00
local time on the second Sunday in March to 02:00 local time
on the first Sunday in November. Locations that observe daylight
saving time are indicated in the CFS and the CWAS with the
abreviation DT or the symbol “ ‡”, in the Aerodrome/Facility
Directory, under the subheading REF (references).
Table 1.2—Time Zone Local Times
Time Zone To Obtain Local Time
Newfoundland UTC minus 3 1/2 hours (2 1/2 DT)
Atlantic UTC minus 4 hours (3 DT)
Eastern UTC minus 5 hours (4 DT)
Central UTC minus 6 hours (5 DT)
Mountain UTC minus 7 hours (6 DT)
Pacific UTC minus 8 hours (7 DT)
Figure 1.4—Time Zone
1.6 NATIONALITY AND REGISTRATION
MARKS
(See AIP Canada GEN 2.1.5)1.7 V–SPEEDS
Table 1.3—V-Speeds
V1Critical engine failure recognition speed *
V2Takeoff safety speed
V2minMinimum takeoff safety speed
V3Flap retraction speed
VaDesign safety speed
VbSpeed for maximum gust intensity
VcCruise speed
VdDiving speed
Vdf/MdfDemonstrated flight diving speed
VfFlap speed
VfeMaximum flap speed
VhMaximum level flight speed at maximum
continuous power
VleLanding gear extended speed
VloMaximum landing gear operation speed
VmcMinimum control speed with critical
engine inoperative
Vmo/MmoMaximum operating limit speed
VmuMinimum unstick speed
Vno Maximum structural cruising speed **
VneNever exceed speed
Vr Rotation speed
VrefLanding reference speed
VsStalling speed or minimum steady
controllable flight speed
VslStalling speed or minimum steady flight
speed obtained in a specific configuration
VsoStalling speed or minimum steady flightspeed in the landing configuration
V
xSpeed for best angle of climb
VySpeed for best rate of climb
* This definition is not restrictive. An operator may adopt any other definition outlined
in the aircraft flight manual (AFM) of TC type-approv ed aircraft as long as such
definition does not compromise operational safety of the aircraft.
** For older transport category aircraft Vno means normal operating limit speed.
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN1.7.1 Conversion Tables
Table 1.4—Conversion of Millibars to Inches of Mercury
hPa/mb 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
INCHES
940 27.76 27.79 27.82 27.85 27.88 27.91 27.94 27.96 27.99 28.02
950 28.05 28.08 28.11 28.14 28.17 28.20 28.23 28.26 28.29 28.32
960 28.35 28.38 28.41 28.44 28.47 28.50 28.53 28.56 28.58 28.61
970 28.64 28.67 28.70 28.73 28.76 28.79 28.82 28.85 28.88 28.91
980 28.94 28.97 29.00 29.03 29.06 29.09 29.12 29.15 29.18 29.20
990 29.23 29.26 29.29 29.32 29.35 29.38 29.41 29.44 29.47 29.50
1000 29.53 29.56 29.59 29.62 29.65 29.68 29.71 29.74 29.77 29.80
1010 29.83 29.85 29.88 29.91 29.94 29.97 30.00 30.03 30.06 30.09
1020 30.12 30.15 30.18 30.21 30.24 30.27 30.30 30.33 30.36 30.39
1030 30.42 30.45 30.47 30.50 30.53 30.56 30.59 30.62 30.65 30.68
1040 30.71 30.74 30.77 30.80 30.83 30.86 30.89 30.92 30.95 30.98
1050 31.01 31.04 31.07 31.09 31.12 31.15 31.18 31.21 31.24 31.27
NOTE :
1 millibar (mb) = 1 hectopascal (hPa)
Table 1.5—Celsius and Fahrenheit Degrees Temperature Scales
° C ° F ° C ° F ° C ° F ° C ° F ° C ° F ° C ° F ° C ° F ° C ° F
-45 -49.0 -33 -27.4 -21 -5.8 -9 15.8 3 37.4 15 59.0 27 80.6 39 102.2
-44 - 47.2 -32 -25.6 -20 -4.0 -8 17.6 4 39.2 16 60.8 28 82.4 40 104.0
-43 -45.4 -31 -23.8 -19 -2.2 -7 19.4 5 41.0 17 62.6 29 84.2 41 105.8
-42 -43.6 -30 -22.0 -18 -0.4 -6 21.2 6 42.8 18 64.4 30 86.0 42 107.6
-41 -41.8 -29 -20.2 -17 1.4 -5 23.0 7 44.6 19 66.2 31 87.8 43 109.4
-40 -40.0 -28 -18.4 -16 3.2 -4 24.8 8 46.4 20 68.0 32 89.6 44 111.2
-39 -38.2 -27 -16.6 -15 5.0 -3 26.6 9 48.2 21 69.8 33 91.4 45 113.0
-38 -36.4 -26 -14.8 -14 6.8 -2 28.4 10 50.0 22 71.6 34 93.2 46 114.8
-37 -34.6 -25 -13.0 -13 8.6 -1 30.2 11 51.8 23 73.4 35 95.0 47 116.6
-36 -32.8 -24 -11.2 -12 10.4 0 32.0 12 53.6 24 75.2 36 96.8 48 118.4
-35 -31.0 -23 -9.4 -11 12.2 1 33.8 13 55.4 25 77.0 37 98.6 49 120.2
-34 -29.2 -22 -7.6 -10 14.0 2 35.6 14 57.2 26 78.8 38 100.4 50 122.0
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENTable 1.6—Conversion Factors
To CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY BY
centimetres inches 0.394
feet metres 0.305
imperial gallon U.S. gallon 1.201
imperial gallon litres 4.546
inches centimetres 2.540
inches of mercurypounds per square
inch0.490
kilograms pounds 2.205
kilograms per litrepounds per imperial gallon10.023
kilograms per litrepounds per U.S. gallon8.333
kilometres nautical miles 0.540
kilometres statute miles 0.621
litres imperial gallon 0.220
litres U.S. gallon 0.264
megapascalspounds per square inch145.14
metres feet 3.281
nautical miles kilometres 1.852
nautical miles statute miles 1.152
newton pounds 0.2248
pounds kilograms 0.454
pounds newtons 4.448
pounds per imperial gallonkilograms per litre 0.0998
pounds per square inchinches of mercury 2.040
pounds per square inchmegapascals 0.00689
pounds per U.S. gallonkilograms per litre 0.120
statute miles kilometres 1.609
statute miles nautical miles 0.868
U.S. gallon imperial gallon 0.833
U.S. gallon litres 3.7851.7.2 RVR Comparative Scale–Feet to Metres
Table 1.7—RVR Comparative Scale: in Feet and Metres
RVR - FEET RVR - METRES
2.0 SAFETY
2.1 AVIATION OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
AND SAFETY PROGRAM
Employers have a general obligation or duty to ensure that the
health and safety of all persons they employ are protected while they are at work. Also, employers have specific duties in regard
to each workplace they control and every work activity under
their authority that occurs in a workplace that is beyond the
employer’s control.
No one knows a workplace better than the people who work in
it, so Part II of the Canada Labour Code gives the workplace
parties—employees and employers—a strong role in identifying
and resolving health and safety concerns.
2.1.1 General
The TC Aviation Occupational Health and Safety Program began
in 1987. Its primary objective is to ensure the health and safety
of employees working on board aircraft in operation. This goal is accomplished through the administration, enforcement, and
promotion of Part II of the Canada Labour Code (the Code)
and the pursuant Aviation Occupational Health and Safety
Regulations . The purpose of Part II of the Code is “to prevent
accidents and injury to health arising out of, linked with or
occurring in the course of employment to which this part applies”.
The Aviation Occupational Health and Safety Program operates
as an extended jurisdiction from the Labour Program of
Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC) and is
administered by TC, Safety and Security by virtue of a
memorandum of understanding with Employment and Social Development Canada.
For additional information, see <www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/
standards/commerce-ohs-menu-2059.htm >.
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN2.1.2 Refusal to Work in Dangerous Situations
As outlined in subsection 128(1) of the Code, all employees have
a legal right to refuse dangerous work and to refuse to work in
a place if they have reasonable cause to believe that the use or
operation of a machine or thing, the performance of an activity,
or a condition existing in the workplace constitutes a danger to
themselves or others. Pursuant to subsection 122(1) of the Code:
“‘danger’ means any hazard, condition or activity that could
reasonably be expected to be an imminent or serious threat to the life or health of a person exposed to it before the hazard or condition can be corrected or the activity altered” .
Due to the health and safety risk towards others, pilots are not
permitted to refuse to work while in flight (see paragraph 128(2)
(a) of the Code). However, pilots are permitted to refuse to work before or after the aircraft is in operation (e.g. at the gate or on
the apron). Flight attendants and other on board employees must
report any in-flight refusal to work to the pilot-in-command
who will in turn decide if the refusal is permitted while in the
air. Regardless of whether the refusal is permitted in flight, it
will be addressed as soon as the aircraft is on the ground at its next destination.
Once an employee has indicated that they are refusing to work,
both they and their employer have specific roles and responsibilities
that have been established to assist them in working together to
find a solution. Sections 128 and 129 of the Code identify these employee and employer roles and responsibilities as well as the role and responsibility of the delegated labour program official, should their intervention become necessary.
To protect employees’ rights, section 147 of the Code states that
no employer shall take, or threaten to take, any disciplinary
action against an employee who has refused to work in a dangerous
situation. It should also be noted that subsection 147.1(1) states
that after all the investigations and appeals have been exhausted
by the employee who exercised their right to refuse dangerous
work, the employer may take disciplinary action against that
employee provided the employer can demonstrate that the
employee has willfully abused their rights.
2.1.3 Delegated Labour Program Officials
The Aviation Occupational Health and Safety Program
Headquarters provides guidance and assistance to regional
delegated labour program officials who conduct inspections,
investigations, and promotional visits to ensure that air operators
are committed to the health and safety of their employees.
Delegated labour program officials may be reached during the
day at their workplace by using the “How to Reach Us” page on
the TC Aviation Occupational Health and Safety Web site: < www.
tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/standards/commerce-ohs-reach_us-menu-2116.htm >.
To ensure 24-hr service to the aviation community, in urgent
situations or after working hours, a delegated labour program
official may be reached through the Aviation Operations
Centre (AVOPS) at:< https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/
opssvs/emergencies-incidentreporting-menu.htm >. 2.2 AVIATION SAFETY ANALYSIS
2.2.1 General
The Aviation Safety Analysis Division in the Policy and Regulatory
Services Branch is responsible for monitoring and evaluating
the level of safety within the National Civil Air Transportation System (NCATS) by:
(a) monitoring and evaluating all facets of the system;
(b) reviewing and analyzing accident and incident data, as well
as other safety-related information;
(c) assessing risk and providing risk management advice; and
(d) preparing and coordinating emergency response to national
or international emergencies affecting aviation.
2.2.2 Aviation Safety Research and Analysis
One of the objectives of the Aviation Safety Research and Analysis
unit is to produce safety intelligence. This is information about
hazards in the National Civil Air Transportation System (NCATS)
that allows managers in Civil Aviation to understand the hazards
and risks present in the elements of the system they oversee.
Aviation safety hazards and trends are proactively identified,
analyzed, and evaluated in order to produce a mix of special
studies and routine standard products. This strategic analytical
capability supports the development of mitigation and prevention
strategies necessary for managing risks. These strategies feed
into policy development, regulatory framework, and Civil
Aviation operational areas.
2.2.3 Minister’s Observer and Technical
Advisor Programs
Key aspects of obtaining safety intelligence are the Minister’s
Observer and Technical Advisor Programs. While it is the TSB’s
mandate to advance transportation safety by conducting
investigations into occurrences, the Minister’s observer/technical
advisor plays an essential role by:
(a) obtaining timely, factual information from an on-going
investigation;
(b) advising the Minister of significant regulatory factors;
(c) identifying deficiencies that require immediate coordination
of corrective actions;
(d) being TC’s support to an aviation occurrence investigation;
and
(e) providing safety intelligence to senior managers and the
Minister to help support their decision making.
As a member of ICAO, Canada enjoys certain rights and accepts
certain responsibilities in relation to accidents either occurring
in another State, or where another State has an interest in an
accident that occurs in Canada.
These responsibilities are detailed in Article 26 of ICAO’s
Convention on International Civil Aviation , which imposes an
obligation on the State in which the aircraft accident occurs to institute an inquiry in accordance with ICAO procedures; and
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENArticle 37, which provides for the standards and recommended
practices (SARPS) for aircraft accident investigation, which are detailed in Annex 13 to the Convention.
In the event of an accident that occurs outside Canada and involves a Canadian-registered aircraft, or an aircraft or
significant component manufactured in Canada, Canada has
the right to appoint an accredited representative. Under Annex 13,
this duty falls to the TSB. TC and other Canadian interests may
appoint technical advisors to support the accredited representative.
In the event of a domestic occurrence, the Canadian Transportation
Accident Investigation and Safety Board Act (CTAISB Act)
contains provisions that permit a party of direct interest to
participate as an observer in a TSB investigation if the Board
determines that it is appropriate.
If the TSB decides not to investigate, in accordance with
subsection 14(2) of the CTAISB Act , TC can make a formal
request to the TSB to investigate. Subsection 14(4) of the CTAISB
Act also states:
“Nothing […] prevents a department from commencing an
investigation into or continuing to investigate a transportation
occurrence for any purpose other than that of making findings as to its causes and contributing factors, or from investigating any matter that is related to the transportation occurrence and that is not being investigated by the Board[…]”
In the event of an occurrence involving a Canadian civil aviation
certificate holder, Civil Aviation must determine, on behalf of
the Minister, as quickly as possible, whether or not the certificate
holder continues to meet the certificate’s conditions of issue.
2.2.4 Safety Promotion
As part of Civil Aviation’s wider risk mitigation strategy, TC
communicates safety information to promote the adoption of
practices known to be effective at mitigating risk and to educate
the wider aviation community on current and emerging hazards.
Promotional and educational products are developed, as
appropriate, to support Civil Aviation’s programs and initiatives
for the benefit of the Canadian aviation industry. These programs
and initiatives aim to enhance aviation safety awareness and
accident prevention. For more information about these programs
and initiatives, please go to < https://tc.canada.ca/en/campaigns>.
The Aviation Safety Letter (ASL), Civil Aviation’s quarterly
online newsletter, includes articles that address aviation safety
from all perspectives, such as safety insight derived from accidents
and incidents, regulatory updates, as well as safety information tailored to the needs of pilots, AMEs, certificate holders, and all
other interested individuals within the aviation community.
Readers can subscribe to the ASL e-Bulletin notification service
to receive e-mails that announce the release of each new issue
of the ASL and include a link to the ASL Web page. To register for this service, please go to <https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/
publications/aviation-safety-letter > and follow the appropriate
steps. Those who prefer a printed copy can order a print-on-
demand version (black and white) through TC’s Publications
Order Desk by calling 1 -888-830-4911 or e-mail ing
<publications@tc.gc.ca >.2.3 GENERAL AVIATION SAFETY
PROGRAM
The General Aviation Safety Campaign transitioned to a program
in June 2020. The purpose is to reduce the number of fatal
accidents through a non-regulatory, consensus-based, data-driven
approach by engaging with the general aviation community to
find shared solutions to safety issues and concerns by:
(a) promoting safety through promotional and educational
materials;
(b) promoting a national program for the development and
delivery of safety seminars and pilot recurrent training
programs;
(c) encouraging a collaborative approach and maintaining a
visible presence within the GA community; and
(d) reducing the total number of GA accidents by:
(i) identifying and addressing accident trends;
(ii) identifying root causes; and
(iii) recommending solutions that can reduce the
probability of similar accidents from reoccurring.
NOTE :
For more information on the General Aviation Safety Program,
go to < https://tc.canada.ca/en/campaigns/general-aviation-safety-
campaign > or contact our Safety Program Team at < TC.
GeneralAviation-AviationGenerale.TC@tc.gc.ca >.
3.0 TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD OF CANADA (TSB)
3.1 AVIATION SAFETY INVESTIGATION
The purpose of an aviation safety investigation into an aircraft
accident or incident is to prevent a recurrence; it is not to
determine or assign blame or liability. The TSB, established
under the Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board Act (CTAISB Act), is responsible for investigating
all aviation occurrences in Canada involving civil aircraft
registered both in Canada and abroad. A team of investigators is on 24-hr standby. The following text is mainly taken from the
recently updated Transportation Safety Board of Canada
Regulations . The complete text of both the CTAISB Act as well
as the updated Regulations can be found on the Department of Justice Web site.
3.2 DEFINITIONS
Under the CTAISB Act, “ aviation occurrence ” means
(a) any accident or incident associated with the operation of
an aircraft, and
(b) any situation or condition that the Board has reasonable
grounds to believe could, if left unattended, induce an
accident or incident described in paragraph (a).
The following definitions are taken from the Transportation
Safety Board of Canada Regulations.
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN“Collision ” means an impact, other than an impact associated
with normal operating circumstances, between aircraft or
between an aircraft and another object or terrain.
“Dangerous goods ” has the same meaning as in section 2 of the
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act, 1992 .
“Operation ” means the activities for which an aircraft is used
from the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention
of flight until they disembark.
“Risk of collision” means a situation in which an aircraft comes
so close to being involved in a collision that a threat to the safety
of any person, property or the environment exists.
“Serious injury ” means:
(a) a fracture of any bone, except simple fractures of fingers,
toes or the nose;
(b) lacerations that cause severe hemorrhage or nerve, muscle
or tendon damage;
(c) an injury to an internal organ;
(d) second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body surface;
(e) a verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious
radiation; or
(f) an injury that is likely to require hospitalization.
3.3 REPORTING AN AVIATION
OCCURRENCE
The owner, operator, pilot-in-command, any crew member of
the aircraft and any person providing air traffic services that
have direct knowledge of an occurrence must report the following
aviation occurrences to the Board if they result directly from
the operation of an aircraft.
3.3.1 Accidents
In the case of an accident:
(a) a person is killed or sustains a serious injury as a result of:
(i) being on board the aircraft,
(ii) coming into direct contact with any part of the
aircraft, including parts that have become detached
from the aircraft, or
(iii) being directly exposed to jet blast, rotor down wash
or propeller wash,
(b) the aircraft sustains structural failure or damage that adversely affects the aircraft’s structural strength,
performance or flight characteristics and would normally
require major repair or replacement of any affected
component, except for:
(i) engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited
to the engine, its cowlings or accessories, or
(ii) damage limited to propellers, wing tips, antennae,
tires, brakes, fairings or small dents or puncture
holes in the aircraft’s skin, or
(c) the aircraft is missing or inaccessible.3.3.2 Mandatory Reportable Incidents
In the case of an incident involving an aircraft having a maximum
certificated take-off weight greater than 2 250 kg, or of an aircraft
being operated under an air operator certificate issued under
Part VII of the Canadian Aviation Regulations :
(a) an engine fails or is shut down as a precautionary measure,
(b) a power train transmission gearbox malfunction occurs,
(c) smoke is detected or a fire occurs on board,
(d) difficulties in controlling the aircraft are encountered owing
to any aircraft system malfunction, weather phenomena,
wake turbulence, uncontrolled vibrations or operations
outside the flight envelope,
(e) the aircraft fails to remain within the intended landing or
take-off area, lands with all or part of the landing gear
retracted or drags a wing tip, an engine pod or any other
part of the aircraft,
(f) a crew member whose duties are directly related to the safe
operation of the aircraft is unable to perform their duties
as a result of a physical incapacitation which poses a threat to the safety of persons, property or the environment,
(g) depressurization of the aircraft occurs that requires an
emergency descent,
(h) a fuel shortage occurs that requires a diversion or requires
approach and landing priority at the destination of the
aircraft,
(i) the aircraft is refuelled with the incorrect type of fuel or
contaminated fuel,
(j) a collision, a risk of collision or a loss of separation occurs,
(k) a crew member declares an emergency or indicates an
emergency that requires priority handling by air traffic
services or the standing by of emergency response services,
(l) a slung load is released unintentionally or as a precautionary
or emergency measure from the aircraft, or
(m) any dangerous goods are released in or from the aircraft.
3.3.3 Information to Report
The report must contain the following information:
(a) the type, model, nationality and registration marks of the aircraft;
(b) the name of the owner, operator, pilot-in-command and, if applicable, hirer of the aircraft;
(c) the last point of departure and the intended destination of the aircraft, including the date and time of the departure;
(d) the date and time of the occurrence;
(e) the name of the person providing air traffic services related
to the occurrence;
(f) the number of crew members, passengers and other persons
involved in the occurrence and the number of those who
were killed or sustained serious injuries as a result of the
occurrence;
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN(g) the location of the occurrence by reference to an easily
defined geographical point, or by latitude and longitude;
(h) a description of the occurrence and the extent of any resulting
damage to the environment and to the aircraft and any
other property;
(i) a list of any dangerous goods carried on board or released
from the aircraft, including the shipping name or UN
number and consignor and consignee information;
(j) if the aircraft is missing or inaccessible:
(i) the last known position of the aircraft by reference
to an easily defined geographical point, or by latitude
and longitude, including the date and time that the
aircraft was at that position, and
(ii) the actions taken or planned to locate or gain access to the aircraft;
(k) a description of any action taken or planned to protect
persons, property and the environment;
(l) the name and title of the person making the report and the phone number and address at which they can be reached; and
(m) any information specific to the occurrence that the Board requires.
The person making the report must send to the Board as soon
as possible and by the quickest means available, all the information
required that is available at the time of the occurrence; and the
remainder of that information as soon as it becomes available
within 30 days after the occurrence.
3.3.4 Other Occurrences
Any other incident indicative of a deficiency or discrepancy in
the Canadian air transportation system may be reported in
writing to the TSB. Sufficient details concerning the incident
should be provided to enable the identification of action required
to remedy the deficiency or discrepancy.
3.3.5 Contacting the Transportation Safety Board
of Canada (TSB)
Aviation occurrences are to be reported to a regional TSB office,
using the telephone numbers listed in GEN 3.6.
For Canadian-registered aircraft operating outside of Canada,
in addition to the reporting required by the state of occurrence, a report shall be made to the TSB regional office nearest to the
company’s headquarters or, for private aircraft, nearest to the
aircraft’s home base.
3.4 KEEPING AND PRESERVATION OF
EVIDENCE
Every person having possession of or control over evidence
relating to a transportation occurrence must keep and preserve
the evidence unless the Board provides otherwise. This is not
to be construed as preventing any person from taking the
necessary measures to ensure the safety of any person, property
or the environment. Any person who takes these measures must, to the extent possible in the circumstances and before taking
those measures, record the evidence by the best means available
and advise the Board of their actions.
3.5 SECURITAS PROGRAM
The SECURITAS program provides a means for individuals to
report incidents and potentially unsafe acts or conditions relating
to the Canadian transportation system that would not normally
be reported through other channels. It should be noted that this multi-modal, confidential safety reporting system replaces the Confidential Aviation Safety Reporting Program (CASRP).
Each report is assessed by SECURITAS analysts. When a reported
concern is validated as a safety deficiency, the TSB normally
forwards the information, often with suggested corrective action,
to the appropriate regulatory authority, or in some cases, the
transportation company, organization or agency. No information
will be released that could reasonably be expected to reveal the reporter’s identity without the reporter’s written consent.
3.5.1 How to Report to SECURITAS
SECURITAS is primarily concerned with unsafe acts and
conditions relating to commercial and public transportation
systems. When contacting SECURITAS, ensure the following
is included in your message:
(a) your name, address and phone number
(b) your profession and experience
(c) your involvement in the unsafe situation being reported
(d) where else you may have reported this unsafe situation or safety concern
(e) complete identification of the aircraft or related facility/
equipment
(f) the name of the owner/operator of the equipment
Also, please describe the unsafe act or safety concern.
For example:
(a) How was the unsafe act/condition discovered?
(b) If you are describing an event, tell SECURITAS
(i) what happened;
(ii) where it happened;
(iii) when it happened (the date and the local time); and
(iv) why you think it happened.
(c) What actions/inactions resulted, or could have resulted?
(d) How do you think the situation could be corrected?
3.5.2 What to Report to SECURITAS
These are some examples of the types of situations that could
affect air transportation safety and that your report might help
correct.
Unsafe conditions:
(a) chronic lack of repair of aircraft, poor maintenance practices
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN(b) unsafe runway or aerodrome conditions
(c) inadequate or poor air traffic services in a particular area
(d) poor reception of navigation signals, weak radio coverage,
inadequate weather services
(e) errors in aeronautical publications: unsafe procedures
published in manuals of instructions for pilots, cabin crew, ground crew, aircraft maintenance or air traffic services
Unsafe procedures and practices:
(a) routinely descending below minimum en route altitude or approach in IMC
(b) non-compliance with airworthiness directives, minimum equipment list
(c) pilots flying in excess of regulatory flight-time limits
(d) unsafe aircraft circuit procedures and/or communications
(e) air traffic control practices that could jeopardize the safety
of flight, e.g. use of non-standard phraseology, compromising
separation criteria, inadequate manning and supervision
(f) unsafe cabin baggage stowage procedures, unsafe passenger
seating or cargo securing arrangements
(g) aircraft maintenance procedures not completed correctly
but signed off
(h) shortcuts in following checklist procedures
(i) crew scheduling problems: inadequate crew composition,
unqualified crew, inadequate crew rest
(j) scheduling personnel who are not professionally or medically
qualified for the assigned duties
(k) the use of unapproved parts, time-expired equipment
3.5.3 Where to Submit a SECURITAS Report
To submit a report, contact SECURITAS at:
SECURITAS
PO Box 1996, Station B
Gatineau QC J8X 3Z2
Tel.: .................................................................... 1-800-567-6865
Fax: ....................................................................... 819-994-8065
E-mail: ................................................ securitas@tsb-bst.gc.ca
3.6 OFFICES OF THE TRANSPORTATION
SAFETY BOARD OF CANADA (TSB)
HEADQUARTERS:
Place du Centre, 4th Floor
200 Promenade du Portage
Gatineau QC K1A 1K8Toll-free (within Canada):
............................. 1-800-387-3557
Toll: ....................................................................... 819-994-3741
TDD: ..................................................................... 819-953-7287
E-mail: ..................................................... airops@tsb-bst.gc.caREGIONAL OFFICES (AIR)
TSB—Pacific
Regional Office Administration, TSB-AIR
4-3071 No 5 Road
Richmond BC V6X 2T4Toll-free (within Canada):
............................. 1-800-387-3557
Toll: ...................................................................... 604-202-2400
E-mail: ................. airnotifications.vancouver@tsb-bst.gc.ca
TSB—Western
Regional Office Administration, TSB-AIR
17803-106A Avenue
Edmonton AB T5S 1V8Toll-free (within Canada):
............................. 1-800-387-3557
E-mail: ................. airnotifications.edmonton@tsb-bst.gc.ca
TSB—Central
Regional Office Administration, TSB-AIR
335-550 Century Street
Winnipeg MB R3H 0Y1Toll-free (within Canada):
............................. 1-800-387-3557
Toll: ...................................................................... 204-983-5548
E-mail: ................... airnotifications.winnipeg@tsb-bst.gc.ca
TSB—Ontario
Regional Office Administration, TSB-AIR
23 Wilmot Street East
Richmond Hill ON L4B 1A3Toll-free (within Canada):
............................. 1-800-387-3557
Toll: ....................................................................... 905-771-7676
E-mail: ...................... airnotifications.toronto@tsb-bst.gc.ca
TSB—Quebec (Dorval)
Regional Office Administration, TSB-AIR
185 Dorval Avenue, Suite 403
Dorval QC H9S 5J9Toll-free (within Canada):
............................. 1-800-387-3557
Toll: ....................................................................... 514-633-3246
E-mail: ................... airnotifications.montreal@tsb-bst.gc.ca
TSB—Atlantic
Regional Office Administration, TSB-AIR
150 Thorne Avenue
Dartmouth NS B3B 1Z2Toll-free (within Canada):
............................. 1-800-387-3557
Toll: ...................................................................... 902-483-3341
E-mail: ................ airnotifications.dartmouth@tsb-bst.gc.ca
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN4.0 INDEX OF KEYWORDS
A
Abbreviations – Aviation Forecasts ......................... MET 15.0
Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................... GEN 5.2
Abnormal Operation of Navigation Aids, Pilot
Reporting of ............................................................... COM 3.4
Abnormally High Altimeter Settings ....................... AIR 1.5.9
Aeronautical Fixed Service (AFS) ......MAP 3.1, 3.5, RAC 3.3
–Calibration of .............................. RAC Fig. 9.1, AIR 1.5.2
–Downdraft and Turbulence ............................... AIR 1.5.7
–Effect of Mountains ............................................ AIR 1.5.6
–Incorrect Setting ................................................ .AIR 1.5.3
–Major Errors of .................................................... AIR 1.5.4
–Pressure ................................................................... AIR 1.5
–Pressure Drop ...................................................... AIR 1.5.8
–Setting Region ................................... .RAC 2.10, Fig. 2.10
–Standard Pressure
Region ................................ RAC 2.11, Fig. 2.10, AIR 1.5.5
–Temperature Correction .......... . RAC Fig. 9.1, AIR 1.5.4
ACAS/TCAS .................................................................. COM 9.0
ACAS II and Transponder Equipage ................... RAC 11.7.11
Accident reporting ....................................................... GEN 3.3
–SECURITAS Program ........................................ GEN 3.5
Accuracy, Availability and Integrity
of Navigation Aids ................................................... COM 4.2
Acknowledgement of Clearances – VFR ................... RAC 5.2
Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................... GEN 5.2
ADIZ (Air Defence Identification Zone) ........... RAC 2.13, 3.8
ADS-B ............................................................................. COM 7.3
ADS-C .......................................................................... COM 3.10
Advance Notice of Intent in Minimum
Weather Conditions ................................................... RAC 9.5
Advisory Airspace ..................................................... RAC 2.8.6
Advisory forecasts ......................................................... MET 7.2
Aerobatic Flight ............................................................. RAC 1.9
Aerodromes and airports ............................................ AGA 2.0
–ARCAL (Aircraft Radio Control of
Aerodrome Lighting) ......................................... AGA 7.14
–ATF (Aerodrome Traffic Frequency) ..RAC 4.5.5, 4.5.6
–Authority ............................................................. AGA 1.1.1
–Beacon ................................................................... .AGA 7.2
–Certification ......................................................... AGA 2.3
–Design Criteria, Runway ...................................... AGA 3.1
–Directory ............................................................... AGA 1.3
–DND (Snow Removal and Ice Control) .......... AGA 1.1.4
–Lighting .................................................................. AGA 7.0
–Maintenance
–Transport Canada ............................................. AGA 2.3.3
–Obstacle Charts (ICAO Type A) ..................... MAP 4.2.1
–Operator Responsibilities ................................ AGA 2.3.4
–PNR (Prior Notice Required) ............................. AGA 2.2
–PPR (Prior Permission Required) ..................... AGA 2.2
–Private-use Certificate ........................................ AGA 2.2
–Public-use Certificate .......................................... AGA 2.2
–Registration........................................................... AGA 2.1
–Runway Characteristics ...................................... AGA 3.0
–TAF (Forecasts) ..................................................... MET 7.0
–From AWOS Sites ................................................. MET 7.5 –National Variations ............................................. MET 7.3
–Uncontrolled Procedures (IFR) ........................ RAC 9.13
–Use, International Flights ................................... AGA 1.2
Aeromedical Factors ...................................................... AIR 3.2
Aeronautical
–Assessment ............................................................ AGA 6.3
–Authority ............................................................. GEN 1.1.1
–Charts for Visual Flight .................................. MAP 4.2.1
–Ground Lights ..................................................... . AGA 1.4
Aeronautical Information ........................................... GEN 1.1
–AIM (Aeronautical Information
Management) .................................................... . GEN 1.1.2
–AIRAC Canada .................................................. . MAP 2.4
–Canada Flight Supplement ............................ MAP 2.5.3
–Charts and Publications for International
Flights ................................................................... MAP 5.0
–Circular ................................................................ MAP 2.3
–Collection .............................................................. MAP 1.0
–ICAO Type A Charts ....................................... MAP 4.2.1
–IFR ......................................................................... MAP 2.6
–Manual (TC AIM) ............................................. GEN 1.1.3
–NOTAM ............................................................... MAP 3.0
–Procurement of Charts and Publications ........ MAP 4.0
–Publication, Aeronautical Information
AIP Canada ........................................................... MAP 2.1
–VFR ........................................................................ MAP 2.5
Aeronautical Terms, Glossary .................................... GEN 5.1
–Aeronautics Act and Canadian Air Regulations,
– Legislative Index ................................................. GEN 5.3
Aiding Persons in Distress ........................................... SAR 2.4
AIP Canada ................................................................... MAP 2.1
–AIC (Aeronautical Information Circular) ...... MAP 2.3
–Supplements ......................................................... MAP 2.2
Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) .......COM 9.0
AIRAC Canada ............................................................ MAP 2.4
Air Routes and Airways Designation ...................... COM 5.5
Air Time and Flight Time ............................................ AIR 4.1
Air Traffic and Advisory Services .............................. RAC 1.1
Air Traffic Services, Services Other Than ............... RAC 1.2
Aircraft
–Aviation Safety Investigation .............................. GEN 3.1
–Aircraft Identification, Marking, Registration
and Insurance ........................................................ LRA 4.0
–Airworthiness ........................................................ LRA 5.0
–Airworthiness ANNEX ....................................... LRA 9.0
–ARCAL (Radio Control of
Aerodrome Lighting) ......................................... AGA 7.14
–Categories ............................................................. RAC 9.21
–Change of Ownership –
Canadian-Registered ........................................... LRA 4.4
–Contamination (Frost, Ice or Snow)
–In Flight ............................................................. AIR 2.12.3
–On ground .......................................................... AIR 2.12.2
–Design Requirements ........................................... LRA 5.2
–Emergency Assistance ......................................... .SAR 4.0
–First Aid Kits on Privately Owned
and Operated Aircraft ......................................... AIR 4.13
–Identification ......................................................... LRA 4.2
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN –Import/Export ................................................ LRA 4.6, 4.7
–Liability Insurance ................................................ LRA 4.8
–Load rating ........................................................... AGA 3.12
–Nationality and
Registration Marks .............................. GEN 1.6, LRA 4.3
–Navigational Equipment,
Interference with ................................................. COM 4.4
–Operations – Uncontrolled Aerodromes .......... RAC 4.5
–Registration, Initial .............................................. LRA 4.5
–Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) .................... . AGA 8.0
–Speed Limit ........................................................ RAC 2.5.2
–Technical Records .............................................. LRA 5.6.3
Aircraft Contamination in Flight ........................... AIR 2.12.3
Aircraft Contamination on the Ground ................ AIR 2.12.2
Aircraft Load Rating (ALR) ...................................... AGA 3.12
Aircraft Movement Surface Condition
Report (AMSCR) ..................................................... AIR 1.6.4
Aircraft Parachute System ........................................... GEN 5.1
Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) ............... AGA 8.0
–Hours of Availability ........................................... AGA 8.2
–Classification System ........................................... AGA 8.3
–ARFF Standby Request ....................................... AGA 8.4
AIREP (Meteorological Report) ............................... NAT 1.15
Airmanship ..................................................................... AIR 1.1
–Flight Operations ................................................... AIR 2.0
–Low Flying .............................................................. AIR 2.4
AIRMET ............................................................. .MET 1.3.6, 5.0
Arrival Procedures – IFR ............................................. RAC 9.0
Airport
–ASDE (Surface Detection Equipment) ............. COM 7.1
–Airport Radio (APRT RDO) ............................ RAC 1.2.2
–Airside Signs ......................................................... AGA 5.8
–Bird Hazard ........................................................ AGA 1.1.5
–Certificate ............................................................. AGA 2.4
–Certification .................................... AGA 2.3, 2.3.5, 2.3.6
–Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) ....AGA 10.0
–Information Signs ............................................ .AGA 5.8.2
–Operations ............................................................ .RAC 4.0
–Controlled Airports,
Departure Procedures ........................................ COM 3.8
–Snow Removal and Ice Control ....................... AGA 1.1.4
–Uncontrolled Aerodromes .................................. RAC 4.5
–Zoning Regulations ............................................. AGA 4.3
–Airspace Classification ........................................ RAC 2.8
–Advisory ............................................................. RAC 2.8.6
–Canadian Domestic/Northern and
Southern Domestic ................................ RAC 2.2, Fig. 2.1
–Classification of ..................................................... RAC 2.8
–High- and Low-Level ............................................ RAC 2.3
–High-Level Controlled ......................................... RAC 2.6
–Joint Use ............................................................. RAC 2.8.6
–Low-Level Controlled ........................................... RAC 2.7
–NAT MNPSA (North Atlantic Minimum
Navigation Performance – Specifications)
Between FL 285 and FL 420 ........................ RAC Fig.1.2,
–Other Divisions ..................................................... RAC 2.9
–Requirements and Procedures ............................ RAC 2.0
–Restricted ........................................................... RAC 2.8.6 –Southern, Northern and Arctic Control
Areas ............................................................... RAC Fig. 2.4
Airways, low-level – LF/MF, VHF/UHF ................ R AC 2.7.1
Airworthiness
–Aircraft ................................................................... LRA 5.0
–ANNEX .................................................................. LRA 5.8
–Annual Airworthiness Information Report .....LRA 5.5
–Flight Authority .................................................... LRA 5.3
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) ................................ .LRA 5.7
–Availability of .................................................... .LRA 5.7.2
–Schedule and Compliance Records ................. LRA 5.7.3
AIS (Aeronautical Information Services) .............. .GEN 1.1.2
AIM (Aeronautical Information Management) ....GEN 1.1.2
Alcohol ............................................................................. AIR 3.9
Alerting Devices and Circuit Breakers ..................... AIR 4.11
ALR (Aircraft Load Rating) ...................................... AGA 3.12
Alternate Aerodrome, Requirements for
IFR Flight .................................................................. RAC 3.14
Altimeter
Altitude
–And Direction of Flight ................................... R AC 8.7.2
–Area Minimum Altitude (AMA) .................... RAC 8.6.1
–Correction Chart ......................................... .RAC Fig. 9.1
–IFR Minimum ............................................ RAC 8.5, 8.6.1
–Minimum Holding ............................................. RAC 10.7
–Report ................................................................... NAT 1.16
Anti-icing Additives, Fuel .......................................... AIR 1.3.3
Appeals – Transportation Appeal Tribunal
of Canada (TATC) ..................................................... LRA 6.5
Approach
– Appro ach Lighting System - ALSF-2, LIAL, ODALS,
MALSF, MALS, MALSR, SSALR, SSALS
....................................... AGA 7. 5.1, 7.5.2, RAC 9.19.2.8
– Approach Lighting System wit h Sequenced Flashers -
CAT II (ALSF - 2) ............ AGA 7.5.2, RAC 9.19.2.8
–Ban ...................................................................... RAC 9.19.2
–Contact ................................................................ RAC 9.6.1
–From an Intermediate Fix ................................. RAC 9.16
–PAPI ................................................................... .AGA 7.6.3
–PAR (Precision Radar) .................... COM 7.1, RAC 9.8.4
–Position Reports – Controlled Airports ............ RAC 9.9
–Simplified Short Approach Lighting System (SSALS)
................................................... AGA 7.5.1, RAC 9.19.2.8
– Simplified Short Approch Lighting System
with Runway Alignment Indica tor
Lights (SSALR) .......................... AGA 7.5.2, RAC 9.19.2.8
–Straight-in ............................................................ RAC 9.15
–Visual ................................................................... RAC 9.6.2
– Approach Procedures
with Vertical Guidance (APV) COM 5.4.2
Apron Advisory Service ........................................... .RAC 1.2.4
ARCAL (Aircraft Radio Control of
Aerodrome Lighting) .............................................. AGA 7.14
Arctic Territories ....................................................... .RAC 1.1.3
Area Navigation (RNAV) ........................................... COM 5.0
–Fixed RNAV Routes ......................................... RAC 11.4.4
–Mandatory IFR Routes
(Including RNAV) ........................................... RAC 11.4.3
Areas
–Gander Oceanic Control ............................ .NAT Fig. 1.1
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN –Mountainous ...................................... RAC 2.12, Fig. 2.11
–RVSM Transition Area ............................... RAC Fig. 12.3
–Southern, Northern and Arctic
Control Areas ................................................ RAC Fig. 2.4
–Transition ............................................................ R AC 2.7.5
Arresting Systems, Military Aircraft ......................... AGA 9.1
Arrival
–Procedures – Controlled Airports .................... RAC 4.4
–Traffic Circuit Procedures
–Uncontrolled Aerodromes, VFR .................... RAC 4.5.2
– Report – Contents ............................................ RAC 3.12.1
ASDA (Accelerate Stop Distance Available) ........... AGA 3.10
ATC (Air Traffic Control)
–Assignment of Altitudes ..................................... .RAC 8.6
–Clearances, Instructions and Information .......RAC 1.6
–Flight Priority ........................................................ RAC 1.7
ATIS (Automatic Terminal
Information Service) ................................ RAC 1.3, 4.2.1
–Broadcasts ............................................... .RAC 1.3, 7.2, 9.1
–METAR AUTO/SPECI AUTO Reports .......... .MET 8.5
Automatic Flight Control Guidance System ......COM 4.10.7
Automatic Landing (Autoland) Operations ......COM 4.10.7
Aviation
–Automated Reports – Other ............................... MET 8.6
–Document Booklet ................................................ LRA 1.2
–Fuels ........................................................................ .AIR 1.3
–Language Proficiency ........................................... LRA 1.3
–Medical Review Board ......................................... LRA 2.4
–METAR (Routine Weather Report) ................. MET 5.14
–Occurrence, Reporting an .................................. GEN 3.3
–Recreational ............................................... AIR 4.7 to 4.10
–Safety ...................................................................... GEN 2.0
–Weather Briefing Service (AWBS) ................. MET 1.1.3
–Weather Information Service ........................ MET 1.1.3
–Weather Reports/Charts ....................... MET 3.2.2, 3.2.3
AWOS (Automated Weather
Observation Systems) .................................... MET 1.2.4, 8.5
–actual weather information/reports/charts ..MET 1.2.4
–METAR SPECI/AUTO/LWIS Reports ............. .MET 8.4, 8.5
B
Ballistic Parachute System ...................................... RAC 3.16.9
Balloon Operations, Manned Free .............................. AIR 4.7
Bars
–Stop ..................................................................... AGA 7.10.3
Beacons
–Aerodrome ............................................................. AGA 7.2
Bearing Strength, Runway and Taxiway .................. AGA 3.12
Beaufort Wind Scale ..................................... MET 2.6, Table 1
Bird Hazard Control, Airport .................................. AGA 1.1.5
Blood Donation ............................................................ AIR 3.14
BOTA ......................................................................... NAT 1.19.1
Brest Oceanic Transition Area (BOTA) ................ NAT 1.19.1
Boundary Markers, Aerodromes ................................ AGA 5.1
C
Cable Span Markings, Suspended ............................ AGA 6.7
Canada
– Flight Supplement .......................................... MAP 2.5.3 – Charts and Publications
– Individual Purchases .................................... MAP 4.2.1
– Subscriptions ................................................. MAP 4.2.2
– Shipping Act, extract from .............. SAR 4.8, AIR 2.11.1
Canadian Aviation Regulation Advisory
Council (CARAC) ..................................................... GEN 5.4
RAC ANNEX 2.0, LRA ANNEX 5.8
–Legislative Index .................................................. GEN 5.3
Canadian Domestic Airspace ...................................... RAC 2.2
Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) ................. .AIR 1.6
– Coefficients ......................................................... AIR 1.6.2
– Description and Method of Measurement .....AIR 1.6.3
Canadian Type Certificate ........................................ LRA 5.2.2
Carbon Monoxide ....................................................... AIR 3.2.3
Carburetor Icing ............................................................. AIR 2.3
Cargo Restraint ............................................................... AIR 4.4
Categories
–VA SI ................................................................. AGA 7.6.4.2
–EWH (Eye-to-Wheel Height) ........................... AGA 7.6.4
CAVOK, Use of Term ................................................... RAC 1.4
Certificate
– Airport ................................................................. .AGA 2.4
– Noise Compliance ............................................. LRA 5.3.5
Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A)
–Special ....................................................... LRA 5.3.2, 5.3.3
Certification
–Of Airports ........................................................... AGA 2.3
–Of Heliport ............................................................ AGA 2.3
–Water Airport ....................................................... AGA 2.3
Channel Spacing, VHF Communication
Frequencies ......................................................... COM 1.4
Charter Flight Airport Facilities Reservations
– En Route, Low Altitude/High Altitude
– Products ......................................................... MAP 4.2.1
Charts
–Aerodrome Obstacle – ICAO Type A .......... . MAP 4.2.1
– Aeronautical, for Visual Flight ....................... MAP 4.2.1
– En Route, Low Altitude/High Altitude
– Prices ............................................................... MAP 4.2.1
– Index of Aerodrome Obstacle Charts
– ICAO Type A .................................................. MAP 4.2.1
– Index to Canadian Aeronautical ....................... MAP 2.2
– Pavement Load Rating ................................... AGA 3.12.1
– Procurement
– Individual and Subscription ....................... MAP 4.2.2
– Publication Revision Cycles ............................ MAP 4.2.1
– Publications – International Flights ................. MAP 5.0
– Procurement of Aeronautical ......................... MAP 4.2.1
– Updating of Canadian Aeronautical ................ MAP 2.3
– Upper Level – Actual, Forecast (PROG) ........ MET 11.0
Checklists, Pilot Vital Action ....................................... AIR 1.2
Circling Minima and Procedures ................... RAC 9.23, 9.24
Circuit Breakers and Alerting Devices ..................... AIR 4.11
Circuit
–Controlled Aerodromes ....................................... RAC 4.3
– Uncontrolled Aerodromes .................................. RAC 4.5
Circular, Aeronautical Information .......................... MAP 2.3
Civil Aviation Complaint Filing Procedures ............ GEN 7.0
Civil Aviation Contingency Operations (CACO) ...GEN 6.0
–Headquaters Operations ..................................... GEN 6.2
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN– Accident, Occurrence, or Incident Reporting ....GEN 6.3
Civil Twilight, Morning and Evening .................... GEN 1.5.2
Class
–A Airspace ........................................................... RAC 2.8.1
– B Airspace .......................................................... RAC 2.8.2
– C Airspace ................................................... RAC 2.8.3, 5.8
– D Airspace ......................................................... RAC 2.8.4
– E Airspace .......................................................... RAC 2.8.5
– F Airspace .......................................................... RAC 2.8.6
– G Airspace .................................................. RAC 2.8.7, 8.10
Clean Aircraft Concept ............................................ AIR 2.12.2
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT),
Avoidance of ............................................ MET 2.2, AIR 2.10
Clearance(s)
–Delivery .............................................................. RAC 4.2.2
– “Hold/Hold Short” ............................................ RAC 4.2.5
– IFR ........................................................................... R AC 7.4
– Landing .............................................................. RAC 4.4.3
– Limit ........................................................................ RAC 8.9
– Leaving or Entering Controlled Airspace ......... RAC 8.8
– Oceanic Clearance Delivery ............................ .NAT 1.9.3
– Resolution Advisory (TCAS/ACAS) .................. RAC 1.6
– Tower Frequency, Release from ...................... RAC 4.2.9
Clearances Instructions and Information
from the ATC ...................................................... RAC 1.6, 6.1
Clearway, Definition ..................................................... AGA 3.9
Clock Position System (ATS Surveillance Traffic
Information)
............................................................................. RAC 1.5.3
Closed Markings – Runway, Taxiway, Heliports ....AGA 5.6
Cloud Heights ................................................... MET 1.1.5, 3.13
Collision Avoidance
–Right of Way, Regulations ................................... RAC 1.8
– Use of Landing Lights ........................................... AIR 4.5
Communications Air-Ground Service,
International ............................................................. NAT 2.0
– Aviation Weather Information
Service (AWIS) ....................................................... MET 1.1.3
– Emergency Communications and Security
......................................................... COM 1.4.2, RAC 2.13
– Failure (VFR) ....................................... RAC 4.4.8, 6.3.2.2
– Frequency 5680 kHz, Use of ............................ COM 1.6
– General Information .......................................... COM 1.1
– Initial Contact ............................................ RAC 4.4.1, 9.9
– Language ............................................................. COM 5.2
– Location Indicators ............................................ COM 2.0
– Navigation Equipment, Reporting
Malfunction of ................................................. RAC 6.3.3
– Radiocommunication Regulations ................. COM 1.2
– Radio Navigation Aids ...................................... COM 4.0
– Responsible Authority ....................................... COM 1.2
– Satellite Systems ................................................ COM 1.10
– Satellite Voice ..................................................... COM 1.10
– SATVOICE ........................................................ COM 1.10
– Summary of Services ........................................ RAC 1.2.3
– Use of MF and ATF .......................................... RAC 4.5.6
– VFR Procedures at Uncontrolled Aerodromes
with MF and ATF areas ................................... RAC 4.5.7
– VHF Coverage in the NAT Region ............... NAT 2.5.2 Community Aerodrome Radio Stations
(CARS) ................................................................ RAC 1.2.2
Confidential Incident Reporting
–SECURITAS Program ........................................ GEN 3.5
Conservation ................................................................ RAC 1.10
Contact and Visual Approaches ................................. RAC 9.6
Contamination of Aircraft (Frost, Ice or Snow)
–In Flight .............................................................. AIR 2.12.3
– On Ground ......................................................... AIR 2.12.2
Continuous Descent Final Approach (CDFA) ......... AIR 2.17
Control Transfer
–IFR Units to Towers ............................................ RAC 9.10
Controlled Airports
–Approach Position Reports ................................. RAC 9.9
– Arrival Procedures ............................................... RAC 4.4
– Initial Clearance ................................................ RAC 4.4.2
– Landing Clearance ........................................... RAC 4.4.3
– Operations on Intersecting Runways ............. RAC 4.4.9
– Private Advisory Stations ................................. RAC 1.2.3
– Sequential Operations ....................................... RAC 4.4.9
– Simultaneous Operations ................................. RAC 4.4.9
– Traffic Circuits ...................................................... RAC 4.3
Controlled Airspace ...................................................... RAC 2.5
–Area Extensions .................................................. R AC 2.7.2
– Clearances
– Leaving or Entering ............................................ RAC 8.8
– Control Zones ................................................. R AC 2.7.3
– High-Level ......................................................... .RAC 2.6
– Low-Level ........................................................... .RAC 2.7
– Low-Level Airways – LF/MF, VHF/UHF ...R AC 2.7.1
– Transition Areas ............................................ .R AC 2.7.5
– Use of Controlled Airspace by
VFR Flights ....................................................... RAC 2.5.1
Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) .................... AIR 2.17.1
Controlled VFR (CVFR) Procedures ......................... RAC 5.6
Conversion Tables ..................................................... .GEN 1.7.2
CRFI ............................................................. AGA 1.1.3, AIR 1.6
Cross Country Instrument Training Flights .......... RAC 3.11
Crosswind Landing Limitations
–Light Aircraft .......................................................... AIR 2.2
Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels ..................... RAC 2.3.1
D
Dangerous Goods
–Transportation by Air ......................... RAC ANNEX 3.0
Dangerous Situations
–Refusal to Work ................................................. GEN 2.1.2
Date – Time Group .................................................... GEN 1.5.1
Day Markings of Obstructions .................................. AGA 6.4
Declared Distances ..................................................... AGA 3.10
Decompression Sickness ............................................... AIR 3.5
–Defence – ADIZ (Air Defence
Identification Zone) .................................... RAC 2.13, 3.9,
–Flight Plans ............................................................ RAC 3.9
Departure(s)
–Approach and Alternate Minima ..................... RAC 9.18
– Non-ATS Surveillance ...................................... RAC 4.1.1
– Procedures – Controlled Airports ................... COM 3.8
– RONLY Aircraft .............................................. RAC 4.2.12
– Vectoring ............................................................. RAC 4.1.1
Design Eye Reference Point ....................................... .AIR 4.12
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENDesignated Mountainous Regions
in Canada .......................................................... RAC Fig. 2.11
Dial-up RCO ............................................................... RAC 1.1.4
Disorientation ................................................................. AIR 3.7
Displaced
–Threshold Lighting .......................................... .AGA 7.8.3
– Thresholds ........................................................... .AGA 3.5
– Threshold Markings ........................................ .AGA 5.4.1
Ditching ...................................................................... AIR 2.11.2
DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) ................. .COM 4.7
–Intersections, Minimum En-Route
– Altitude ............................................................. RAC 8.6.1.1
– Procedures (Holding Patterns) ......................... RAC 10.8
DME-DME (RHO-RHO) System ............................ COM 5.14
Downed Aircraft Procedures ....................................... SAR 4.7
Downdraft and Turbulence ....................................... AIR 1.5.7
Drugs .............................................................................. AIR 3.10
E
ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter) ....................... SAR 3.0
–Accidental Transmissions .................................... SAR 3.7
– Categories ................................................................ SAR 3.2
– Downed Aircraft Procedures ............................... SAR 4.7
– Flight Planning
(Supplementary Information) ........................ RAC 3.15.9
– Installation and Maintenance Requirements ............. SAR 3.3
– Operating Instructions (Emergency Use) .......... SAR 3.5
– Operating Instructions (Normal Use) ................ SAR 3.4
– Schedule of Requirements to Carry an ELT ............... SAR 3.9
– Signal, Maximizing the ......................................... SAR 3.6
– Testing Procedures ................................................ SAR 3.8
Emergency
–Action by the Pilot during Emergency
Conditions ............................................................ .SAR 4.2
– Assistance ............................................................... SAR 4.0
– Communications and Security ......... COM 1.4.2, RAC 2.13
– Declaring an ....................................... RAC 6.3.1, SAR 4.1
– Lighting, Aerodrome .......................................... AGA 7.13
– Locator Transmitter .............................................. SAR 3.0
– Monitoring of Emergency Frequency
121.5 MHz ....................................................... COM 1.12.2
– Procedures, Downed Aircraft .............................. SAR 4.7
– Procedures for Signaling Vessels ........................ SAR 2.4
– Radio Frequency Capability ............................... .SAR 4.5
– Transponder Alerting .......................................... SAR 4.3
Emergency Equipment
–Flight Planning (Supplementary Information)
.......................................................................... RAC 3.15.9
– Operations Over Sparsely Settled Areas .......... AIR 2.14
– Operations Over Water .................................... AIR 2.11.3
English, Use of in Communications ........................ COM 1.3
En-Route Procedures – VFR ....................................... RAC 5.0
Equipment
–COM / NAV ........................................................ RAC 3.16.4
– R NAV ................................................................... RAC 9.2.2
– Surveillance (SSR) (Canadian and ICAO) ............ RAC 3.16.4
Evaluation, Aeronautical ............................................. AGA 6.3Examinations, Use of Hand-held Calculators
or Computers for Written ........................................ LRA 3.3
Exhaust Plumes ......................................................... AIR 4.16.1
Experimental Test Flights, Conduct of ....................... AIR 4.2
Explosions and Fires ................................................... AIR 1.3.4
Export of Aircraft .......................................................... LRA 4.7
Eye Reference Point, Design ....................................... AIR 4.12
F
Fan Blade Ice Shedding Procedure ...................... AIR 2.12.1.1
FANS 1/A ADS WPR ................................................ .COM 3.10
Fatigue ............................................................................ AIR 3.10
FD (Upper Level Wind
and Temperature Forecasts) ................................... MET 9.0
Final Approach Fix (FAF) ....................................... RAC 9.19.2
FIR (Flight Information Regions) ................ RAC Fig. 2.3, 2.4
Fire Extinguishers
–For Use in Aircraft ................................................. AIR 1.4
– Types of ................................................................. AIR 1.4.3
Fire Fighting, Aircraft Rescue and (ARFF) ............. AGA 8.0
–ARFF Hours of Availability .............................. .AGA 8.2
– Classification System ........................................... AGA 8.3
– ARFF Standby Request ....................................... AGA 8.4
– Discreet Communication ................................... AGA 8.5
Fires and Explosions ................................................... AIR 1.3.4
Fires, Classification of ................................................ AIR 1.4.2
First Aid Kits on Privately Owned
and Operated Aircraft ............................................. AIR 4.13
Fitness
–Medically Fit ...................................................... LRA 1.9.2
– Unfit Assessment ............................................... LRA 1.9.4
Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS), .............. NAT 1.20.3
Flight(s)
–Aerobatic .............................................................. RAC 1.10
– Airmanship ............................................................. AIR 1.0
– Authority ................................................................ LRA 5.3
–Avoid flight in the vicinity of
exhaust plumes .................................................. AIR 4.16.1
– Definitions flight experience .............................. LRA 1.5
– Experimental Test ................................................. AIR 4.2
– Fuel Requirements ............................................. RAC 3.13
–Fuel, Sufficient Amount,
IFR/VFR Flights ................................... RAC 3.13.1, 3.13.2
– In Rain .................................................................... .AIR 2.5
– Information Regions (FIR) .......... RAC Fig.2.3, RAC 2.4
– Information Service ................................. RAC 1.1.1, 1.1.2
– Itineraries ............................................................... RAC 3.6
–Itinerary form, Composite IFR/VFR/
IFR Sample ..................................................... RAC Fig. 3.1
– Military Flight Advisory Unit (MFAU) ......... RAC 1.1.6
– Mountainous Regions ...................... RAC 2.12, AIR 2.13
– Operations – Airmanship .................................... AIR 2.0
– Operations in Volcanic Ash ................................ .AIR 2.6
– Operations in Winter .......................................... AIR 2.12
– Operations – Mountainous Regions
........................................................... RAC 2.12, AIR 2.13
– Operations on Water .......................................... .AIR 2.11
– Other Information ........................................... RAC 3.16.8
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN– Permit .................................................................. LRA 5.3.4
– Planning .................................... RAC 3.0, 12.5.4, SAR 2.0
– Priority .................................................................. .RAC 1.7
– Temporary Restrictions – Forest Fires ........... RAC 2.9.2
– Time / Air Time ..................................................... AIR 4.1
– Transoceanic, General Aviation Aircraft .................. NAT 1.2
Flight Plan/Itinerary
–Aerodrome, Departure and Time ................ RAC 3.16.5
– Aerodrome, Destination, Total Estimated
Elapsed Time, SAR Time (Canadian only)
and Alternate Aerodrome(s) .......................... RAC 3.16.7
– Aircraft Identification ..................................... RAC 3.16.1
– Alternate Aerodrome for IFR Flight ................ RAC 3.14
– Canadian ........................................................... RAC 3.15.2
– Changes to the Information ................................ RAC 3.7
– Closing .................................................................. RAC 3.12
– Closing of a Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary
Prior to Landing ............................................... RAC 3.12.2
– Composite, VFR and IFR .................................... RAC 3.8
– Contents ............................................................... RAC 3.16
– Cross Country Instrument Training Flights .......... .RAC 3.11
– Cruising Speed, Altitude/Level
and Route .......................................................... RAC 3.16.6
– Defence VFR (DVFR) and Defence
Flight Itineraries ................................................... RAC 3.9
– Equipment (Canadian and ICAO) ............... .RAC 3.16.4
– Filing (CAR 602.75) ........................................... RAC 3.6.2
– Flight Rules and Type of Flight .................... .RAC 3.16.2
– Flights Along or Outside Designated
ATS Routes ........................................................ RAC 3.16.6
– Forms, Completion of ....................................... .RAC 3.15
– Fuel Requirements .............................................. RAC 3.13
– Fuel, Sufficient Amount, IFR/VFR Flights
.............................................................. RAC 3.13.1, 3.13.2
– ICAO ................................................... RAC 3.15.3, Fig. 3.2
– IFR ......................................................................... RAC 3.15
– IFR Flight Plan ................................................... R AC 3.7.2
– Intermediate Stops .............................................. RAC 3.10
–Number and Type of Aircraft
and Wake Turbulence Category .................... RAC 3.16.3
– Other Information ........................................... RAC 3.16.8
– Opening a VFR Flight Plan or Flight
Itinerary ...............................................................RAC 3.6.4
– Requirements – Flights Between Canada
and a Foreign State ............................................ RAC 3.6.3
Sample – Composite IFR/VFR/ IFR
–Flight Itinerary .............................................. RAC Fig. 3.1
– IFR (ICAO) .................................................... RAC Fig. 3.2
– VFR ................................................................. RAC Fig. 3.3
– Type of Flight and Flight Rules .................... .RAC 3.16.2
– VFR Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary ................ RAC 3.6.1
Flight Operations ........................................................... AIR 2.0
–At night ................................................................. .AIR 2.16
Flight Planning .............................................................. RAC 3.0
Flying Low, Hazards of .................................................. AIR 2.4
Forecast
–Aerodrome Forecasts from AWOS Sites ........... MET 7.5
– Area (GFA) ............................................................ MET 4.0 – Aviation, Abbreviations ................................... .MET 15.0
– Charts (PROG) ................................................... MET 11.2
– Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
– CMC ..................................................................... MET 12.1
– RAFC ................................................................... MET 12.2
– TAF (Aerodrome) ................................................. MET 7.0
– Upper Level Charts – PROG ................... MET 11.0, 11.2
– Upper Level Wind and Temperature (FD)
.................................................................... MET 1.1.3, 9.0
– Winds and Temperatures Aloft Network,
Canadian ................................................................ MET 9.1
French, Use of in Communications ......................... COM 1.3
Frequency
–Mandatory (MF), Use of ........................ RAC 4.5.4, 4.5.6
– Monitoring 126.7 MHz ........................................ RAC 5.1
– Release from Tower ......................................... .RAC 4.2.9
FSS (Flight Service Stations) ..................................... RAC 3.4.1
Fuels
–Anti-icing Additives ........................................... AIR 1.3.3
– Aviation ................................................................... AIR 1.3
– Dumping ............................................................. RAC 6.3.4
– Fires and Explosions ........................................... AIR 1.3.4
– Grades ................................................................... AIR 1.3.1
– Handling .............................................................. AIR 1.3.2
– Minimum Fuel Advisory .................................. R AC 1.7.2
– Requirements ....................................................... RAC 3.13
– Sufficient Amount,
IFR/VFR Flights ................................... RAC 3.13.1, 3.13.2
Fuel and Oil Weights ................................................. RAC 3.4.8
G
Gander Oceanic Transition Area (GOTA) ................ NAT 1.4
Gander Radio .............................................................. NAT 2.5.1
Geographic Reference/Coordinates ....................... GEN 1.4.2
Glassy Water and Landing Seaplanes .................... AIR 2.11.4
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) .....COM 5.1, 5.2
–Approach Procedures ...................................... COM 5.4.2
– Approach Procedures with Barometric Vertical
Navigation (baro -VNAV) ............................ COM 5.4.2.4
– Approach Procedures with
Vertical Guidance (APV) ............................... COM 5.4.2
– Approaches at
Alternate Aerodromes ........................ .COM 5.9, 5.9.1, 5.9.2
– Avionics Databases ........................................ COM 3.15.8
– Augmentation Systems
(ABAS, SBAS, GBAS) ......................................... COM 5.3
–GNSS Vulnerability
– Interference, Anomaly Reporting ................ COM 5.10
– NOTAMs ........................................................... COM 5.5.2
– Proper use of ....................................................... COM 5.11
– User Comments ................................................ COM 5.12
Glossary of Aeronautical Terms ................................. GEN 5.1
GOTA .............................................................................. NAT 1.4
Graphic Area Forecast (GFA) .................................... .MET 4.0
Gross Navigation Errors, Monitoring of .............. NAT 1.19.6
Ground-to-Air Signals ............................................... .SAR 4.7.1
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENH
Hang Glider Operations ............................................ . AIR 4.15
Health and Safety Program, Transport Canada
Aviation Occupational (A-OH&S) ......................... GEN 2.1
Heaters, Portable Combustion – Danger of ............... AIR 3.3
Helicopter Operations ...................................... .RAC 4.5.3, 4.6
–At Controlled Airports ........................................ RAC 4.6
– Takeoff, Landing and Safety Areas .................. AGA 3.12
– Vortices .................................................................... AIR 2.9
Heliports ....................................................................... .AGA 5.5
–Arrival and Departure Hover Area ......................... AGA 3.13
– Final Approach and Take-Off
Area (FATO) ..................................................... AGA 7.12.2
Lighting .................................................................... AGA 7.12
– Markers and Markings
................... AGA 5.5.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.4, 5.5.5, 5.5.6, 5.6
– Touchdown and Lift-Off Area (TLOF) ........ AGA 7.12.1
High Altimeter Settings ............................................. AIR 1.5.9
High Altitude Flight in Aircraft with
Unpressurized Cabins ............................................... AIR 3.4
High Intensity Approach Lighting (HIAL) .......RAC 9.19.2.8
High Intensity Runway Operations (HIRO) ........ RAC 4.4.10
Hijack (Unlawful Interference) ................................ RAC 1.8.8
Holding
–Clearance .............................................................. RAC 10.2
– DME Procedures ................................................ RAC 10.8
– Pattern, Entry Procedures ................................ RAC 10.5
– Pattern, Non-Standard ..................................... . RAC 10.4
–Pattern, Speed Limitations, DME Procedures,
Shuttle Procedure ............................. RAC 10.7, 10.8, 10.9
– Pattern, Standard ................................................ RAC 10.3
– Pattern, Timing ................................................... RAC 10.6
– Patterns Depicted on En Route
and Terminal Charts ........................................ RAC 10.10
– Positions, Taxi ................................................... RAC 4.2.6
– Procedures
– IFR ...................................................................... RAC 10.0
– VFR .................................................................. RAC 4.4.2
– Speed Limitations ............................................... RAC 10.7
Hover
–Approach and Take-Off Direction
–Markings ............................................................ AGA 5.5.6
– Taxi .......................................................................... RAC 4.6
– Hydroplaning ...................................................... AIR 1.6.5
Hyperventilation ......................................................... AIR 3.2.2
Hypothermia and Hyperthermia ............................. .AIR 3.17
Hypoxia ......................................................................... AIR 3.2.1
I
ICAO
–Applicable ICAO and WMO Documents .............. MET 1.1.7
ICAO Flight Plan Form, Sample ......................... RAC Fig. 3.2
ICAO Type A Charts ................................................ MAP 4.2.1
Ice Control and Snow Removal ................................ AGA 1.1.4
Ice
–Aircraft Contamination on the Ground,
and in Flight ......................................... AIR 2.12.2, 2.12.3
– Accumulation ....................................................... MET 2.4 – Types of Ice ..................................................... AIR 2.12.3.1
– Aerodynamic Effects of Airborne Icing ............. AIR 2.12.3.2
– Roll Upset ........................................................ AIR 2.12.3.3
IFR
–Advance Notice of Intent ..................................... RAC 9.5
– Air Traffic Control Clearance ............................ RAC 6.1
– Aircraft Categories ............................................. RAC 9.21
– Altitude Reports .................................................... RAC 8.3
– Application of Takeoff Minima ..................... RAC 9.19.1
– Approach Ban ................................................... RAC 9.19.2
– Approach Clearance ............................................. RAC 9.3
– Approach Position Reports – Controlled Airports .....RAC 9.9
– Arrivals ................................................................... RAC 9.7
– Arrival Procedures ............................................... RAC 9.0
– Uncontrolled Aerodromes/Airspace .............. RAC 9.12, 9.13
– ATC Assignment of Altitudes ............................. RAC 8.6
– Circling ................................................................. RAC 9.23
– Procedures ........................................................... RAC 9.24
– Clearance with VFR Restrictions .................... RAC 6.2.1
– Clearances .............................................................. R AC 7.4
– Clearances – Leaving or Entering
Controlled Airspace ............................................. RAC 8.8
– Climb or Descent .................................................. RAC 8.4
– Contact and Visual Approaches ......................... RAC 9.6
– Corrections for Temperature ........... RAC 9.17.1, Fig. 9.1
–Cross Country Training Flight ......................... RAC 3.11
–Departure, Approach and Alternate Minima. RAC 9.18
–Departure Procedures .......................................... R AC 7.0
– Departure from Uncontrolled Aerodromes .............. R AC 7.9
– Descent Out of Controlled Airspace .................. RAC 9.4
– DME Holding Procedures ................................. RAC 10.8
– Emergencies and Equipment Failures ............... RAC 6.3
– En Route Procedures ............................................ RAC 8.0
– En Route – Uncontrolled Aerodromes
(Class–“G” Airspace) .......................................... RAC 8.10
– Flight – Two-Way Communications Failure ......... RAC 6.3.2
– Flight Plan .......................................................... .R AC 3.7.2
– Flight Plan – Completion of ............................. .RAC 3.15
– Flight, “1 000-Ft-on-Top” .................................... RAC 8.7
– Flights in VMC ...................................................... RAC 6.2
– General ................................................................... RAC 6.0
– Holding Clearance .............................................. RAC 10.2
– Holding Entry Procedures ................................ RAC 10.5
– Holding Pattern, Speed Limitations ................ RAC 10.7
– Holding Pattern, Timing ................................... RAC 10.6
– Holding Procedures ............................................ RAC 10.0
– ILS, Category II Minima ................................ RAC 9.18.1
– Initial Contact at Uncontrolled Aerodromes ........... RAC 9.11
– Initial Contact with Tower ........................... RAC 7.3, 9.9
– Instrument Procedures, Development of .......... RAC 6.6
– Landing Minima .............................................. RAC 9.19.3
– Mach Number ........................ RAC 8.3.1, 12.1, NAT 1.13
– Minimum Altitudes ............................................. RAC 8.5
– Missed Approach Procedures ........................... RAC 9.26
– Missed Approach Procedures – Visual ........... RAC 9.25
– Noise Abatement Procedures – Departure .......R AC 7.6
– Non-Standard Holding Pattern ........................ RAC 10.4
– Obstacle and Terrain Clearance ........................ .R AC 7.7
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN– Outbound Report ............................................... RAC 9.14
– PAR (Precision Radar Approaches)
.......................................................... COM 7.1, RAC 9.8.4
– Position Reports .................................................... RAC 8.1
– Mandatory Routes ............................. .RAC 3.16.6, 11.4.3
– Mandatory IFR Routes (Including RNAV) .......... RAC 11.4.3
– Procedure Altitudes ............................................ RAC 9.17
– Procedures – Uncontrolled Aerodromes/Airspace
................................................................... RAC 4.5.2, 9.14
– Published Holding Patterns ............................ RAC 10.10
– Release from Tower Frequency ........................... R AC 7.8
– Remote Altimeter Setting ............................... R AC 9.17.2
– Reporting of Equipment Malfunction .......... RAC 6.3.3
– Reporting Procedures
– Uncontrolled Aerodrome .................................. RAC 9.12
– Required Visual Reference ............................. RAC 9.19.3
– Runway Visual Range (RVR) ............................ RAC 9.20
– Separation .............................................................. RAC 6.4
– Shuttle Procedure ............................................... RAC 10.9
– Simultaneous Approaches ................................. RAC 9.27
– Speed Adjustment – ATS Surveillance
Controlled Aircraft ........................................... R AC 9.7.3
– Standard Holding Pattern ................................. RAC 10.3
– Standard Instrument Departure (SID) .............. R AC 7.5
– Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) ........ RAC 9.2, 9.2.3
– Straight-in Approach .......................................... RAC 9.15
– Straight-in Landing Minima ............................. RAC 9.22
– True Airspeed (TAS) ........................................ RAC 8.2.2
– Uncontrolled Airspace ...................................... .RAC 9.13
– Visual Approach ............................................... .RAC 9.6.2
ILS (Instrument Landing Systems) ........................ COM 4.10
–Automatic Landing (Autoland) Operations
........................................................................ COM 4.10.7
– Categories ........................................................ COM 4.10.5
–Glide Path ........................................................ COM 4.10.2
– Glide Path Fluctuations ................................ COM 4.10.7
– Localizer ........................................................... COM 4.10.1
– Minima, Category II ........................................ RAC 9.18.1
Importation of
–Aircraft into Canada ............................................ LRA 4.6
Index
–Aerodrome Obstacle Charts
– ICAO Type A ..................................................... MAP 4.2.1
– Legislation – Canadian Aviation Regulations .....GEN 5.3
Information
–Signs .................................................................... AGA 5.8.2
–Survival Advisory ........................................ AIR ANNEX
– Weather ................................................................. MET 3.0
Initial Contact ...................................................... RAC 4.4.1, 9.9
Interception – Procedures .................. SAR 4.6 SCHEDULE I
–Visual Signals for Use in the Event of
.................................................... SAR 4.6 SCHEDULE II
Intermediate Approach .............................................. RAC 9.16
Intermediate Stops ..................................................... .RAC 3.10
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
–Definitions ......................................................... AGA 1.2.1
– Documents .......................................................... AGA 1.1.2International Flights
–Charts .................................................................... MAP 5.0
– HF Air-Ground Frequencies, Use of General
Purpose VHF, in Lieu of .................................... COM 1.4
Internet address (Transport Canada Home Page) ...LRA 5.7
Instrument
–Flight Rules – General .......................................... RAC 6.0
– Flight Test (IFT) ................................................... COM 9.4
– Rating Minima .............................................. RAC Fig. 9.2
Insurance
–Liability ................................................................... LRA 4.8
Interference with Aircraft Navigational
Equipment ................................................................ COM 4.4
Intersecting Runways, Operations on ..................... RAC 4.4.9
J
Jet and Propeller Blast Danger .................................... AIR 1.7
L
Landing Distance Available (LDA) .......................... AGA 3.10
Landing Lights, Collision Avoidance .......................... AIR 4.5
Landing Minima ..................................................... RAC 9.19.3
Legislative Index
–Canadian Aviation Regulations ........................ GEN 5.3
Licences
–Airline Transport ............................................... LR A 1.7.4
– Commercial Pilot ............................................... LR A 1.7.3
– Differences with ICAO Standards ..................... LRA 1.8
– Flight Engineer ................................................... LR A 1.7.6
– Medical Examination Requirements ................. LRA 2.2
– Multi-crew .......................................................... LR A 1.7.5
– Pilot ....................................................................... LR A 1.7.1
– Private Pilot ........................................................ LR A 1.7.2
– Recency Requirements ...................................... LR A 1.7.2
– Reinstatement of Suspended Licence ............... LRA 1.11
Licensing
–Flight Crew Licensing Administration ........... LRA 1.14
– Flight Crew Conversion Agreement between
Canada and the United States ........................... LRA 1.13
– Flight Crew Licensing .......................................... LRA 1.0
– Licensing and Registration of Aircraft .............. LRA 4.5
Life-Saving Equipment for Aircraft
Operating Over Water .......................................... AIR 2.11.3
Light Aircraft
–Crosswind Landing Limitations ......................... AIR 2.2
Lighting
–Aerodrome ............................................................. AGA 7.0
– Approach ................................................................ AGA 7.5
– Approach/Take-Off Direction ....................... AGA 7.12.3
– Displaced Threshold ........................................ AGA 7.8.3
– Emergency .......................................................... .AGA 7.13
– Heliport ................................................................ AGA 7.12
– Low Intensity Approach (LIAL) ...................... AGA 7.5.1
–Medium Intensity Approach Lighting
–System (MALS) .................................................. AGA 7.5.1
–Medium Intensity Approach, System with Sequenced
Flashing Lights (MALSF) ................................. AGA 7.5.1
–Medium Intensity Approach Lighting and Runway
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN –Alignment Indicator Lights (MALSR) .......... AGA 7.5.1
– Night ....................................................................... AGA 7.3
–Non-Precison Approach Runways .................. AGA 7.5.1
–Obstructions ......................................................... AGA 6.0
– Omnidirectional Approach (ODALS) ............ AGA 7.5.1
– Rapid-Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights ................. AGA 7.9
– Runway ................................................................... AGA 7.8
– Runway Centre Line ......................................... .AGA 7.8.4
– Runway Touchdown Zone ............................... AGA 7.8.5
–Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with
Runway Alignement Indicator Lights (SSALR)
............................................................................ AGA 7.5.2
– Taxiway ................................................................. AGA 7.10
– Unserviceable Area ............................................... AGA 7.4
Lights
–Approach and Take-Off Direction Lights .....AGA 7.12.3
– Rapid-Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights ................. AGA 7.9
– Runway Edge Lights .......................................... AGA 7.8.1
– Runway End Lights ............................................ AGA 7.8.2
– Runway Guard Lights ........................................ AGA 7.11
– Runway Threshold End Lights ........................ AGA 7.8.2
– Taxiway Centreline Lights .............................. AGA 7.10.2
– Taxiway Edge Lights ........................................... AGA 7.10.1
– Use of Landing Lights – Collision Avoidance .....AIR 4.5
– Use of Strobe ........................................................... AIR 4.6
Lights, Runway Threshold Identification (RTIL) .AGA 7.7.1
Limited Weather Information Systems (LWIS)
................................................................... MET 1.1.5, 1.2.4
Localizer ................................................................... COM 4.10.1
Logging Operations .................................................... AIR 2.4.2
Low
–Level Controlled Airspace ................................... RAC 2.7
– Level Wind Shear ................................................... AIR 2.8
– Flying ....................................................................... AIR 2.4
– Flying near power lines ........................................ AIR 2.4.
– visibility operations plan (LVOP) ....................... RAC 1.6
M
Mach Number
–Clearances and Reports ....................................... RAC 8.2
– Adherence to ...................................................... . NAT 1.13
– True Airspeed (TAS) ....................................... .NAT 1.7.2
Maintenance Requirements
–For Canadian Registered Aircraft ...................... LRA 5.6
–Aircraft used in Dual Role Operations .......... LRA 5.6.2
Maintenance Certificate .............................................. LRA 5.4
Major Errors in Altimeter .................. RAC Fig. 9.1, AIR 1.5.4
Mandatory Frequency (MF), Use of ............. RAC 4.5.4, 4.5.6
Mandatory Instruction Signs .................................. AGA 5.8.3
Manned Free Balloon Operations ............................... AIR 4.7
Manoeuvring Area, Visual ........................................ RAC 9.25
MANOT (Missing Aircraft Notice) ........................... SAR 2.3
Markers
–Aerodrome Boundary .......................................... AGA 5.1
– Retroflective ........................................................ AGA 7.15
– Seaplane Dock ...................................................... AGA 5.3
– Shore ...................................................................... AGA 6.7
– Takeoff or Landing Area Boundary .................. AGA 5.1Markings
–Aerodrome ............................................................. AGA 5.1
–Approach and Take-Off .................................. AGA 5.5.6
–Appurtenances ..................................................... AGA 6.6
–Aeronautical Evaluation ...................................... AGA 6.3
–Arrows ................................................................ AGA 5.4.1
–Cable Spans .................................................... AGA 6.2, 6.7
– Closed .................................................................... AGA 5.6
– Day Marking ......................................................... AGA 6.4
– Displaced Threshold ........................................ AGA 5.4.1
– Helicopter Safety Area Markers ..................... AGA 5.5.2
– Heliports ................................................................ AGA 5.5
– Heliport Identification ..................................... AGA 5.5.3
– Heliport Takeoff and Landing Area Marking
........................................................................... AGA 5.5.1
– Holding ............................................................... AGA 5.4.3
– Hover Area ......................................................... AGA 5.5.4
– Obstruction ........................................................... AGA 6.0
– Power Line Crossings .......................................... AGA 6.7
– Preferred Approach and Departure Path ......AGA 5.5.6
– Runway .................................................................. AGA 5.4
– Standards .............................................................. AGA 6.2
– Taxiway Exit and Holding ............................... AGA 5.4.3
–Unserviceable Area ............................................... AGA 5.7
Marshalling Signals ....................................................... AIR 1.8
Measurement, Units of ................................................. GEN 1.4
Medical
–Aeromedical Factors .............................................. AIR 3.2
– Assessment Process .............................................. LRA 2.1
– Aviation Medical Review Board ......................... LRA 2.4
– Examination Requirements ................................ LRA 2.2
– Fitness for Permits and Licences ........................ LRA 1.9
– Periodic Medical Exam Categories 1, 2 3
Medically Fit ......................................................... .LRA 2.3
– Unfit Assessment .................................................. LRA 2.5
Medical Information ..................................................... AIR 3.0
–Alcohol .................................................................... AIR 3.9
– Anesthetics ........................................................... AIR 3.13
– Blood Donation .................................................... AIR 3.14
– Carbon Monoxide ............................................... AIR 3.2.3
– Decompression Sickness ....................................... AIR 3.5
– Disorientation ........................................................ AIR 3.7
– Drugs ..................................................................... AIR 3.10
– Fatigue .................................................................. .AIR 3.10
–follow-up procedures after an in-flight illumination
........................................................................... AIR 4.15.5
–General Health ....................................................... AIR 3.1
–High Altitude Flight in Aircraft with
Unpressurized Cabin ............................................ AIR 3.4
– Hyperventilation ................................................. AIR 3.2.2
– Hypothermia and Hyperthermia ...................... AIR 3.17
– Hypoxia ................................................................ AIR 3.2.1
– Mandatory Medical Reporting ......................... AIR 3.1.1
– Middle Ear and Sinus Discomfort or Pain ........ AIR 3.8
– Portable Combustion Heaters, Potential
Hazard of ................................................................. AIR 3.3
– Pregnancy ............................................................. AIR 3.15
– Scuba Diving .......................................................... AIR 3.6
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN– Vision ....................................................................... AIR 3.7
Meteorological / Meteorology
–Abbreviations, Significant Weather ................ MET 12.1
– AIRMET .................................. MET 1.1.3, 1.3.4, 1.3.6, 5.0
– Authority, Areas of Responsibility .................. MET 1.1.1
– Automated Reports
– Other ...................................................................... MET 8.6
– Reports from Other Non-aviation Autostations
.............................................................................. MET 8.6
– Voice Generator Module (VGM) ....................... MET 8.6
– Aviation Forecasts, Abbreviations .................. MET 15.0
– Aviation Weather Briefing Service (AWBS) ....MET 1.1.3
– Aviation Weather Information Service ......... MET 1.1.3
– Aviation Weather Reports ........................... MET 3.2, 8.0
– Aviation Weather Services .............................. MET 1.1.3
– AWOS (Automated Weather Observation
System) ................................................................... MET 8.5
– Canadian Forecast Winds and Temperatures
Aloft Network ........................................................ MET 9.1
– Canadian Meteorological Centre (CMC) ......MET 12.1
– Canadian Weather Information .............. MET 1.3.5, 3.0
– Charts and Forecasts ........................................... MET 1.3
– Clear Air Turbulence (CAT), Avoidance of
............................................................ MET 2.2, AIR 2.10
– Coastal Weather ................................................ MET 1.3.5
– Differences with ICAO Annex-3 .................... MET 1.1.8
– GFA (Area Forecast) ........................ MET 1.1.3, 1.3.6, 4.0
– Forecasts and Charts .......................................... .MET 1.3
– Ice Accumulation ................................................. MET 2.4
– Locations – Aerodrome Forecast ....................... MET 7.1
– METAR (Aerodrome Routine Meteorological
Report) .................................................. MET 1.2.1, 3.2, 8.0
– Observations and Reports ................................. MET 1.2
– Pilot Report (PIREP)
............................. MET 1.1.3, 1.1.6, 2.0, 2.2.1, RAC1.1.3
– Report (AIREP) ................................................... NAT 1.15
– Reports, Forecasts and Charts .................... MET 3.1, 3.2
– Responsibility ..................................................... MET 1.1.1
– Services Available ............................................. MET 1.1.2
– SIGMET ....................................................... MET 1.1.3, 6.0
–Space Weather ............................... MET 14.0, COM 5.5.4
– SPECI (Special Weather Reports)
............................................................. MET 1.2.1, 8.4, 8.5
– Special VFR Weather Minima .................... RAC Fig. 2.8
– Surface Weather Maps ...................................... MET 10.0
– Symbols
– Significant Weather ........................................... MET 12.1
– Surface Weather Maps ...................................... MET 10.0
– TAF (Aerodrome Forecast) ....................... MET 1.1.3, 7.0
– Turbulence Reporting Criteria Table ............. MET 2.2.2
– Upper Level Charts, analysed (ANAL) ........... MET 11.1
– Upper Level Wind and Temperature
Forecasts ....................................................... MET 1.3.7, 9.0
– VOLMET .............................................. NAT 2.2, MET 1.4
– Weather Charts .................................................... MET 3.3
– Weather Observing Systems .............. MET 3.2, 3.3, 1.1.5
–Weather Radar ................................. COM 7.1, MET 1.3.9
– Wind Shear ........................................................... MET 2.3Middle Ear and Sinus Discomfort or Pain ................. AIR 3.8
Military
–Arrester Cables ...................................................... AGA 9.2
– Flight Advisory Unit (MFAU) ......................... RAC 1.1.6
– Radar Assistance (Canadian Forces) .............. RAC 1.5.7
Minima
–Application of ...................................................... RAC 9.19
– Circling ................................................................. RAC 9.23
– Departure, Approach and Alternate ................ RAC 9.18
– Straight-in Landing ............................................ RAC 9.22
Minimum
–Altitudes – Overflying Aerodromes .................. RAC 5.5
– Altitudes – VFR .................................................... RAC 5.4
– En-Route Altitudes (MEA) ............................... RAC 8.6.1
– Fuel Advisory ..................................................... R AC 1.7.2
– Holding Altitude (MHA) .................................. RAC 10.7
– IFR Altitudes ......................................................... RAC 8.6
– Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA)
.................................................................... RAC 8.5, 8.6.1
– Sector Altitude (MSA)........... ............................ RAC 9.2.1
Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications
(MNPS) ..................................................................... NAT 1.11
–Certification ....................................................... NAT 1.7.5
–High-Level Airspace (HLA)......... ..NAT 1.11, NAT 1.19
– Navigation Errors, Monitoring of Gross ......NAT 1.19.6
– North Atlantic (NAT) MNPS Operations COM 3.15.11
Missed Approach
–From a Circling Procedure ................................ RAC 9.25
– Procedures ........................................................... RAC 9.26
Monitoring Emergency Frequency 121.5 MHz ...COM 1.4.2
Morning and Evening Civil Twilight Charts ........ GEN 1.5.2
Mountainous
–Areas, Flight Operations in ................................ AIR 2.13
– Regions ................................................ RAC 2.12, Fig. 2.12
N
NAR (North American Routes) .................................. NAT 1.3
National Harbours Board Act ................................. AIR 2.11.1
Nationality and Registration Marks ......... GEN 1.6, LRA 4.3
NAV CANADA
–Regions – Addresses, Facsimile
and Telephone Numbers ................................... GEN 1.1.2
NAVA I D
–DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) ......... COM 4.7
– LOC (Localizer) .............................................. COM 4.10.1
– NDB (Non-Directional Beacon) .................. COM 4.10.3
– Radio Navigation Aids ....................................... COM 4.0
– TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) ................... COM 4.8
– VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) .............. COM 4.5
– VORTAC (VOR and TACAN) .......................... COM 4.9
Navigation Aids
–Accuracy, Availability and Integrity of ........... COM 4.2
– Pilot Reporting of Abnormal Operation of ....COM 4.3
Navigation System
–GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System)
...................................................................... COM 5.1, 5.2
– GPS (Global Positioning System) .................. COM 5.2.1
– NDB (Non-Directional Beacon) ....................... COM 4.6
– VOR/DME (RHO-THETA) ........................... . COM 5.14
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENNight Lighting ............................................................... AGA 7.3
Night, Flight Operations at ......................................... AIR 2.16
Noise
–Abatement .................................................... RAC 4.1.2, 7.6
– Preferential Runways ............................... RAC 4.1.3, 7.6.2
Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) .......................... COM 4.10.3
NORDO/RONLY
..................... RAC 4.2.10, 4.2.12, 4.4.5, 4.4.6, 4.5.7, 4.5.8
North American Routes (NAR) .................................. NAT 1.3
North Atlantic
–Clearances ............................................................. .NAT 1.9
–Data Link Mandate (DLM) Airspace .......... NAT 1.20.6
– Documents and Guidance Material ............... NAT 1.1.2
– Domestic Clearances ......................................... NAT 1.9.2
–Flight Planning Procedures ............................... NAT 1.7.
– Flight Rules ............................................................ NAT 1.6
– In-flight Contingencies ...................................... NAT 1.17
– Oceanic Clearance Delivery ............................. NAT 1.9.3
– Operations (NAT) ................................................. NAT 1.0
– Organized Track System ............... NAT 1.5, NAT 1.20.3
– Regulation ........................................................... NAT 1.1.1
– Transponders, Operation of .............................. NAT 1.14
Northern and Southern Domestic Airspace .......... RAC 2.2.1
Northern Canada, Single-Engine Aircraft Operations
............................................................................. AIR 2.14.1
NOTAM ........................................................................ .MAP 3.0
–Collection, Evaluation and Dissemination ............. GEN 1.1.5
– Criteria for Issuance .................................... .MAP 3.1, 3.6
– Description ....................................................... MAP 3.2.3
– Distribution – Canadian, International ........... MAP 3.5
– Format .................................................................. .MAP 3.2
– GPS Satellite Outages ...................................... COM 5.5.1
– Information for Flight Planning ........................ RAC 3.3
– Schedule ......................................................... MAP 3.2.3.5
– Service ..................................................... .COM 5.5.1, 5.5.2
– Ty pes ...................................................................... MAP 3.3
Notice – PNR (Prior Notice Required) ..................... AGA 2.2
O
Obstacle
–And Terrain Clearance ........................................ R AC 7.7
– Clearance During Vectors ................................ RAC 1.5.5
–Clearance Limit .................................................. AGA 7.6.7
– Limitation Surfaces ............................................. AGA 4.2
–Protection Surface ............................................. AGA 7.6.6
– Restrictions ........................................................... AGA 4.0
– Heliports ............................................................. AGA 4.2.2
–Obstruction
–Aeronautical Evaluation .................................................. AGA 6.3
– Appurtenances ..................................................... AGA 6.6
– Day Lighting ......................................................... AGA 6.5
– Day Marking ......................................................... AGA 6.4
– Markings ............................................................... AGA 6.0
– Markings, Standards ........................................... AGA 6.2
– Suspended Cable Span Markings ...................... AGA 6.7
Occupational Health and Safety Program,
Aviation (A-OH&S) .................................................. GEN 2.1
–Civil Aviation Safety Inspectors ..................... GEN 2.1.3Occurrence – Reporting an Aviation ........................ GEN 3.3
Oceanic Clearances .................................................... NAT 1.9.1
Oil and Fuel Weights ................................................. RAC 3.5.2
Operational Information Signs ............................... AGA 5.8.2
Operations
–On Intersecting Runways ................................. RAC 4.4.9
– Sequential ............................................................ RAC 4.4.9
– Simultaneous ...................................................... RAC 4.4.9
Organized Track System (NAT) .......... NAT 1.5, NAT 1.20.3
Over-the-Top, VFR ..................................................... R AC 2.7.4
Overflying Aerodromes, Minimum Altitudes ......... RAC 5.5
P
PAPI (Precision Approach Path Indicator) ......... AGA 7.6.3, 7.6.4.3
Parachute Jumping ......................................................... AIR 4.8
Paraglider operations ..................................................... AIR 4.9
Passenger(s) – Actual Weights ................................. RAC 3.5.1
–Weight standards .................................................. RAC 3.5
Pavement Load Rating Charts ............................. .AGA 3.12.1
Permission – PPR (Prior Permission Required) ......AGA 2.2
Permits
–Medical Examination Requirements ................. LRA 2.2
– Reinstatement of a suspended ........................... LRA 1.11
– Student Pilot .......................................................... LRA.6.1
– Summary of Requirements ................................. LRA 1.6
Phone use During a Radio Communications
Failure ................................................................... COM 1.7
Pilot
–Permits ...................................................... .LRA 1.4.1, 1.6.2
–Procedures when exposed to laser or other
–Directed Bright Light Sources .......................... .AIR 4.15
– Proficiency Check (PPC) .................................... COM 9.4
– Reporting of Abnormal Operation
of Navigation Aids .............................................. COM 4.3
– Vital Action Checklists ......................................... AIR 1.2
– Waivers – Wake Turbulence ............................ RAC 4.1.1
PIREP (Pilot Report) ............................... MET 1.1.6, 2.0, 2.2.1
PN (Prior Notice Required) ........................................ AGA 2.2
Position Reports .......................................................... NAT 1.10
–IFR ........................................................................... RAC 8.1
– VFR ......................................................................... RAC 5.1
–Automatic Dependent Surveillance Waypoint Position
Reporting (FANS 1/A ADS WPR) ................... COM 3.10
Positive and Negative G ............................................... AIR 3.18
Power-back / Push-back Requests .......................... RAC 4.2.4
Power Line Crossing Markings .................................. AGA 6.7
Practice Spins .................................................................. AIR 4.3
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
................................................................ AGA 7.6.3, 7.6.4.3
Preferential Runways
–Assignments ....................................................... RAC 4.1.3
– Noise .................................................................... R AC 7.6.2
Preferred Routes Messages (PRM) ............................. NAT 1.8
Pre-flight
–Service, Single Source .......................................... RAC 3.4
Pregnancy ...................................................................... AIR 3.15
Pressure
–Altimeter ................................................................. AIR 1.5
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN– Drop ...................................................................... AIR 1.5.8
– Region, Standard ................................................. AIR 1.5.5
Prior Notice Required (PN) ........................................ AGA 2.2
Private
–Advisory Stations – Controlled Airports ............... RAC 1.2.3
Procedure(s)
–Air Traffic Control (ATC) Special .................. RAC 11.0
– Altitudes ............................................................... RAC 9.17
– Downed Aircraft .................................................. .SAR 4.7
Propeller and Jet Blast Danger ..................................... AIR 1.7
Publications and Charts, Procurement
of Aeronautical ..................................................... .MAP 4.2.1
Push-back / Power-back Requests .......................... RAC 4.2.4
R
Radar / ATS Surveillance ............................................ COM 7.0
–Alerting Manoeuvres ........................................... SAR 4.4
– Arrivals .................................................................. RAC 9.7
– ASDE (Airport Surface Detection Equipment)
COM 7.1
– Canadian Forces Radar Assistance ................. RAC 1.5.7
– Misuse of Vectors ............................................... RAC 1.5.6
– Navigation Assistance to VFR Flights ............ RAC 1.5.4
– Obstacle Clearance During Vectors .......................... RAC 1.5.5
– PAR (Precision Approach) ................................. COM 7.1
– Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) ................... COM 7.1
– Required .............................................................. RAC 9.8.2
– Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) ................ COM 7.2
– Service ..................................................................... RAC 1.5
– Procedures .......................................................... RAC 1.5.2
– Surveillance – VFR ............................................... RAC 5.7
– Traffic Information (Clock System) ............... RAC 1.5.3
– Use of ATS Surveillance in the Provision of AAS by
FSSs .......................................................................... RAC 1.5.8
– Misuse of Vectors ............................................... RAC 1.5.6
– Vectors, Obstacle Clearance During .............. RAC 1.5.5
– Weather Radar ................................. COM 7.1 MET 1.3.9
Radio
–Checks ................................................................ RAC 4.2.3
– Navigation Aids, Ground Based ....................... COM 4.0
– Radio Telephony Network Operations – North
Atlantic Area (NAT)/Anchorage Arctic FIR ............. NAT 2.2
Communications, Voice ............................................. COM 1.0
–Arctic ................................................................... RAC 1.1.3
– Channel Spacing ................................................. COM 1.4
– Radiocommunication Regulations .................. COM 1.2
– Regulations – Operator’s Certificates and
Station Licences ................................................... COM 1.2
Rapid-Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights ......................... AGA 7.9
Rapid-Exit Taxiways ................................................... AGA 3.11
Recency Requirements – Pilot Licence
Privileges ..................................................................... LRA 1.12
Recreational Aviation ....................................... AIR 4.7 to 4.10
Reduced Lateral Separation, Arrangements for ............... NAT 1.12
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
–North Atlantic RVSM ........................................ RAC 1.21
– NAT Height Monitoring ................... NAT 1.20.7, 1.20.8
– In-flight Contingencies ..................................... NAT 1.17 – Minimum Aircraft System Performance
Specification ........................................................ NAT 1.12
Reduced Visibility Operations Plan (RVOP) ............ RAC 1.6
Refuelling
–Fires and Explosions ........................................... AIR 1.3.4
Refuges, Reserves and Parks (National, Provincial
and Municipal) ..................................................... RAC 1.10.3
Region(s)
–Altimeter Setting ................................................ RAC 2.11
– Mountainous ............................ RAC 2.12, RAC Fig. 2.13
– NAV CANADA .................................................. GEN 1.1.2
– Transport Canada .............................................. GEN 1.1.1
Registered Aerodrome ................................................. AGA 2.0
Registration Marks and Nationality ......... GEN 1.6, LRA 4.3
Regulations, Airport Zoning ..................................... AGA 4.3
Reinstatement of Suspended Permit, Licence
or Rating .................................................................. LRA 1.11
Remote Altimeter Setting ...................................... R AC 9.17.2
Remote Communications Outlets (RCO) ............ COM 1.4.1
–Dial-up RCOs ................................................... COM 1.4.1
– Flight Information Service En Route (FISE)
......................................... COM 1.4.1, RAC 1.1.3, 1.1.4, 4.5.1
– Remote Aerodrome Advisory Service (RAAS)
................................... COM 1.4.1, RAC 1.1.3, 1.1.4, 4.5.1
Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA).................................AIR 4.16
–Advanced Operations .......................................... R PA 3.4
– Basic Operations ................................................... R PA 3.3
– Fitness of Crew Members ................................. R PA 3.2.7
– General Information ............................................. R PA 1.0
– General Operation and Flight Rules .................. R PA 3.2
– Maximum Altitude ......................................... R PA 3.2.13
– Micro RPA - Less than 250g .............................. R PA 2.0
– Minimum Weather Conditions ..................... RPA 3.2.22
– Night Flight ....................................................... RPA 3.2.27
– Operations at or in the Vicinity of an Aerodrome,
Airport or Heliport ................................ RPA 3.2.35, 3.4.5
– Pilot Requirements .................................. RPA 3.3.2, 3.4.2
– Pre-flight Information .................................... R PA 3.2.12
– Records .............................................................. R PA 3.2.36
– Registration ............................................................. R PA 3.1
– Serviceability of the RPAS .............................. R PA 3.2.17
– Small RPA- 250g to 25 kg .................................... R PA 3.0
Reports
–Altitude ................................................................. NAT 1.16
– ATS – Possible Contravention of the
Air Regulations .................................................. RAC 1.1.4
– Automated Reports
– Other ...................................................................... MET 8.6
– Limited Weather Information System (LWIS)
.............................................................................. MET 8.5
– Voice Generator Module (VGM) ....................... MET 8.6
– AWOS – METAR AUTO or
SPECI AUTO ...................................................................... MET 8.5
– CRFI .................................................... .AGA 1.1.3, AIR 1.6
– Pilot (PIREP) ........................................................ MET 2.0
– Pollution ........................................................... RAC 1.12.5
Required Visual Reference ...................................... RAC 9.19.3
Resolution Advisories (TCAS/ACAS) ........................ RAC 1.6
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENResponsibilities
–NAV CANADA .................................................. GEN 1.1.2
– Transport Canada ......................... GEN 1.1.1, AGA 2.3.3
Restricted Airspace ................................................... RAC 2.8.6
Retroflective Markers ................................................. AGA 7.15
Right of Way – Collision Avoidance Regulations ................. RAC 1.9
RNAV (Area Navigation) Operations ...................... COM 5.0
RONLY (Receiver Only)/NORDO (No Radio), Procedures
..................... RAC 4.2.10, 4.2.12, 4.4.5, 4.4.6, 4.5.7, 4.5.8
Routes, Canadian Domestic
–Mandatory IFR Routes (including RNAV)
.............................................................. RAC 3.16.6, 11.4.3
RSC and CRFI Reporting .......................................... AIR 1.6.4
RTIL (Runway Threshold Identification Lights) .....AGA 7.7
Runway(s)
–Centre Line Lighting ......................................... AGA 7.8.4
– Characteristics ...................................................... AGA 3.0
– CRFI ......................................................................... AIR 1.6
– Declared Distances ............................................. AGA 3.10
– Dimensions ............................................................ AGA 3.1
– End Lights ........................................................... AGA 7.8.2
– Friction Calibration Method ........................ AGA 1.1.4.1
– Guard Lights ........................................................ AGA 7.11
– Heading .................................................................. R AC 7.5
– Holding Position Markings ............................. AGA 5.4.3
– Intersecting, Operations on ............................. RAC 4.4.9
– Lighting .................................................................. AGA 7.8
– Markings ............................................................... AGA 5.4
– Non-Precision Approach ................................. AGA 7.5.1
– Sequential Operations ....................................... RAC 4.4.9
– Simultaneous Operations ................................. RAC 4.4.9
– Strip ........................................................................ AGA 3.2
– Taxiway Bearing Strength ................................. AGA 3.12
– Threshold Identification Lights (RTIL) ............ AGA 7.7
– Touchdown Zone Lighting .............................. AGA 7.8.5
– Wet .................................................... RAC 4.4.9, AIR 1.6.5
– Winter Condition NOTAM .............................. AIR 1.6.4
Runway turn pad .......................................................... AGA 3.6
Runway Visual Range (RVR) .................................... RAC 9.20
–Comparative Scale – Feet to Meters ................ GEN 1.7.3
– Operational use of RVR ................................. RAC 9.20.2
S
Safety .............................................................................. GEN 2.0
–Alert Procedure and Phraseology .................. RAC 12.15
– Aviation Safety Analysis ..................................... GEN 2.2
– Aviation Safety Letter (ASL) ........................... GEN 2.2.4
– Occupational ......................................................... GEN 2.1
SAR (Search and Rescue) .............................................. SAR 1.1
–Emergency Locator Transmitter ....................... .SAR 3.0
– Flight Planning ...................................................... SAR 2.0
– Ground-to-Air Signals ...................................... .SAR 4.7.1
– Interception Procedures ...................................... SAR 4.6
– MANOT (Missing Aircraft Notice) ................... SAR 2.3
– Procedures for Signaling Vessels ........................ SAR 2.4
– Regions (SRR) ................................................ .SAR Fig. 1.1
– Rescue Co-ordination Centres (RCCs) .............. SAR 1.1
– Responsible Authority .......................................... .SAR 1.0 – Services Available .................................................. SAR 1.2
– Survival ................................................................. SAR 4.7.2
Satellite Navigation (SatNav) .................................. COM 5.3.2
–Current Approvals .............................................. COM 5.4
– Required Navigation Performance .................. COM 6.0
Scuba Diving ................................................................... AIR 3.6
Seaplane Dock Markers ............................................... AGA 5.3
Seaplanes
–Landing on Glassy Water ................................ AIR 2.11.4
– Landing on Unbroken Snow Conditions ............... AIR 2.12.6
– Use on Snow Surfaces ....................................... AIR 2.12.5
Search and Rescue (see SAR) ........................................ SAR 1.1
SECURITAS Program ................................................. GEN 3.5
Security, Emergency Communications and
......................................................... COM 1.4.2, RAC 2.13
SELCAL (Selective Calling System) ........................... NAT 2.4
Sequential Operations ............................................... RAC 4.4.9
Service Difficulty Reporting Program ................... LRA 2.6.4
Services
–Aeronautical Fixed (AFS) .................. MAP 3.5, RAC 3.3
– Air Traffic ........................................................... RAC 1.1.1
– Apron Advisory ................................................. RAC 1.2.4
– Arctic Territories ................................................ RAC 1.1.3
– Other Than Air Traffic Services ........................ RAC 1.2
“Shall” and “Should” (Definitions) ......................... GEN 1.1.3
Shannon Oceanic Transition Area (SOTA) ......... NAT 1.19.1
Shore Markers ............................................................... AGA 6.7
“Should” and “Shall” (Definitions) ......................... GEN 1.1.3
SIGMET
(Significant Meteorological Report) .............. MET 1.1.3, 6.0
Signals
–Ground-to-Air ........................................................ SAR 4.7
– Intercepting and Intercepted Aircraft ............... SAR 4.6
– Marshalling for Aircraft and Helicopters .......... AIR 1.8
– Visual ...................................................... RAC 4.2.11, 4.4.7
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts (RAFC) ............. MET 3.13
Signs
–Airfield .................................................................. AGA 5.8
– Illumination of Airfield ................................... AGA 5.8.4
– Information ....................................................... AGA 5.8.2
– Mandatory Instruction .................................... AGA 5.8.3
Simultaneous Operations .......................................... RAC 4.4.9
Simultaneous Precision Instrument Approaches
–Converging Runways ......................................... RAC 9.28
– Parallel Runways ................................................. RAC 9.27
Single-engine Aircraft Operating
in Northern Canada ............................................. AIR 2.14.1
–Transoceanic Flight .............................................. NAT 1.2
Single Side Band ............................................................ NAT 2.3
Snow
–Flight Operations in Winter .............................. AIR 2.12
– Landing Seaplanes on Unbroken Snow Conditions
........................................................................... AIR 2.12.6
– Landing Wheel-Equipped Light Aircraft
on Snow Covered Surfaces .............................. AIR 2.12.4
– Removal and Ice Control .................................. AGA 1.1.4
SOTA .......................................................................... NAT 1.19.1
Southern and Northern Domestic Airspace .......... RAC 2.2.1
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENSparsely Settled Areas
–Flight Operations ................................................. AIR 2.14
– Single-Engine Aircraft Operating in
Northern Canada .............................................. AIR 2.14.1
Special VFR Weather Minima ................................. R AC 2.7.3
Speed
–Adjustment – ATS Surveillance Controlled Aircraft R AC 9.7.3
– Aircraft Speed Limit ......................................... RAC 2.5.2
Spins, Practice ................................................................. AIR 4.3
Stabilized Approach .................................................. AIR 2.17.2
Standard
–Instrument Departure (SID) ............................... R AC 7.5
– Pressure Region ................................................... RAC 2.11
– Terminal Arrival (STAR) .......................... RAC 9.2, 9.2.3
– Conventional STAR ........................................ RAC 9.2.3.1
– PBN STAR ....................................................... RAC 9.2.3.2
Stop Bars .................................................................... AGA 7.10.3
Stops, Intermediate ..................................................... RAC 3.10
Stopway
–Definition .............................................................. AGA 3.8
Stopways ..................................................................... AGA 5.4.2
Straight-In Approach .................................................. RAC 9.15
Strobe Lights, Use of ...................................................... AIR 4.6
Sunrise/Sunset ........................................................... GEN 1.5.2
Supplement, AIP Canada ............................................ MAP 2.2
Surface Condition Reports
–Aircraft Movement (AMSCR) .......................... AIR 1.6.4
Survival ......................................................................... SAR 4.7.2
–Advisory Information ................................. AIR ANNEX
T
Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) ........................... COM 4.8
Takeoff Clearance ..................................................... RAC 4.2.8
Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) ........................ AGA 3.10
Takeoff Minima ........................................................ RAC 9.19.1
Takeoff Run Available (TORA) ................................ AGA 3.10
Taxi
–Holding Positions ............................................. RAC 4.2.6
– Holding Positions During IFR Operations ...RAC 4.2.7
– Information ....................................................... RAC 4.2.5
Taxiing ......................................................................... RAC 4.4.4
Taxiway
–Bearing Strength ................................................. AGA 3.12
– Lighting ................................................................ AGA 7.10
– Rapid-Exit ........................................................... AGA 3.11,
– Rapid-Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights ................. AGA 7.9
TC AIM
–Amendments–Future dates .............................. GEN 1.1.4
– Content ................................................................ GEN 1.1.3
– Co-ordinator ....................................................... GEN 1.1.3
– Distribution, address changes and information
requests ................................................................ GEN 1.1.4
– Obtaining the commercial edition ................. GEN 1.1.4
TCAS I/TCAS II ........................................................... COM 9.0
–TCAS/ACAS (Traffic Alert and Collision
Avoidance Systems and Airborne Collision
Avoidance Systems) ................................................. COM 9.0
– Airworthiness Approval .................................... .COM 9.5 – Mode S Transponder Approval
and Unique Codes .............................................. COM 9.8
– Operational Approval ......................................... COM 9.4
– Pilot and Controller Interchange ..................... COM 9.8
– Pilot/Controller Actions .................................... .COM 9.9
– Pilot Immunity from Enforcement Action
for Deviating from Clearances .......................... COM 9.7
– Transport Canada Policy ................................... COM 9.2
– Use of .................................................................... COM 9.3
Technical Records, Aircraft .................................... . LRA 2.6.3
Temperature Correction
for Altimeter ........................................................ GEN 9.17.1
Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) ................... ...............RAC 9.2.2
Terminal Control Areas ............................................ R AC 2.7.6
Terminal Products ......................................... MAP 4.2.1, 4.2.2
Test Flights, Conduct of Experimental ....................... AIR 4.2
Thresholds
–Arrows ................................................................ AGA 5.4.1
–Displaced Threshold Lighting ........................ AGA 7.8.3
– Stopways ............................................................. AGA 5.4.2
Thunderstorms
–Flight Operations Near ......................................... AIR 2.7
Time
–System ..................................................................... GEN 1.5
– Zone, UTC/Local .............................................. GEN 1.5.3
Traffic Circuit Procedures
–Controlled Aerodromes ....................................... RAC 4.3
– NORDO/RONLY ........................................... RAC 4.5.8.2
– Uncontrolled Aerodromes .............................. RAC 4.5.2
Transborder Flights
–Flight Plan Requirements (Between Canada
and a Foreign State) ........................................... RAC 3.5.3
Transfer – IFR Units to Towers ............................... . RAC 9.10
Transoceanic Flight – General Aviation Aircraft .................. NAT 1.2
Transition Areas ......................................................... R AC 2.7.5
Transponder
–Alerting .................................................................. SAR 4.3
– Communication Failure .................................... COM 8.7
– Emergencies ......................................................... COM 8.6
– IFR Operations in Other Low-Level
Airspace ................................................................ COM 8.2
– Mode S, Approval and Unique Codes .......................... COM 9.8
– Operation ............................................................. COM 8.0
– Phraseology ......................................................... COM 8.5
– Requirements ....................................................... COM 8.2
– VFR Operations .................................................. COM 8.4
– Unlawful Interference (Hijack) ........................ COM 8.8
– Regions – Addresses, Facsimile and
Telephone Numbers .......................................... GEN 1.1.1
– Responsibilities ................................................. AGA 2.3.3
Transportation Appeal Tribunal of Canada (TATC)
................................................................................. LRA 6.0
–Refusal to issue or Amend a Canadian
Aviation Document .............................................. LRA 6.2
– Suspension, Cancellation or Refusal
to Renew ................................................................. LRA 6.3
– Monetary Penalties ............................................... LRA 6.4
– Appeals ................................................................... LRA 6.5
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENTransportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB) ....................... GEN 3.0
–Addresses, Facsimile and
Telephone Numbers ............................................. GEN 3.6
Tribunal – Transportation Appeal Tribunal of
Canada (TATC) .................................................... LRA 6.0
True Airspeed (TAS) .............................. RAC 8.3.2, NAT 1.7.2
Turbu lence ................................................................... MET 3.13
–Clear Air (CAT) .................................................. .AIR 2.10
– Reporting Criteria Table .................................. MET 2.2.2
– Pilot Waivers ....................................................... RAC 4.1.1
– Wake ................................................... .RAC 4.1.1, AIR 2.9
Turbulence, Downdraft and ...................................... AIR 1.5.7
Turn pad, Runway ........................................................ AGA 3.6
Twilight Charts, Morning and Evening ................ GEN 1.5.2
U
Ultra-light Aeroplane .................................................. AIR 4.10
Uncontrolled Aerodromes
–Aircraft Operations .............................................. RAC 4.5
– Class “G” Airspace
– Recommended Operating Procedures
– En-Route .......................................................... RAC 8.11
– Helicopter Operations ...................................... RAC 4.5.3
– Initial Contact with Air-Ground Facility ................. RAC 9.11
– Licensing, Registration and
Airworthiness ........................................................ LRA 1.0
– Reporting Procedures (IFR) ............................. .RAC 9.12
– Traffic Circuit Procedures ............................... RAC 4.5.2
Uncontrolled Airspace – Procedures (IFR) ............ RAC 9.13
Underwater Diving ........................................................ AIR 3.6
UNICOM (Universal Communications) ............... RAC 1.2.1
–Approach UNICOM (AU) ........... RAC 1.2.1, MET 1.2.7
Units of Measurement .................................................. GEN 1.4
Unlawful Interference ............................ COM 8.8, RAC 1.8.8
Unserviceable Area Markings ..................................... AGA 5.7
Upper Level
–Charts (ANAL) .................................................... MET 9.0
– Wind and Temperature Forecasts (FD) .......... MET 1.3.8, 11.1
V
V Speeds .......................................................................... GEN 1.7
VASI (Visual Approach Slope Indicator)
...................................................... AGA 7.6.2, AGA 7.6.4.2
Vertical Path Control on Non-Precision
Approaches ................................................................ AIR 2.17
Vertical Path Control Techniques .......................... AIR 2.17.3
Vertigo .............................................................................. AIR 3.7
VFR
–Acknowledgement of Clearances ....................... RAC 5.2
– Aeronautical Information .................................. MAP 2.5
– Altitudes and Flight Levels .................................. RAC 5.3
– Controlled Airspace, Use of by
VFR Flights ......................................................... RAC 2.5.1
– En Route Procedures ............................................ RAC 5.0
– Flight Plan and Flight Itineraries ...RAC 3.6, RAC 3.7.1
– Holding Procedures .......................................... RAC 4.4.2
– Minimum Altitudes ...................................... RAC 5.4, 5.5
– Operations within Class “C” Airspace .............. RAC 5.8 – Over-the-Top ...................................................... R AC 2.7.4
– Position Reporting ................................................ RAC 5.1
– VFR Release of an IFR Aircraft ...................... RAC 6.2.2
– Weather Minima ................................. RAC 2.7.3, Fig. 2.7
VGM (Voice Generated Module) .......... RAC 4.5.1, RAC 9.12
VHF
–Channel Spacing ................................................ . COM 1.4
– In Lieu of International HF Air-Ground
– Omnidirectional Range and Tactical
Air Navigation (VORTAC) ................................ COM 4.9
– Omnidirectional Range (VOR) ........................ COM 4.5
Visibility, Ground ..................................................... RAC 9.19.1
Vision ............................................................................... AIR 3.7
Visual
–Alignment Guidance System (VAGS) ............ AGA 7.7.2
– Approach Slope Indicator Systems (VASIS)
AGA 7.6
– Climb and Descent ........................................... RAC 8.4.2
Visual Climb Over the Airport ................................. R AC 7.7.1
Visual Signals .............................................................. RAC 4.4.7
–Ground .............................................................. RAC 4.3.11
– Ground-to-Air ..................................................... SAR 4.7.1
– Intercepting and Intercepted Aircraft ............... SAR 4.6
– Marshalling for Aircraft and Helicopters .......... AIR 1.8
– Tower to Aircraft ............................................. RAC 4.2.11
Voice Generated Module (VGM) .................... RAC 4.5.1, 9.12
................................................................................ MET 8.6
Volcanic Ash ............................................. MET 2.5, 3.2.2, 13.0
–Flight Operations in .............................................. AIR 2.6
VOLMET ....................................................................... MET 1.4
VOR/DME (RHO-THETA) System ........................ COM 5.13
VORTAC (VHF Omnidirectional Range
and Tactical Air Navigation) ............................ COM 4.9
Vortex
–Characteristics .................................................... .AIR 2.9.1
– Strength ................................................................... AIR 2.9
Vortices, Helicopter ....................................................... AIR 2.9
VOR
–Airborne VOR Check ...................................... COM 4.5.3
– Check Point ....................................................... COM 4.5.2
– Receiver Checks ............................................... COM 4.5.1
W
Wake Turbulence ........................................ RAC 4.1.1, AIR 2.9
Water
–Operations on ....................................................... AIR 2.11
– Operations Over, Life-Saving Equipment .................. AIR 2.11.3
Web, Transport Canada Site ................................... . GEN 1.1.4
Weather
–ATC Weather Assistance ................................. MET 1.3.8
– ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information
Service) ........................................................ RAC 1.3, 4.2.1
– Automated Reports – Other ............................... MET 8.6
– Voice Generator Module (VGM) ....................... MET 8.6
– Briefing, Flight Planning ..................................... RAC 3.2
– Charts, Reports ............................................. MET 3.2, 3.3
– Codes, significant ................................................ MET 8.3
– Flight Operation Near Thunderstorms .............. AIR 2.7
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN– Information .......................................................... MET 3.0
– Minima Requirements, Alternate
Aerodrome ........................................................ RAC 3.14.1
– Minima, VFR ...................................... RAC 2.7.3, Fig. 2.7
– Observations, Surface ......................................... MET 8.0
– Pilot Report (PIREP) ............................................ MET 1.1.6, 2.2.1
– Radar ................................................................... MET 1.3.9
– Reporting of Cloud Bases ................................ MET 1.1.5
– Reports, Charts ............................................. MET 3.2, 3.3
– METAR (Routine Report) ........................... MET 3.2, 8.0
– Special Reports (SPECI) ...................................... MET 8.4
– Surface Maps ...................................................... MET 10.0
– Surface Weather Observing Service ............... RAC 1.1.3
– Symbols, Significant .......................................... MET 10.0
– TAF (Aerodrome Forecast) ................................ MET 3.9
– Volcanic Ash ......................................... MET 2.5, 3.2, 13.0
– Flight Operations in .............................................. AIR 2.6
Weight and Balance Form ........................................... RAC 3.5
–Actual Weights ................................................... RAC 3.5.1
– Fuel and Oil Weights ......................................... RAC 3.5.2
– Passenger Standards ............................................. RAC 3.5
Wet Runways ............................................ RAC 4.4.9, AIR 1.6.5
Wheel-Equipped Light Aircraft on Snow-Covered
Surfaces .............................................................. AIR 2.12.4
Whiteout ..................................................................... AIR 2.12.7
Wind Direction Indicators (Wind Socks) ................. AGA 5.9
Wind
–Pilot Estimate of Surface Wind ......................... MET 2.6
– Beaufort Wind Scale ............................. MET 2.6, Table 1
Wind Shear .................................................................... MET 2.3
–Low-Level .............................................................. . AIR 2.8
Winter Operations – Aircraft Contamination .................... AIR 2.12.2
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and ICAO
–Applicable Documents ...................................... MET 1.1.7
121.5 MHz, Monitoring of
Emergency Frequency .................................................. COM 1.4.2
126.7 MHz, Monitoring of .......................................................... RAC 5.1
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN5.0 MISCELLANEOUS
5.1 GLOSSARY OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS
“Acknowledge”
An expression used in radiocommunication meaning “Let me
know that you have received and understood this message.”
acts of unlawful interference
Acts or attempted acts such as to jeopardize the safety of civil
aviation and air transport, i.e.:
(a) unlawful seizure of aircraft in flight;
(b) unlawful seizure of aircraft on the ground;
(c) hostage-taking on board aircraft or on aerodromes;
(d) forcible intrusion on board an aircraft, at an airport or on the premises of an aeronautical facility;
(e) introduction on board an aircraft or at an airport of a weapon
or hazardous device or material intended for criminal
purposes;
(f) communication of false information such as to jeopardize
the safety of an aircraft in flight or on the ground, of
passengers, crew, ground personnel or the general public, at an airport or on the premises of a civil aviation facility.
aerodrome
Any area of land, water (including the frozen surface thereof)
or other supporting surface used, designed, prepared, equipped
or set apart for use, either in whole or in part, for the arrival,
departure, movement or servicing of aircraft. This includes any
buildings, installations and equipment situated thereon or
associated therewith.
aerodrome traffic frequency (ATF)
A very high frequency (VHF) designated to ensure that all radio-
equipped aircraft operating at or in the vicinity of an aerodrome,
or in a defined area where VFR traffic is high, are listening on
a common frequency and following a common reporting
procedure.
afterimage
A collection of light, dark, or coloured spots, perceived after
exposure to bright light,that may be distracting and disruptive and may persist for several minutes.
• see also: flash blindness , glare
airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS)
An aircraft system based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR)
transponder signals which operates independently of ground-
based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential
conflicting aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders.aircraft critical surface contamination (ACSC)
Presence of substances, including frost, ice and snow, on the
critical surface of an aircraft that can have an adverse impact
on the performance of an aircraft.
aircraft radio control of aerodrome lighting (ARCAL)
A system used by pilots to control some or all of the aerodrome
lighting, aside from obstacle lights, via the aircraft VHF
transmitter and the microphone on the appropriate frequency.
air defence identification zone (ADIZ)
An airspace of defined dimensions extending upwards from the
surface of the earth within which certain rules for the security control of air traffic apply.
airport (APRT)
An aerodrome for which an airport certificate is in force.
airspace classification (see RAC 2.8).
The division of the Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) into
seven classes, each identified by a single letter: A, B, C, D, E, F
or G. The application of any classification to an airspace structure
determines the operating rules, the level of ATC service provided
within the structure and, in some instances, communications
and equipment requirements. The horizontal and vertical limits
of airspace are described in the Designated Airspace
Handbook (DAH).
air traffic
All aircraft in flight or operating on the manoeuvring area of
an aerodrome.
air traffic control clearance
An authorization issued by an ATC unit for an aircraft to proceed
within controlled airspace in accordance with the conditions
specified by that unit.
• also called: air traffic clearance, ATC clearance and
clearance
air traffic control instruction
A directive issued by an ATC unit for ATC purposes.
air traffic control service
A service provided for the purposes of
(a) preventing collisions between
(i) aircraft;
(ii) aircraft and obstacles; and
(iii) aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area; and
(b) expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of air traffic.
• also called: ATC service
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENair traffic control unit
As the circumstances require, this may be
(a) an area control centre (ACC) established to provide ATC
service to aircraft; or
(b) an airport control tower unit established to provide ATC
service to airport traffic.
• also called: ATC unit
alternate aerodrome
An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes
either impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or land at the
aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes include
the following:
(a) takeoff alternate aerodrome
(b) en-route alternate aerodrome
(c) destination alternate aerodrome
NOTE :
The aerodrome from which a flight departs may also be an
en-route or a destination alternate aerodrome for that flight.
apron
That part of an aerodrome, other than the manoeuvring area,
intended to accommodate the loading and unloading of passengers
and cargo; the refuelling, servicing, maintenance and parking
of aircraft; and any movement of aircraft, vehicles and pedestrians
engaged in services for such purposes.
• also called: flight line, ramp and tarmac
arc
The track over the ground of an aircraft flying at a constant
distance from a NAVAID by reference to distance measuring
equipment (DME).
Arctic Control Area (ACA) (see RAC Figure 2.3)
A controlled airspace within the Northern Domestic
Airspace (NDA) at FL 270 and above.
area minimum altitude (AMA)
The lowest altitude that may be used under instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) that will provide a minimum
vertical clearance of 1000 ft or, in a designated mountainous
region, 2000 ft, rounded up to the next 100-ft increment, under
conditions of standard temperature and pressure, above all
obstacles located in the area specified.
NOTE
This term replaced the term geographic area safe altitude (GASA)
on April 18, 2002.area navigation (RNAV)
A method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any
desired flight path within the coverage of ground- or space-based
NAVAIDs or within the limits of the capability of self-contained
aids, or a combination of these.
automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B)
A means by which aircraft, aerodrome vehicles and other objects
can automatically transmit and/or receive data such as
identification, position and additional data, as appropriate, in a
broadcast mode via a data link.
automatic landing operation (autoland operation)
An operation during which an automatic landing system carries
out an aircraft’s approach and landing under the supervision of the crew.
ballistic parachute system
An aircraft parachute system that extracts/propels the parachute
via an ignitable propellant (e.g. rocket motor or explosive charge).
barometric vertical navigation (baro -VNAV)
A function of certain RNAV systems that presents to the pilot
computed vertical guidance referenced to a specified vertical
path, based on barometric altitude information and typically
computed as a geometric path between two waypoints or an
angle based on a single waypoint.
• also called: lateral navigation/vertical navigation (LNAV/
V NAV)
broadcast (BCST)
A transmission of information relating to air navigation that is not addressed to a specific station or stations.
Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA)
As geographically delineated in the Designated Airspace
Handbook (DAH), all airspace over the Canadian land mass,
the Canadian Arctic and the Canadian archipelago, and over
areas of the high seas.
ceiling
The lesser of:
(a) the height above ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud covering more than half the sky; or
(b) the vertical visibility in a surface-based layer which
completely obscures the sky.
clear air turbulence (CAT)
Turbulence encountered in air where no clouds are present.
NOTE :
This expression is commonly applied to high-level turbulence
associated with wind shear (WS). CAT is often encountered in
the vicinity of the jet stream.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENclearance limit
The point to which an aircraft is granted an ATC clearance.
“Cleared for the option”
(a) For an arriving aircraft: An expression used to indicate
ATC authorization for an aircraft to make a touch-and-go,
low approach, missed approach (MA), stop-and-go, or full-
stop landing, at the discretion of the pilot.
(b) For a departing aircraft: An expression used to indicate
ATC authorization for an aircraft to execute manoeuvres
other than a normal takeoff (e.g. an aborted takeoff). After
such a manoeuvre, the pilot is expected to exit the runway
by the most expeditious way rather than backtrack the
runway.
common frequency area (CFA)
An area that has a designated frequency published for use by
any aircraft.
NOTE :
A CFA is intended to be used for air-to-air communications to
provide pilots with an awareness of traffic in their vicinity. It is not a class of airspace and the CFA frequency is not monitored by ATC nor is it for use at uncontrolled aerodromes.
composite flight plan
A flight plan (FP) that specifies VFR operation for one portion of flight and IFR for another portion.
contact approach
An approach wherein an aircraft on an IFR flight plan (FP),
having an ATC authorization and operating clear of clouds with
at least 1 mi. flight visibility and a reasonable expectation of
continuing to the destination airport in those conditions, may
deviate from the instrument approach procedure (IAP) and
proceed to the destination airport by visual reference to the
surface of the earth.
continuous descent final approach (CDFA)
A technique, consistent with stabilized approach procedures,
for flying the final approach segment of a non-precision
instrument approach procedure as a continuous descent, without
level-off, from an altitude/height at or above the FAF altitude/height to a point approximately 15 m (50 ft) above the landing
runway threshold or the point where the flare manoeuvre should
begin for the type of aircraft flown.
• also called: constant descent final approach
control area extension (CAE)
A controlled airspace of defined dimensions within the low-level
airspace (LLA), extending upwards from 2 200 ft AGL unless
otherwise specified.
controlled airspace
An airspace of defined dimensions within which ATC service is provided.controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)
An occurrence in which an aircraft, under the control of the
crew, is flown into terrain, water or an obstacle with no prior
awareness on the part of the crew of the impending disaster.
controlled VFR flight (CVFR)
A flight conducted under VFR within Class B airspace and in accordance with an ATC clearance.
control zone (CZ)
A controlled airspace of defined dimensions extending upwards
from the surface of the earth up to and including 3 000 ft AAE unless otherwise specified.
critical surface
Any stabilizing surface of an aircraft, including the wings, control
surfaces, rotors, propellers, horizontal stabilizers, vertical
stabilizers and, in the case of an aircraft that has rear-mounted engines, the upper surface of its fuselage.
cruise climb
A cruising technique resulting in a net increase in altitude as
the aircraft mass decreases. A clearance or instruction to carry out a cruise climb allows the pilot the option of climbing at any
given rate, as well as the option of levelling off at any intermediate
altitude.
cruising altitude
The altitude, as shown by a constant altimeter indication in
relation to a fixed and defined datum, maintained during a flight
or portion thereof.
day
The time between the beginning of morning civil twilight and the end of evening civil twilight.
• also called: daylight
dead reckoning navigation (DR)
The estimating or determining of position by advancing an
earlier known position by the application of direction, time and speed data.
decision altitude (DA)
A specified altitude in the precision approach or approach with vertical guidance at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach to land has not been established.
NOTE :
Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level (MSL) and
decision height (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation.
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENdecision height (DH)
A specified height in the precision approach or approach with
vertical guidance at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach to land has not been established.
NOTE :
Decision height (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation
and decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level (MSL).
defence visual flight rules (DVFR)
Rules applicable to flights within an air defence identification
zone (ADIZ) conducted under VFR.
directed bright light source
Any directed light source that may create a hazard to aviation
safety or cause damage to an aircraft or injury to persons on
board.
NOTE :
Directed bright light sources include lasers, searchlights,
spotlights, and image projectors.
downwind termination waypoint (DTW)
The waypoint located downwind to the landing runway abeam
the final approach course fix (FACF) where an open RNAV
STAR terminates.
engineered material arresting system (EMAS)
A soft ground arrestor system, located beyond the end of the
runway and centred on the extended runway centreline, that
deforms under the weight of an aircraft, bringing it to a safe stop
in the event of an overrun without structural damage to the
aircraft or injury to its occupants.NOTE :
EMAS beds are made up of a grouping of blocks of crushable
cellular concrete that will reliably deform under the weight of
an aircraft.
evening civil twilight
Relative to the standard meridians of the time zones, the period
that begins at sunset and ends at the time specified by the Institute
of National Measurement Standards of the National Research
Council of Canada.NOTE :
Evening civil twilight ends in the evening when the centre of
the sun’s disc is 6° below the horizon.
expected approach time (EAT)
The time at which ATC expects that an arriving aircraft, following
a delay, will leave the holding fix to complete its approach for
landing.expected further clearance time (EFC)
The time at which it is expected that further clearance will be
issued to an aircraft.
expedite (to)
An expression used by ATC when prompt compliance is required
to avoid the development of an imminent situation.
final approach area
The area within which the final approach portion of an instrument
approach procedure (IAP) is carried out.
final approach course fix (FACF)
A fix and/or waypoint located on the final approach course of an instrument approach procedure (IAP)
(a) prior to the point of glide path (GP) intercept on a precision approach procedure;
(b) prior to the final approach fix (FAF) on a non-precision
approach procedure that has a designated FAF;
(c) prior to any stepdown fixes on a non-precision approach
procedure with designated fixes but no FAF; or
(d) at a point that would permit a normal landing approach on
a non-precision approach procedure with no FAF or
stepdown fixes.
final approach fix (FAF)
The fix of a non-precision instrument approach procedure (IAP)
where the final approach segment commences.
final approach segment
That part of an instrument approach procedure (IAP) from the time that the aircraft
(a) completes the last procedure turn or base turn, where one is specified;
(b) intercepts the last track specified for the procedure;
(c) (for non-precision approaches) crosses the final approach
fix (FAF), final approach waypoint (FAWP) or final approach
point (FAP); or
(d) (for precision approaches) crosses the point where the vertical
path or glide path intercepts the intermediate approach
segment altitude until the aircraft reaches the missed
approach point (MAP).
• also called: final approach
flash blindness
The temporary or permanent inability to see caused by bright light entering the eye and persisting after the illumination has ceased.
• see also: afterimage, glare
flight information centre (FIC)
A centralized ATS unit that provides services pertinent to pre-flight and the en-route phase of flight.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENflight information region (FIR) (see RAC Figure 2.2)
An airspace of defined dimensions extending upwards from the
surface of the earth within which flight information service (FIS)
and alerting service are provided.
flight information service en route (FISE)
The provision and receipt by a FIC of information pertinent to
the en route phase of flight.
flight level (FL)
The altitude expressed in hundreds of feet indicated on an
altimeter set to 29.92 in. of mercury or 1013.2 mb.
flight management system (FMS)
An aircraft computer system that uses a large database to allow routes to be programmed and fed into the system by means of
data loader. The system is constantly updated with regard to
position accuracy by reference to conventional NAVAIDs.
flight service station (FSS)
An ATS unit that provides services pertinent to the arrival and departure phases of flight at uncontrolled aerodromes and for transit through a mandatory frequency (MF) area.
flight technical error (FTE)
The difference between estimated position and defined path. It
relates to the ability of an air crew or autopilot to fly along a
defined path. Any display errors, such as a CDI centering error, may cause FTE. FTE is usually the largest error component of the total system error (TSE).
flight visibility
The average range of forward visibility at any given time from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight.
flow control
Measures designed to adjust the flow of traffic into a given
airspace, along a given route, or bound for a given aerodrome, so as to ensure the most effective utilization of the airspace.
fuel dumping
The intentional airborne release of usable fuel, excluding the
dropping of fuel tanks.
• also called: fuel jettisoning
fuel remaining
The amount of fuel remaining on board until actual fuel
exhaustion.glare
A temporary disruption in vision caused by a bright light within
an individual’s field of vision and lasting only as long as the light
is present within that field of vision.
NOTE :
Visible laser light can produce glare and interfere with vision
even at low energies, including levels well below that which
produce eye damage.
• see also: afterimage, flash blindness
“Go around”
An expression used in radiocommunications to instruct a pilot
to abandon an approach or landing.
ground visibility
In respect of an aerodrome, the visibility at that aerodrome as contained in a weather observation reported by
(a) an ATC unit;
(b) an FSS or FIC;
(c) a community aerodrome radio station (CARS);
(d) an automated weather observation system (AWOS) used by
the Department of Transport, the Department of National
Defence or the Atmospheric Environment Service for the
purpose of making aviation weather observations; or
(e) a radio station that is ground-based and operated by an air operator.
hang glider
A motorless heavier-than-air aircraft deriving its lift from surfaces
that remain fixed in flight, designed to carry not more than two persons and having a launch weight of 45 kg (99.2 lb) or less.
“Have numbers”
An expression used by pilots to indicate that they have received runway, wind and altimeter information only.
heading (HDG)
The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft is
pointed, usually expressed in degrees from north (true, magnetic,
compass or grid north).
height above aerodrome (HAA)
The height in feet of the minimum descent altitude (MDA) above
the published aerodrome elevation.
height above touchdown zone elevation
The height in feet of the decision height (DH) or the minimum
descent altitude (MDA) above the touchdown zone
elevation (TDZE).
• also called: height above touchdown (HAT) and height above touchdown zone
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENhigh-intensity runway operations (HIRO)
Operations, used atsome airports, that consist of optimizing
separation of aircraft on final approach in order to minimize
runway occupancy time (ROT) for both arriving and departing
aircraft so as to increase runway capacity.
high-level air route
In high-level airspace (HLA), a prescribed track between specified
fixes.
NOTE :
On aeronautical charts, high-level air routes are indicated by
letters such as “T” or “NAT.”
high-level airspace (HLA)
All airspace within the Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) at
or above 18 000 ft ASL.
high-level airway
In controlled high-level airspace (HLA), a prescribed track
between specified fixes.
NOTE :
On aeronautical charts, high-level airways are indicated by the
letter “J” (e.g. J500).
ICAO three-letter designator (ICAO 3LD)
An exclusive designator that, when used together with a flight
number, becomes the aircraft call sign and provides distinct
aircraft identification to ATS.
NOTE :
A telephony designator associated with an ICAO 3LD is used
for radio communication.
identification
The process of ascertaining that a particular target is the ATS
surveillance observation from a specific aircraft.
“identified”
An expression used by ATC to inform the pilot of an aircraft
when identification is established.
initial approach segment
That part of an instrument approach procedure (IAP) between the initial approach fix (IAF) or waypoint and the intermediate approach fix (IF) or waypoint during which the aircraft departs
the en route phase of flight and manoeuvres to enter the
intermediate segment.
• also called: initial approach
instrument approach procedure (IAP)
A series of predetermined manoeuvres by reference to flight
instruments with specified protection from obstacles from the
initial approach fix (IAF), or where applicable, from the beginning
of a defined arrival route to a point from which a landing can be completed and thereafter, if a landing is not completed, to a position at which holding or en route obstacle clearance criteria apply.
• also called: instrument approach
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
Meteorological conditions less than the minima specified in
Subpart 602 of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) for
visual meteorological conditions (VMC), expressed in terms of visibility and distance from cloud.
intermediate approach segment
That part of an instrument approach procedure (IAP) between
the intermediate approach fix (IF) or waypoint and the final
approach fix (FAF), waypoint or point, or between the end of a
track reversal, racetrack or dead-reckoning track procedure and
the FAF, waypoint or point, as appropriate. It is in this part of
the procedure that aircraft configuration, speed and positioning
adjustments are made for entry into the final approach segment.
• also called: intermediate approach
intersection (INTXN)
As the circumstances require, this may be
(a) a point on the surface of the earth over which two or more
position lines intersect. The position lines may be true
bearings from non-directional beacons (NDB) (magnetic
bearings shown on chart for pilot usage); radials from VHF/
UHF NAVAIDs; centrelines of airways, fixed RNAV routes or air routes; localizers; or DME distances; or
(b) the point where two runways, a runway and a taxiway, or two taxiways cross or meet.
Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
Operations that include simultaneous takeoffs and landings
and/or simultaneous landings when a landing aircraft is able
and is instructed by the controller to hold short of the intersecting
runway/taxiway or designated hold-short point.
NOTE :
This term replaces the term Simultaneous Intersecting Runway
Operations ( SIRO)
laser (or light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation)
A device that produces an intense, directional, coherent beam of light.
low approach
An approach over an airport or runway following an instrument
approach procedure (IAP) or VFR approach, including the
overshoot manoeuvre, where the pilot intentionally does not
make contact with the runway.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENlow-level air route
Within low-level uncontrolled airspace, a route extending
upwards from the surface of the earth and for which ATC service
is not provided.
low-level airspace (LLA)
All airspace within the Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA)
below 18 000 ft ASL.
low-level airway
Within controlled low-level airspace (LLA), a route extending
upwards from 2 200 ft above the surface of the earth and for
which ATC service is provided.
low-visibility operations plan (LVOP)
A plan that calls for specific procedures established by the
aerodrome operator and/or ATS when aerodrome visibility is
below RVR 1 200 (¼ SM).
L-routes
L-routes are low-level uncontrolled fixed RNAV routes depicted
on En Route Low Altitude charts using green dashed lines and
require GNSS RNAV systems for use. The MOCA provides
obstacle protection for only 6 NM either side of the track centreline
and does not splay.
mandatory frequencyv (MF)
A very high frequency (VHF) specified in the Canada Air
Pilot (CAP), the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) or the
Canada Water Aerodrome Supplement (CWAS) for the use of
radio-equipped aircraft operating within a mandatory
frequency (MF) area.
manoeuvring area
The part of an aerodrome, other than an apron, that is intended
to be used for the takeoff and landing of aircraft and for the
movement of aircraft associated with takeoff and landing.
M EDEVAC
A term used to request ATS priority handling for a medical
evacuation flight based on a medical emergency in the transport
of patients, organ donors, organs or other urgently needed life-saving medical material.
NOTE :
This term is used on flight plans (FP) and in radiotelephony
communications if a pilot determines that a priority is required
and is suffixed to the aircraft identification.
military operations area (MOA)
An airspace of defined dimensions established to segregate
certain military activities from IFR traffic and to identify, for
VFR traffic, where these activities are conducted.military terminal control area (MTCA)
A controlled airspace of defined dimensions normally established
in the vicinity of a military aerodrome and within which special
procedures and exemptions exist for military aircraft. The terminology (Class B, C, D or E equivalent) used for the
designations of MTCAs describes the equivalent level of service
and operating rules for civilian aircraft operating within the
MTCA and under military control.
minimum descent altitude (MDA)
The altitude above sea level (ASL) specified in the Canada Air
Pilot (CAP) or the route and approach inventory for a non-
precision approach, below which descent shall not be made until
the required visual reference to continue the approach to land has been established.
minimum en route altitude (MEA)
The altitude above sea level (ASL) between specified fixes on
airways or air routes that assures acceptable navigational signal
coverage and that meets the IFR obstacle clearance requirements.
NOTE :
This altitude is published on aeronautical charts.
minimum fuel
An expression used to inform ATC that an aircraft’s fuel supply
has reached a state that is sufficient to reach destination, provided
that unexpected delays are not encountered.
minimum IFR altitude
The lowest IFR altitude established for use in a specific airspace.
Depending on the airspace concerned, the minimum IFR altitude
may be a minimum obstacle clearance altitude (MOCA), a minimum en route altitude (MEA), a minimum sector
altitude (MSA), a minimum vectoring altitude (MVA), a safe
altitude within a radius of 100 NM, an area minimum altitude (AMA), a transition altitude or a missed approach
altitude. The minimum IFR altitude provides obstacle clearance
but may or may not be within controlled airspace.
minimum obstacle clearance altitude (MOCA)
The altitude above sea level (ASL) between specified fixes on
airways or air routes that meets the IFR obstacle clearance
requirements for the route segment in question.
NOTE :
This altitude is published on aeronautical charts.
minimum reception altitude (MRA)
When applied to a specific VHF/UHF intersection, the lowest
altitude above sea level (ASL) at which acceptable navigational signal coverage is received to determine the intersection.
minimum sector altitude (MSA)
The lowest altitude that will provide a minimum clearance of
1000 ft, under conditions of standard temperature and pressure above all objects located in an area contained within a sector of a circle with a 25 NM radius centred on a radio aid to navigation or a specified point.
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENminimum vectoring altitude (MVA)
The lowest altitude for vectoring aircraft by ATC that meets
obstacle clearance and radio coverage requirements in the airspace
specified.
missed approach point (MAP)
The point on the final approach course that signifies the
termination of the final approach and the commencement of
the missed approach segment. It may be
(a) the intersection of an electronic glide path (GP) with a
decision height (DH);
(b) a NAVAID located on the aerodrome;
(c) a suitable fix (e.g. distance measuring equipment [DME]);
or
(d) a specified distance beyond the NAVAID or final approach fix (FAF), not to exceed the distance from that NAVAID orfix to the nearest boundary of the aerodrome.
missed approach segment
That part of an instrument approach procedure (IAP) between
the missed approach point (MAP), the missed approach
waypoint (MAWP), or the point of arrival at decision height (DH),
and the specified missed approach NAVAID, intersection, fix
or waypoint, as appropriate, at the minimum IFR altitude. It is in this part of the approach procedure that the aircraft climbs
and returns to the en route structure or is positioned for holding
or a subsequent approach. The route of flight and altitudes are depicted on instrument approach charts.
• also called: missed approach
morning civil twilight
Relative to the standard meridians of the time zones, the period
that begins at the time specified by the Institute for National
Measurement Standards of the National Research Council of
Canada and ends at sunrise.
NOTE :
Morning civil twilight begins in the morning when the centre
of the sun’s disc is 6° below the horizon.
mountainous region (see RAC Figure 2.10)
An area of defined lateral dimensions above which special rules concerning minimum en route altitudes (MEA) apply.
movement area
The part of an aerodrome that is intended to be used for the
surface movement of aircraft and that includes the manoeuvring
area and aprons.
multiple-touch and-gos
A procedure in which an aircraft makes more than one touch-and-go during a single pass along a runway.
• see also: touch-and-gonavigation aid (NAVAID)
Any visual or electronic device, airborne or on the surface of
the earth, that provides point-to-point guidance information or
position data to aircraft in flight.
• also called: navigational aid
navigation system error (NSE)
The difference between true and estimated position. The NSE is defined during navigation system certification.
night
The time between the end of evening civil twilight and the
beginning of morning civil twilight.
non-precision approach procedure
An instrument approach procedure (IAP) in which only electronic
azimuth information is provided. No electronic glide path (GP)
information is provided and obstacle assessment in the final
segment is based on minimum descent altitude (MDA).
non-RVSM aircraft
An aircraft that does not meet reduced vertical separation
minimum (RVSM) requirements for certification and/or for
operator approval.
Northern Control Area (NCA) (see RAC Figure 2.3)
A controlled airspace within the Northern Domestic
Airspace (NDA) at FL 230 and above.
Northern Domestic Airspace (NDA) (see RAC Figure 2.1)
As geographically delineated in the Designated Airspace
Handbook (DAH), a subdivision of Canadian Domestic
Airspace (CDA) commencing at the North Pole and extending
southward to the northern limit of the Southern Domestic
Airspace (SDA).
North Warning System (NWS)
A multiradar system that provides airspace surveillance and
command and control capability for air defence identification over the northern approaches to North America.
NOTAM
A notice distributed by means of telecommunication containing
information concerning the establishment, condition or change
in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the
timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.
obstacle (OBST)
All fixed (whether temporary or permanent) and mobile objects,
or parts thereof, that are located on an area intended for the
surface movement of aircraft or that extend above a defined
surface intended to protect aircraft in flight.
• also called: obstruction
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENobstacle free zone (OFZ)
The airspace above the inner approach surface, inner transitional
surfaces, and balked landing surface and that portion of the
strip bounded by these surfaces, which is not penetrated by any
fixed obstacle other than a low-mass and frangibly mounted one
required for air navigation purposes.
obstruction
• also called: obstacle
pavement classification number (PCN)
Numbers expressing, in ICAO terminology, the bearing strength
of a pavement for unrestricted operations in a similar fashion
to Transport Canada’s pavement load rating (PLR).
path definition error (PDE)
The difference between desired and defined paths which reflects
errors in the navigation database, computational errors in the
RNAV system and display errors. PDE is usually very small and
often assumed to be negligible.
performance-based navigation (PBN)
Area navigation based on performance requirements for aircraft
operating along an ATS route, on an instrument approach
procedure or in a designated airspace.
NOTE :
Performance requirements are expressed in navigation
specifications in terms of accuracy, integrity, continuity,
availability and functionality needed for the proposed operation.
pilot briefing
The provision of, or consultation on, meteorological and
aeronautical information to assist pilots in pre-flight planning.
• also called: pre-flight pilot briefing
precision approach radar (PAR)
A high-definition, short-range radar used as an approach aid.
This system provides the controller with altitude, azimuth and range information of high accuracy for the purpose of assisting
the pilot in executing an approach and landing. This form of
navigation assistance is termed “precision radar approach”.
pre-departure clearance (PDC)
An initial IFR clearance delivered electronically via air-ground
data link (AGDL) to airline companies with an on-site computer
capable of interfacing with ATC and the data link service provider.
NOTE :
Following initial delivery of the clearance to the air operator,
the latter may subsequently relay the clearance by non-electronic
means to the flight crew if the aircraft is not suitably equipped.preferential runway
One or more runways designated and published by the airport
operator whose selection directs aircraft away from noise-sensitive
areas during the initial departure and final approach phases of flight. Designation of preferential runways may be governed by
time restrictions, weather, runway conditions, airport layout,
aircraft routings or capacity maximization.
procedure turn (PT)
A manoeuvre in which a turn is made away from a designated track followed by a turn in the opposite direction to permit the
aircraft to intercept and proceed along the reciprocal of the
designated track.
procedure turn inbound
The point of a procedure turn manoeuvre where course reversal
has been completed and an aircraft is established inbound on
the intermediate approach or final approach course. A report
of “procedure turn inbound” is normally used by ATC as a
position report for separation purposes.
progressive taxi
Precise taxi instructions given to a pilot unfamiliar with the
aerodrome or issued in stages as the aircraft proceeds along the taxi route.
Q-routes
Q-routes are high-level fixed RNAV routes depicted on En Route
High Altitude charts using black dashed lines and require an
RNAV system with performance capabilities currently only met
by GNSS or distance measuring equipment/inertial reference
unit (DME/DME/IRU) systems. DME/DME/IRU navigation
may be limited in some parts of Canada owing to navigational facility coverage. In such cases, the routes will be annotated as “GNSS only” on the chart.
radial (R)
A magnetic bearing from a VHF omnidirectional range (VOR),
tactical air navigation aid (TACAN), or VORTAC facility, except
for facilities in the Northern Domestic Airspace (NDA), which may be oriented on true or grid north.
reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM)
The application of 1 000-ft vertical separation at and above
FL 290 between aircraft approved to operate in reduced vertical separation minimum airspace.
reduced-visibility operations plan (RVOP)
A plan that calls for specific procedures established by the
aerodrome operator and/or ATC when aerodrome visibility is
below RVR 2 600 (½ SM) down to and including RVR 1 200 (¼ SM).
remotely piloted aircraft (RPA)
A navigable airctaft, other than a balloon, rocket or kite, that is operated by a pilot who is not on board.
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENremotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS)
A set of configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted
aircraft, its control station, the command and control links and any other system elements required during flight operation.
REQUIRED
Annotation used on an instrument approach chart to indicate that the procedure turn may have been eliminated and that the initial approach portion of the procedure is being provided by
ATC vectors. Without ATC vectoring, the instrument approach
procedure (IAP) may not have a published initial approach.
required navigation performance (RNP)
A statement of the navigation performance accuracy necessary for operation within a defined airspace.
required visual reference
In respect of an aircraft on an approach to a runway, the section of the approach area of the runway or the visual aids that, when viewed by the pilot of the aircraft, enable the pilot to make an
assessment of the aircraft position and the rate of change of
position relative to the nominal flight path in order to continue the approach and complete the landing.
resolution advisory (RA)
An advisory issued by airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS)/traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS) to alert pilots to potential conflicting air traffic
and provide them with a suggested flight-path change in the
vertical plane to reduce the possibility of collision.
restricted airspace
An airspace of defined dimensions above land areas or territorial
waters within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance
with certain specified conditions.
• also called: restricted area
“Resume normal speed”
An expression used by ATC to advise a pilot that previously
issued speed restrictions are cancelled, but that published speed
restrictions are still applicable, unless otherwise stated by ATC.
runway edge lights (REDL)
Aeronautical ground lights located along the edges of the runway.
runway end safety area (RESA)
An area that extends from the end of the runway strip, primarily
intended to reduce the risk of damage to an aeroplane
undershooting or overrunning the runway.
runway heading
The magnetic or true direction that corresponds with the runway
centreline rather than the painted runway numbers.runway incursion
Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence
of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface
designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.
runway in use
Any runway currently being used for takeoff or landing. When
multiple runways are used, they are all considered runways
in use.
runway lights
Aeronautical ground lights located on a runway, indicating its
direction or boundaries, and including but not limited to runway
centreline lights, runway edge lights, runway end lights, threshold
lights and touchdown zone lights.
runway strip
A defined area, which includes the runway and stopway where provided, intended to protect aircraft flying over it during take-off or landing operations.
RVSM Aircraft
An aircraft that meets reduced vertical separation
minimum (RVSM) requirements for certification and for operator
approval.
safe altitude within a radius of 100 NM
The lowest altitude that may be used under instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) that will provide a minimum
vertical clearance of 1000 ft or, in a designated mountainous
region, 1500 or 2000 ft, as appropriate, rounded up to the next
100-ft increment, under conditions of standard temperature and
pressure, above all obstacles located in an area contained within
a radius of 100 NM of the aerodrome geometric centre.
secondary surveillance radar (SSR)
A radar system that requires complementary aircraft equipment
(transponder). The transponder generates a coded reply signal
in response to transmissions from the ground station (interrogator).
Since this system relies on transponder-generated signals rather
than signals reflected from the aircraft, as in primary surveillance
radar, it offers significant operational advantages such as increased
range and positive identification.
shuttle procedure
A manoeuvre involving a descent or climb in a pattern resembling
a holding pattern.
Southern Control Area (SCA) (see RAC Figure 2.3)
A controlled airspace within the Southern Domestic
Airspace (SDA) at 18 000 ft ASL and above.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENSouthern Domestic Airspace (SDA) (see RAC Figure 2.1)
As geographically delineated in the Designated Airspace
Handbook (DAH), all airspace within the Canadian Domestic
Airspace (CDA) commencing at the Canada-United States border
and extending northward to the southern limit of the Northern
Domestic Airspace (NDA).
“Squawk ident”
A request for a pilot to activate the aircraft transponder
identification feature.
standard instrument departure (SID)
A preplanned IFR departure procedure requiring ATC clearance
and published for pilot/controller use to provide obstacle clearance
and a transition from an aerodrome to the appropriate en route structure.
NOTE :
IDs are published in the
Canada Air Pilot (CAP) for pilot and
controller use. SIDs may be either:
(a) pilot navigation SIDs: SIDs where the pilot is required to
use the applicable SID chart as reference for navigation to
the en route phase; or
(b) vector SIDs: SIDs established where ATC will provide
navigational guidance to a filed or assigned route, or to a
fix depicted on the applicable SID chart. Pilots are expected
to use the SID chart as a reference for navigation until the vector is commenced.
standard terminal arrival (STAR)
An IFR ATC arrival procedure published in the
Canada Air Pilot (CAP) for pilot and controller use.
stepdown fix
A fix permitting additional descent within a segment of an
instrument approach procedure (IAP) by identifying the point at which a controlling obstacle has been safely overflown.
stop-and-go
A procedure in which an aircraft lands, makes a complete stop
on the runway, and then commences a takeoff from
that point.
straight-in approach
(a) A VFR approach in which the aircraft enters the aerodrome
traffic circuit on the final leg without having executed any other part of the circuit.
(b) An IFR approach in which the aircraft begins the final
approach without first having executed a procedure
turn (PT).
terminal arrival area (TAA)
An area, bounded by tracks and distances to identified waypoints,
depicted on select GNSS approach charts indicating altitudes
that provide a minimum clearance of 1 000 ft above all obstacles.terminal control area (TCA)
A controlled airspace of defined dimensions that is normally
established in the vicinity of one or more major aerodromes and
within which ATC service is provided based on the airspace
classification.
threshold
The beginning of the portion of the runway usable for landing.
threshold crossing height (TCH)
The height of the glide path (GP) above the runway threshold.
total system error (TSE)
The difference between true position and desired position. This
error is equal to the sum of the vectors of the PDE, FTE, and NSE.
touch-and-go
A procedure in which an aircraft lands and then takes off without
stopping.
touchdown zone (TDZ)
The first 3 000 ft of the runway or the first third of the runway, whichever is less, measured from the threshold in the direction
of landing.
touchdown zone elevation (TDZE)
The highest centreline elevation in the touchdown zone.
track
The projection on the earth’s surface of the path of an aircraft, the direction of which path at any point is usually expressed in degrees from true, magnetic or grid north.
traffic advisory (TA)
An advisory issued by airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS)/
traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) to alert pilots
to other air traffic that may be in such proximity to the position
or intended route of flight of their aircraft as to warrant their
attention.
transition
(a) The general term that describes the change from one phase
of flight or flight conditions to another, e.g. transition from
en route flight to the approach or transition from instrument
flight to visual flight.
(b) A published procedure used to connect the basic standard
instrument departure (SID) to one or more en route airways
or to connect one or more en route airways to the basic
standard terminal arrival (STAR). More than one transition
may be published in the associated SID or STAR.
• also called: feeder route
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENT-routes
T-routes are low-level controlled fixed RNAV routes depicted
on En Route Low Altitude charts using black dashed lines and
require GNSS RNAV systems for use. The airspace associated
with T-routes extends upward from 2 200 ft AGL, 10 NM either
side of the centreline, and does not splay. The MOCA provides
obstacle protection for only 6 NM either side of the track centreline
and does not splay.
vector
A heading given by a controller to a pilot on the basis of ATS
surveillance-derived information to provide navigational
guidance.
• also called: vectoring
visual approach
An approach wherein an aircraft on an IFR flight plan (FP),
operating in visual meteorological conditions (VMC) under the
control of ATC and having ATC authorization, may proceed to the airport of destination.
visual meteorological conditions (VMC)
Meteorological conditions, expressed in terms of visibility and
distance from cloud, equal to or greater than the minima specified
in CAR 602.
visual separation
A means used by controllers to separate aircraft operating in
visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
(a) VFR—The controller, having determined that a potential
conflict exists, issues clearances, instructions and/or
information as necessary to aid aircraft in establishing
visual contact with each other or to assist aircraft in avoiding
other aircraft.
(b) IFR or CVFR—Following a pilot’s report that the traffic is
in sight, the controller issues the clearance and instructs
the pilot to provide his or her own separation by manoeuvring
the aircraft as necessary to avoid or follow the traffic.
waypoint (WP)
A specified geographical location, defined by longitude and
latitude, that is used in the definition of routes and terminal
segments and for progress-reporting purposes.
“When ready...”
Authorization for an aircraft to comply with a clearance or
instruction at some point in the future when convenient.wind shear (WS)
A change in wind speed and/or wind direction in a short distance.
NOTE :
Wind shear can exist in a horizontal or vertical direction and
occasionally in both.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN5.2 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AAE above aerod rome elevation
AAIR Annual Ai rworthiness Information Report
AAS aerodrome a dvisory service
ABAS aircraft- based augmentation system
AC Advisory C ircular
ACA Arctic Con trol Area
ACARS aircraft c ommunications addressing and
reporting system
ACAS airborne c ollision avoidance system
ACC area contr ol centre
A-CDM Airport Co llaborative Decision Making
ACSC aircraft c ritical surface contamination
AD Airworthine ss Directive
ADB aviation d ocument booklet
ADCUS “Advise cu stoms”
ADF automatic direction finder
ADIZ air defence identification zone
ADS automatic dependence surveillance
ADS-B automatic dependent surveillance - broadcast
ADS-C automatic dependent surveillance - contract
ADS WPR automatic dependent surveillance
waypoint position report(ing)
AFCGS automatic flight control guidance system
AFCS automatic flight control system
AFM aircraft f light manual
AFN air traffi c services facilities notification
AFS aeronautic al fixed service
AFTN Aeronautic al Fixed Telecommunications Network
AGL above ground level
AGN aircraft g roup number
AIC aeronautic al information circular
AIM Aeronautic al Information Management
(NAV CANADA)
AIP Aeronautic al Information Publication
AIRAC Aeronautic al Information Regulation and Control
AIREP air report
AIS aeronautic al information service
ALR aircraft l oad rating
ALSF-2 approach l ighting with sequenced
flashers–CAT II
ALT altitude
ALTRV altitude reservation
AM amplitude modulation
AMA area minim um altitude
AME aircraft m aintenance engineer
AMIS aircraft m ovement information service
AMSL above mean sea levelANS air naviga tion system
ANSP air naviga tion service provider
AOC air operato r certificate
AOC Aviation Op erations Centre
AOE airport of entry
AOM airport op erations manual
APAPI abbreviated precision approach path indicator
APREQ approval re quest
APRT airport
APV approach p rocedure with vertical guidance
ARCAL aircraft r adio control of aerodrome lighting
ARFF Aircraft R escue and Fire Fighting
ARP aerodrome r eference point
ASDA accelerate- stop distance available
ASDE airport su rface detection equipment
ASL above sea l evel
ATA actual tim e of arrival
ATC air traffi c control
ATF aerodrome t raffic frequency
ATFM air traffi c flow management
ATIS automatic terminal information service
ATM air traffi c management
ATN aeronauti cal telecommunications network
ATPL airline tr ansport pilot licence
ATS air traffi c service
AU approach UN ICOM
AVASI abbreviated visual approach slope indicator
AVGAS aviation ga soline
AVOPS Aviation Op erations Centre
AWBS Aviation W eather Briefing Service
AWOS automated weather observation system
baro-VNAV barometri c vertical navigation
BCST broadcast
BOTA Brest ocea nic transition area
BPL balloon pi lot licence
BVLOS beyond vis ual line-of-sight
C Celsius
CADORS Civil Avia tion Daily Occurrence
Reporting System
CAE control ar ea extension
CAME Civil Avia tion Medical Examiner
CAP Canada Air Pilot
CARs Canadian Aviation Regulations
CARAC Canadian Aviation Regulation
Advisory Council
CARC Civil Avia tion Regulatory Committee
CARS community aerodrome radio station
CASARA Civil Air S earch and Rescue Association
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENCAT clear air t urbulence
CAT I, II, III Category I , II, III
CAVOK ceiling and visibility OK
CDA Canadian Do mestic Airspace
CDA departure clearance readback (data link)
CDFA constant d escent final approach
CDI course de viation indicator
CFA common fre quency area
CFB Canadian F orces base
CFPS Collabora tive Flight Planning Service
CFS Canada Flight Supplement
CFIT controlle d flight into terrain
CG centre of gr avity
CLD departure clearance message (data link)
CLDN Canadian L ightning Detection Network
CMA Central Mon itoring Agency
CMAC Canadian M eteorological Aviation Centre
CMC Canadian M eteorological Centre
CMNPS Canadian m inimum navigation performance
specifications
CMNPSA Canadian m inimum navigation performance
specifications airspace
CMU communica tions management unit (data link)
CNS communica tions, navigation, surveillance
CNOP Canadian NOTAM Operating Procedures
CPDLC controller -pilot data link communications
C of A certificat e of airworthiness
C of R certificat e of registration
CONOPS concept of operations
CPL commercial pilot licence
C.R.C. Consolida ted Regulations of Canada
CRFI Canadian R unway Friction Index
CTA contol are a
CTAISB Canadian T ransportation Accident Investigation
and Safety Board
CVFR controlle d VFR
CWAS Canada Wat er Aerodrome Supplement
CZ control zon e
DA decision altitude
DADS digital al timeter display system
DAH Designate d Airspace Handbook (TP 1820E)
D-ATIS data link A TIS
DCL departure clearance (data link)
DCPC direct con troller-pilot communications
DF direction finder
DH decision h eight
DLM data link m andate
DME distance m easuring equipmentDND Department of National Defence
DR dead recko ning navigation
DRCO dial-up re mote communications outlet
DT daylight s aving time
DTW downwind t ermination waypoint
DVFR defence vis ual flight rules
D-VOLMET data link V OLMET
E east
EAD European A IS Database
EASA European A viation Safety Agency
EAT expected appr oach time
ECAC European C ivil Aviation Conference
ECCC Environmen t and Climate Change Canada
EET estimated elapsed time
EFC expected f urther clearance time
ELT emergency loc ator transmitter
EMAS engineered ma terial arresting system
EMI electroma gnetic interference
ERS Emergency Res ponse Service
ESCAT Plan Emergency Se curity Control of Air
Traffic Plan
EST Eastern Sta ndard Time
EST (NOTAM) estimated time (NOTAM)
ETA estimated time of arrival
ETD estimated time of departure
ETE estimated time en route
EWH eye-to-whe el height
FAA Federal Avi ation Administration (USA)
FACF final appr oach course fix
FAF final appr oach fix
FANS future air navigation systems
FARs Federal Avi ation Regulations (USA)
FATO final appr oach and take-off area
FAWP final appr oach waypoint
FD upper level wind and temperature forecast
FDE fault dete ction and exclusion
FE flight engin eer
FIC flight inf ormation centre
FIR flight in formation region
FISE flight inf ormation service en route
FL flight lev el
FLAS flight lev el allocation scheme
FM frequency modulation
FMC flight man agement computer
FMS flight man agement system
FP flight pla n
fpm flash per mi nute
FPUI flight pla n unique identifier
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENFPV first-pers on view
FRT fixed radi us transition
FSM flight sys tem management (data link)
FSS flight serv ice station
FSTD flight sim ulation training device
FTE flight tec hnical error
GBAS ground-ba sed augmentation system
GEO geostatio nary earth orbit (or geosynchronous
equatorial orbit)
GEO geosynchr onous earth orbit
GES ground ear th station
GFA graphic a rea forecast
GHz gigahertz
GLONASS global orb iting navigation satellite system
GMU GPS monitori ng unit
GNSS global navig ation satellite system
GOTA Gander ocea nic transition area
GP glide path
GPL glider pilo t licence
GPS global pos itioning system
GPWS ground pro ximity warning system
GS glide slope
GYP gyroplane pilot permit
HAA height abo ve aerodrome
HAT height ab ove touchdown
HDG heading
HF high frequ ency
HFDL HF data lin k
Hg mercury
HIAL high intens ity approach lighting
HIRO high-inten sity runway operations
HLA high-level airspace
hPa hectopas cal
HPL horizonta l protection limit
hr hour
HSI horizontal situation indicator
Hz hertz
IAF initial ap proach fix
IAP instrument approach procedure
IAS indicated airspeed
IAWP initial ap proach waypoint
ICAO Internatio nal Civil Aviation Organization
IF intermedia te fix
IFF identifica tion, friend or foe
IFR instrument flight rules
IFSS internatio nal flight service station
IFT instrument flight test
ILS instrument landing systemIMC instrument meteorological conditions
INF inland nav igation fix
INS inertial na vigation system
INTXN intersection
IRCC Immigrati on, Refugees and Citizenship Canada
IRS inertial re ference system
IRU inertial re ference unit
ISA Internatio nal Standard Atmosphere
ISED Innovatio n, Science and Economic Development
Canada
IWP intermedi ate approach waypoint
J or JET high-leve l airway
JRCC joint resc ue co-ordination centre
kg kilogram
kHz kilohertz
KIAS knots indic ated airspeed
kN kilonewton
kt knot
LAAS local-area augmentation system
LAHSO Land and Ho ld Short Operations
LAWO limited av iation weather observation
lb pound
LDA landing dis tance available
LED light-emit ting diode
LEO low earth o rbit
LF low frequen cy
LIAL low intensi ty approach lighting
LIDAR light dete ction and ranging
LLA low-level airspace
LOC localizer
LNAV lateral na vigation
LP localizer p erformance without vertical guidance
LPV localizer p erformance with vertical guidance
LRNS long range na vigation system
LVOP low visibi lity operations plan
LWIS limited we ather information system
MA missed app roach
MALS medium int ensity approach lighting system
MALSF medium int ensity approach lighting system with
sequenced flashing lights
MALSR medium int ensity approach lighting system with
runway alignment indicator lights
MANAB Manual of Word Abbreviations
MANAIR Manual of Standards and Procedures for Aviation
Weather Forecasts
MANOBS Manual of Surface Weather Observations
MANOT missing air craft notice
MAP missed app roach point
MASPS minimum ai rcraft system performance
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENspecification
MAWP missed app roach waypoint
mb millibar
MCDU multipurp ose control and display unit
MCTOW maximum cer tificated takeoff weight
MDA minimum de scent altitude
MEA minimum en r oute altitude
MEDEVAC medical ev acuation flight
MEHT minimum ey e height over threshold
MEL minimum eq uipment list
MEO medium ear th orbit
METAR aerodrome r outine meteorological report
MF mandatory frequency
MF medium fre quency
MFAU Military F light Advisory Unit
MHA minimum ho lding altitude
MHz megahertz
MLAT multilate ration
MLS microwave landing system
MM middle mar ker
MNPS minimum na vigation performance specifications
MNPSA minimum na vigation performance
specifications airspace
MOA military operations area
MOC minimum ob stacle clearance
MOCA minimum ob stacle clearance altitude
MPa megapasca l
mph miles per ho ur
MRA minimum re ception altitude
MRB magnetic r eference bearing
MSA minimum s ector altitude
MSL Mean Sea Le vel
MTCA military t erminal control area
MTOW maximum ta ke-off weight
MTSAT multifunc tional transport satellite
MU management u nit (data link)
MV A minimum ve ctoring altitude
MVFR marginal v isual flight rules
MWO meteorolog ical watch office
N north
NAARMO North Ameri can Approvals Registry and
Monitoring Organization
NACp navigation accuracy category—position
NADP noise abat ement departure procedure
NAR North Ameri can route
NASA National A eronautics and Space
Administration (USA)
NAT North Atla nticNAT HLA North Atla ntic high-level airspace
NATO North Atl antic Treaty Organization
NAVAID navigation aid
NCA Northern Co ntrol Area
NCATS National C ivil Air Transportation System
NDA Northern Do mestic Airspace
NDB non-direct ional beacon
NIC navigation integrity category
NM nautical mi le
NOHD Nominal Oc ular Hazard Distance
NO PT no procedu re turn
NORDO no radio
NPA non-precis ion approach
NRC National Re search Council Canada
NRP North Ameri can Route Program
NSE navigatio n system error
NUCp navigation uncertainty category—position
NVIS night visi on imaging system
NWP numerical w eather prediction
OAC oceanic ar ea control centre
OAT outside ai r temperature
OBST obstacle
O/C observer-communicator
OCA oceanic co ntrol area
OCL obstacle c learance limit
OCS obstacle c learance surface
ODALS omnidirec tional approach lighting system
ODL opposite d irection level
ODP obstacle d eparture procedure
OEP oceanic ent ry/exit point
OFZ obstacle f ree zone
OIDS operationa l information display system
OKTA one-eigh th
OLS obstacle l imitation surface
OPS obstacle p rotection surface
OTS organized track system
OTT over-the-t op
OXP oceanic ex it point
PAC Pacif ic
PAL peripheral s tation
PAPI precision a pproach path indicator
PAR precision approach radar
PAS private ad visory station
PBN performanc e-based navigation
PCN pavement cla ssification number (ICAO)
PDC pre-depart ure clearance (data link)
PDE path defin ition error
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GENPIC pilot-in-c ommand
PIREP pilot weathe r report
PLR pavement loa d rating
PN prior notic e required
PPC pilot prof iciency check
PPL private pi lot licence
PPR prior perm ission required
PPS present pos ition symbol
PRM preferred r outes message
PRN pseudorand om noise
PSI pounds per s quare inch
PSR primary su rveillance radar
PSTN public sw itched telephone network
PT procedure turn
PWS predictiv e wind shear system
R radial
R radius
RA resolution advisory
RAAS remote aerod rome advisory service
RAIM receiver au tonomous integrity monitoring
RAMO regional a viation medical officer
RASS remote alti meter setting source
Rc radius of c ontainment
RCAP Restricted Canada Air Pilot
RCD departure clearance request (data link)
RCL request fo r clearance
RCMP Royal Cana dian Mounted Police
RCO remote comm unications outlet
REDL runway edg e lights
RENL runway end l ights
RESA runway end s afety area
RETIL rapid-exi t taxiway indicator lights
RF radius to f ix
RLOS radio lin e-of-sight
RMI radio magne tic indicator
RNAV area navig ation
RNP required na vigation performance
RNP APCH required n avigation performance approach
RNP AR APCH required n avigation performance authorization
required approach
RNPC required n avigation performance capability
RONLY receiver on ly
RPA remotely pil oted aircraft
RPAS remotely pil oted aircraft system
RPP recreational pilot permit
RRTU radio re-t ransmit unit
RSC runway sur face condition
RTF radiotelepho ny frequencyRTIL runway thr eshold identification lights
RWYCC runway con dition code
RVOP reduced vi sibility operations plan
RVR runway vis ual range
RVSM reduced ver tical separation minimum
RWS reactive w ind shear system
S south
SA selective availability
SAR search and rescue
SATCOM satellite communications
SATVOICE satellite voice communications
SBAS satellite -based augmentation system
SCA Southern Co ntrol Area
SCDA stabilize d constant descent angle
SDA Southern Do mestic Airspace
SELCAL selective calling system
SFOC special fl ight operations certificate
SID standard i nstrument departure
SIF selective identification feature
SIGMET significa nt meteorological information
SIL source int egrity level
SLOP strategic lateral offset procedure
SM statute mi le
SNR signal-to -noise ratio
SOPs standard o perating procedures
SORA Specific O perational Risk Assessment
SOTA Shannon oce anic transition area
SPECI aerodrome s pecial meteorological report
SPEC VIS specified takeoff minimum visibility
SPI special p osition indicator
SPP student pil ot permit
SSALR simplifie d short approach lighting system with
runway alignment indicator lights
SSALS simplifie d short approach lighting system
SSB single side band
SSR secondary surveillance radar
STAR standard t erminal arrival
STOL aircraft short take off and landing aircraft
SVFR special VF R flight
SVM service vol ume model
SVN satellite vehicle number
T true
TA traffic ad visory
TAA terminal ar rival area
TAC terminal ar ea chart
TACAN tactical a ir navigation aid
TAF aerodrome f orecast
TAS true airsp eed
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENTATC Transport ation Appeal Tribunal of Canada
TAWS terrain awa reness and warning system
TC Transport Canada
TC AIM Transport Canada Aer onautical Information
Manual
TCCA Transport Canada Civil Aviation
TCA terminal co ntrol area
TCAS I/II traffic al ert and collision avoidance system
TCH threshold crossing height
TCU terminal co ntrol unit
TDOA time differ ence of arrival
TDZ touchdown z one
TDZE touchdown zone elevation
TDZL touchdown zone lighting
TIBA traffic in formation broadcast by aircraft
TLOF touchdown and lift-off area
TMI track mess age identification
TOD top of desc ent
TODA take-off d istance available
TORA take-off r un available
TP Transport Canada publication
TRA tower radar area
TRB true referen ce bearings
TRP tower radar plan
TSB Transport ation Safety Board of Canada
TSE total syst em error
TSO Technical Standard Order
TSR terminal su rveillance radar
TWR control to wer
UAS unmanned a ircraft system
UAV unmanned a ir vehicle
ULP ultraligh t pilot permit
UHF ultrahigh frequency
UNICOM universal c ommunications
USB upper sideb and
UTC Coordinat ed Universal Time
VAA volcanic a sh advisory
VAAC volcanic a sh advisory centre
VAGS Visual Ali gnment Guidance System
VAS vehicle ad visory service
VASI visual ap proach slope indicator
VASIS visual app roach slope indicator system
(generic term)
VCOA visual cli mb over the airport
VCS vehicle co ntrol service
VDF VHF direct ion finder
VDI vertical de viation indicator
VDL VHF digita l link VDR VHF data ra dio
VFR visual fli ght rules
VGSS voice genera tor sub-system
VHF very high fr equency
VLF very low fre quency
VLOS visual lin e-of-sight
VMC visual met eorological conditions
VNAP vertical no ise abatement procedure
VNAV vertical n avigation
VNC VFR naviga tion chart
VOLMET in-flight meteorological information
VOR VHF omnidi rectional range
VORTAC combinati on of VOR and TACAN
VPA vertical pa th angle
VTA VFR termina l area chart
VTOL aircraft vertical ta keoff and landing aircraft
W west
WAAS wide area a ugmentation system
WAFC world area forecast centre
WAFS world area forecast system
WMO World Met eorological Organization
WP waypoint
WPR waypoint pos ition report(ing)
WS wind shear
zulu (Z) Coordinat ed Universal Time
NOTE S:
1. The Supplements contain additional abbreviations applicable
to aeronautical charts and publications.
2. Abbreviations typical of meteorology are contained in
MET 14.0.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN5.3 LEGISLATION INDEX
This index provides a cross-reference between the CARs and
corresponding TC AIM pages where relevant information can
be found. Some administrative or enabling legislation has been
omitted where it has been determined that knowledge of the
rule is not required for aircraft operations.
The CARs section numbers contained throughout the text are
those of the Consolidated Regulations of Canada (CRC),
Chapter 2, as contained in the CARs .
Table 5.1—Relevant Cross-References Between CARs and TC AIM
CARs
Subpart No.CAR Name TC AIM
Paragraph No.
Part I General Provisions
103 Administration and Compliance LRA 6.4, 6.5
Part IIAircraft Identification and Registration and Operation of a Leased
Aircraft by a Non-registered OwnerLRA 4.1, 4.6, 4.7
201 Identification of Aircraft and Other Aeronautical Products LRA 4.2
202 Aircraft Marking and Registration LRA 4.3, 4.7, 5.7.2
Part III Aerodromes, Airports and Heliports
301 Aerodromes AGA 2.1, 7.3
302 Airports AGA 2.3.6
Part IV Personnel Licensing and Training
403 Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences and Ratings LRA 5.4.2
406 Flight Training Units LRA 5.6.1
421 Flight Crew Permits, Licences and Ratings LRA 1.1, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.12, 1.14.4
424 Medical Requirements LRA 1.1, 1.9, 2.1.1, 2.2
Part V Airworthiness
501 Annual Airworthiness Information Report LRA 5.5
507 Flight Authority and Certificate of Noise Compliance LRA 5.1, 5.3.1, 5.3.3 , 5.3.4, 5.3.5
521 Approval of the Type Design or a Change to the Type Design of an Aeronautical ProductLRA 5.2.2
Division IXService Difficulty Reporting LRA 5.6.5
571 Aircraft Maintenance Requirements LRA 5.4.1, 5.6.3, 5.6.4
Part VI General Operating and Flight Rules RAC 3.1
TC AIM March 20, 2025GENCARs
Subpart No.CAR Name TC AIM
Paragraph No.
601 Airspace RAC 2.8, 2.8.6, 2.9.2
602 Operating and Flight Rules COM 1.3, 9.7, MET 1.1.9, RAC
1.6, 1.8, 1.9, 2.3.1, 2.5.2, 2.7.3, 2.7.4, 2.9.3,2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 3.1, 3.6.1, 3.6.2, 3.7.1, 3.7.2, 3.9, 3.12, 3.12.1, 3.13, 3.14, 4.1, 4.1.2, 4.2.5, 4.3, 4.4.8, 4.5.2, 4.5.4, 4.5.7, 5.4, 5.5, 6.1, 8.1, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 9.6.1, 9.7.3, 9.11, 9.12, 9.18.1, 9.19.1, 9.19.2.1, 9.19.2.2, 9.19.2.3, 9.19.2.5, 9.19.2.6, 9.19.3, 10.7, 10.9, RAC Annex 2.0, NAT 1.1.1, 1.2, SAR 3.9, 4.7, 4.8.2, AIR 2.11.3, 2.17.3, 4.4.2, 4.8, 4.9, 4.13, 4.15, 4.15.3
603 Special Flight Operations RAC 1.9, 2.5.2, AIR 4.7.1, 4.8
604 Private Operator Passenger TransportationCOM 5.4, 9.2, RAC 9.18, LRA 5.6.1
605 Aircraft Requirements COM 8.2, RAC 2.7.4, RAC Annex 2.0, SAR 3.1, 3.3, 3.9, LRA 5.3.1, 5.4.1, 5.6.1, 5.6.2, 5.6.4, 5.7.1, 5.7.3
625 Aircraft Equipment and Maintenance Standard LRA 5.4.1, 5.4.2, 5.6.2, 5.7.1
Part VII Commercial Air Services RAC 9.18, 9.19
703 Air Taxi Operations COM 9.2, RAC 3.5.1, 3.5.7, AIR 4.4.2
704 Commuter Operations COM 9.2, AIR 4.4.2
705 Airline Operations COM 9.2, AIR 4.4.2
706 Aircraft Maintenance Requirements for Air Operators LRA 5.6.1
Part VIII Air Navigation Services GEN 1.3.1, RAC 2.1, NAT 1.1.2
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN5.4 CANADIAN AVIATION REGULATION
ADVISORY COUNCIL (CARAC)
5.4.1 General
This part outlines the TCCA regulatory consultation process.
The TCCA advisory council is known as CARAC. The
Director General, Civil Aviation is the sponsor of CARAC. The
Council was established on July 1, 1993.
5.4.2 Governing Principles
The Cabinet Directive on Regulatory Managemen t published
by the Treasury Board of Canada requires TC (and other federal
departments) to engage at all stages of the rulemaking process.
TCCA engages stakeholders on regulatory initiatives through
CARAC, and as such, CARAC is an important part of TC’s
rulemaking consultation process.
CARAC’s main governing principle is to maintain or improve
upon Canada’s high level of aviation safety.
New proposals, including public interest issues, are judged on
the safety and efficiency that would result from their
implementation. Proposals are also assessed at an early stage to
determine where the development and approval processes can be streamlined and where resources should be focused.
5.4.3 Objective
CARAC’s prime objective of assessing and recommending
potential regulatory changes through cooperative rulemaking activities is accomplished through:
(a) communicating and seeking industry input on TCCA’s
rulemaking and strategic priorities;
(b) identifying critical or contentious issues that indicate a need
to examine and revise, where necessary, existing regulations,
policies, standards or procedures to maintain or improve
aviation safety in Canada;
(c) soliciting and identifying aviation industry needs for full
consideration through direct involvement and consultation;
(d) developing and maintaining administrative tools in order
to engage the aviation industry at various stages of the
rulemaking process;
(e) eliminating, wherever possible, constraints to system safety
and allowing for efficiency through regulations and
standards to reduce complexity and increase the productivity
of the overall aviation safety system;
(f) minimizing the regulatory burden where safety is not
compromised;
(g) maximizing, to the extent practicable, the compatibility
of the Canadian regulatory system with that of other
regulatory authorities (e.g. ICAO standards and
recommended practices, FAA, EASA) where safety or
efficiency benefits can be derived; and
(h) transmitting comprehensive and accurate information to
the aviation industry in a timely manner. 5.4.4 Organizational Structure
CARAC is a joint undertaking of government and the aviation
community for formal consultations with aviation stakeholders
on all aspects of rulemaking activities. The participation of a
large number of organizations and individuals is sought to represent the overall viewpoint of the aviation community.
Participants include management and labour organizations that
represent air operators, manufacturers, and professional
associations.
5.4.4.1 Focus Group
A focus group reviews technical or safety policy issues; provides
technical expertise; conducts risk assessments; and develops
possible solutions and recommendations within the scope of a
defined terms of reference. Focus group members are comprised
of selected subject matter experts from the industry and TC. A focus group is established based on the results of a preliminary issue and consultation assessment.
5.4.4.2 Special Technical Committee
A special technical committee provides advice and
recommendations to TCCA’s management team on regulatory
issues and formal regulatory proposals. A special technical committee discusses policy objectives and supportive
documentation. Membership is comprised of representatives
from the aviation community, other interested parties and TC. A special technical committee can be established based on the results of a preliminary issue and consultation assessment.
5.4.4.3 Canadian Aviation Regulation Advisory
Council (CARAC) Plenary
The CARAC plenary provides an open forum for the aviation
industry and TC to exchange on the content and execution of
TCCA’s rulemaking and strategic priorities in light of the
operational and emerging technological needs of the aviation
industry.
5.4.4.4 Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA)
Management Team
The TCCA management team has the responsibility to identify
and prioritize regulatory issues and to consider, approve and
direct the implementation of recommendations made by CARAC
focus groups and special technical committees, as applicable.
The Director, Standards or the Director, Policy and Regulatory Services assesses proposals and supportive
documentation before they are submitted to a focus group or
special technical committee. The relevant director appoints the focus group leader and chairs the special technical committee meetings. They are responsible for reporting the outcome of a
focus group or special technical committee meeting to the TCCA
management team. The Director, Policy and Regulatory Services
is responsible for managing the CARAC process and for ensuring
that the aviation industry representatives are sufficiently diverse
in order to gather a range of views and expertise.
TC AIM March 20, 2025GEN5.4.4.5 Secretariat
The Secretariat establishes, implements and maintains all systems
required to allow CARAC to properly function. The Secretariat
is managed by Policy and Regulatory Services and serves as the
focal point for consultations on civil aviation regulatory
development issues within TC.
5.4.5 Project Resources
Apart from the full-time Secretariat, resource support is solicited
from within TCCA and the aviation community, as required.
Costs incurred by stakeholder organizations participating in a
CARAC focus group, special technical committee or plenary
are expected to be borne by those organizations. The CARAC Secretariat will provide, where available, meeting facilities and administrative support, such as decision records.
5.4.6 Communication
Comprehensive and timely communications are given top
priority. The appropriate and timely participation of representatives
from the aviation community and from within TC in the CARAC
process is key to an effective consultation process with the aviation
community.
The CARAC Activity Reporting System, accessible at < http://
wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/Saf-Sec-Sur/2/NPA-APM/crs.aspx >, provides
supportive documentation on any given issue that aviation stakeholders were consulted on. These documents include preliminary issue and consultation assessments, notice of
proposed amendments, focus group reports, decision records
and documents presented at the plenary.
5.4.7 Information
The information presented in this part is in the process of being
published in greater detail in a revised CARAC Management
Charter and Procedures. Those interested in becoming CARAC
members or wishing to obtain more information about CARAC
may contact the CARAC Secretariat by mail, telephone or e-mail
at:
Transport Canada (AARBH)
CARAC Secretariat
330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: ....................................................................... 613-990-1847
E-mail: ............................................................. carrac@tc.gc.ca 6.0 AVIATION OPERATIONS
CENTRE (AOC)
6.1 AVIATION OPERATIONS CENTRE
(AOC)—CIVIL AVIATION ACCIDENT, OCCURRENCE AND INCIDENT REPORTING
The Aviation Operations Centre (AOC) monitors the national
civil air transportation system (NCATS) 24 hours a day, seven days a week and responds to NCATS emergencies that require
the attention or coordination of concerned functional branches,
including regional offices and other departments or agencies.
The AOC is the initial point of contact for all aviation-related
occurrences. It receives reports on accidents, occurrences and
any incidents that occur within the NCATS from various sources,
including NAV CANADA, airport authorities, Public Safety
Canada, law enforcement agencies, other government
departments, foreign governments, and the general public. These
reports are continuously monitored and then distributed to the
appropriate functional areas of Transport Canada Civil
Aviation (TCCA) for review, trend analysis, investigation (if
necessary), and final inclusion in the Civil Aviation Daily
Occurrence Reporting System (CADORS).
Reports requiring a regional, modal, multi-modal, inter-
departmental, or an outside agency’s attention are immediately
forwarded to that agency for further action. For more information
about the AOC, please see AIP Canada ENR 1.14 available on
the NAV CANADA Web site.
To report an aircraft accident, occurrence or incident, contact
the AOC 24 hours a day, seven days a week at:
Tel. (toll-free): .................................................. 1-877-992-6853
Tel.: ....................................................................... 613-992-6853
Fax (toll-free): .................................................. 1-866-993-7768
Fax: ........................................................................ 613-993-7768
<http://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/saf-sec-sur/2/IR-RI/av_i_r.
aspx?lang=eng >.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
GEN7.0 CIVIL AVIATION ISSUES
REPORTING SYSTEM (CAIRS)
As of March 31, 2016, the Civil Aviation Issues Reporting
System (CAIRS) is no longer in operation.
The aviation community and the public can report issues,
concerns and hazards to the Civil Aviation Communications
Centre.
In an effort to maintain confidentiality, steps have been taken
by the communications centre to handle confidential enquiries;
however, incoming submissions must be clearly marked, in title
and body, as confidential.Please send all enquiries to the Civil Aviation Communications
Centre:
Civil Aviation Communications Centre (AARC) Transport Canada Place de Ville, Tower C, 5th floor 330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.:
................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-957-4208
E-mail: ........................................................... services@tc.gc.c
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGAAGA—AERODROMES
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 GENERAL
All flights into, from, or over the territory of Canada and all
flights landing in such territory shall be carried out in accordance
with Canada’s civil aviation regulations. Aircraft arriving into
or departing from the territory of Canada must first land at an
aerodrome at which customs control facilities have been provided.
For information about which aerodromes provide customs
service, see the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) or the Canada
Water Aerodrome Supplement (CWAS), Section B, “Aerodrome/
Facility Directory.” If the heading CUST (customs) appears in the left-hand column of an aerodrome table, the aerodrome is an airport of entry (AOE) with customs service.
The privileges extended to aircraft are subject to proper
authorization of each flight and to whatever restrictions the
Government of Canada may, from time to time, or in specific
cases, deem to be warranted.
1.1.1 Aerodrome Authority
Transport Canada is responsible for the surveillance of all certified
civil aerodromes in Canada. Contact information for
Transport Canada’s offices can be found in GEN 1.1.1.
1.1.2 International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Docu ments
See ICAO Annex 14, Volumes I and II.
1.1.3 Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI)
Many airports throughout Canada are equipped with mechanical
and electronic decelerometers which are used to obtain an average
of the runway friction measurement. The average decelerometer
reading of each runway is reported as the CRFI. Experience has
shown that results obtained from the various types of
decelerometers on water, slush, wet snow, and dry snow exceeding
a 1-inch depth are inaccurate, and the CRFI will not be available
when these conditions are present.
Aerodromes equipped with runway friction decelerometer
capability are listed in the CFS under RWY DATA.
Operational data relating to the reported average CRFI and the
methods to be used when applying these factors to aircraft
performance are presented in AIR 1.6.1.1.4 Contaminated Runway Operations
1.1.4.1 Canadian Civil Aerodromes
At Canadian aerodromes where snow removal and ice control
operations are conducted, assessment and mitigation procedures
are carried out to the extent that is practicable in order to provide
movement surfaces that will permit safe operational use.
Pilots who are confronted with conditions produced by the
ever-changing Canadian climate must be familiar with and
anticipate the overall effect of contaminated runways on aircraft
handling characteristics in order to take any corrective actions
considered necessary for flight safety.
In general terms, whenever a contaminant, such as water, snow,
or ice, is present on the runway surface, the effective coefficient
of friction between the aircraft tire and runway is reduced.
However, the accelerate-stop distance, landing distance, and
crosswind limitations contained in the AFM are demonstrated
in accordance with specified performance criteria on dry runways
during the aircraft certification flight test program and are thus
valid only when the runway is dry.
As a result, the stop portion of the accelerate-stop distance will
increase, the landing distance will increase, and a crosswind
will present directional control difficulties.It is therefore expected that pilots will take all necessary action,
including the application of any appropriate adjustment factor
to calculate stopping distances for their aircraft as may be required
based on the RSC and CRFI information.
1.1.4.2 Department of National Defence Aerodromes
Snow removal and ice control policy and procedures at Canadian
military aerodromes are similar to those of Canadian civil
aerodromes; however, the military aerodrome operator might
not use the same type of friction measuring equipment to obtain
the average runway friction index.
1.1.5 Wildlife Hazard
Certified airports in Canada are required to have a plan to identify
and control the hazards wildlife (birds and other animals) present
to flight operations. The risk of wildlife strikes may increase
during spring and autumn migrations; however, airports can
be subject to hazardous wildlife year-round. Pilots should monitor
ATIS for information concerning this hazard.
For more information on wildlife hazards, migratory birds, and
wildlife-strike reporting, see AIP Canada ENR 5.6.
1.2 INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS
Some airports are designated “international airport” by Transport Canada to support international commercial air
transport. See AIP Canada GEN 1.2.2.1 for information on
international commercial flights.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA1.2.1 International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Def initions
International Scheduled Air Transport, Regular Use (RS) : An
aerodrome which may be listed in the flight plan as an aerodrome
of intended landing.
International Scheduled Air Transport, Alternate Use (AS) : An
aerodrome specified in the flight plan to which a flight may
proceed when it becomes inadvisable to land at the aerodrome
of intended landing.
International General Aviation, Regular Use (RG) : All aircraft
other than those operated on an international air service.
NOTE :
Any of the listed regular aerodromes may be used as a regular
or alternate aerodrome.
1.3 AERODROME DIRECTORY
Complete general data on Canadian aerodromes is listed in the
Canada Flight Supplement (CFS). ICAO Type A Charts are
available from NAV CANADA’s Aeronautical Information
Management (AIM) (see MAP 4.2.1 and < https://www.navcanada.
ca/en/aeronautical-information/instrument-flight-rules-ifr-publications-.aspx >).
1.4 AERONAUTICAL GROUND LIGHTS
Information on aeronautical ground lights can be found in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) under the LIGHTING entry
in the table of the aerodrome they serve or on visual flight
rules (VFR) navigational charts.
2.0 AERODROMES AND AIRPORTS
2.1 GENERAL
An aerodrome is defined by the Aeronautics Act as:
Any area of land, water (including the frozen surface thereof)
or other supporting surface used, designed, prepared,
equipped or set apart for use either in whole or in part for
the arrival, departure, movement or servicing of aircraft
and includes any buildings, installations and equipment
situated thereon or associated therewith.
This has a very broad application for Canada where there are
no general restrictions preventing landings or takeoffs. There
are defined exceptions, but, for the most part, all of Canada can be an aerodrome.
Rules for operating an aerodrome are provided in Part III of the
Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) under Subpart 301. The
objective is to define the minimum safety standards that must
be offered as well as to make provision for inspection by the
Minister. Aerodrome operators are encouraged, in the interest
of aviation safety, efficiency, and convenience, to improve their aerodromes beyond the basic regulatory requirements using, as
guidelines, the standards and recommended practices applicable
for the certification of aerodromes as airports, heliports, or water airports. Aerodrome users are, however, reminded that the
improvement of aerodrome physical characteristics, visual aids,
lighting, and markings beyond the basic regulatory requirements
for aerodromes stated in CAR 301 is a matter of individual
aerodrome operators’ initiative. Such improvements do not
require regulatory compliance, nor are those improvements
inspected or certified in accordance with the standards and
recommended practices applicable for the certification of
aerodromes as airports, heliports, or water airports.
2.1.1 Registration
Subsection 301 also regulates the “Registration” process, which is used to publish and maintain information on an aerodrome
in the CFS or the CWAS. The regulation specifies that an
aerodrome operator can expect:
(a) to have their aerodrome registered in the appropriate
publication when they provide the necessary information
with respect to location, markings, lighting, use, and
operation of the aerodrome;
(b) to have their aerodrome denied registration in the appropriate
publication if they do not meet the aerodrome regulatory requirements for markers and markings, warning notices, wind direction indicator, and lighting;
(c) to assume responsibility of immediately notifying the Minister of any changes in the aerodrome’s published
information regarding its location, markings, lighting, use,
or operation; and
(d) to have their aerodrome classed as a registered aerodrome when it is published in the CFS or CWAS.
NOTE :
No aerodrome operator is obliged by these regulations to have information published in the CFS or CWAS. The Minister may
choose not to publish information for a site that is considered
to be hazardous to aviation safety.
In addition to the initial inspection during the application for
registration, other inspections are done on an as-required basis,
once the aerodromes are registered, to verify their compliance
with CARs and the accuracy of their information as it is published
in the CFS or the CWAS. Such information, however, is only
published for the convenience of the pilot and should be confirmed
through contact with the aerodrome operator before the pilot
uses a site.
2.1.2 Certification
Besides “aerodrome” and “registered aerodrome,” other terms
include “airport,” “heliport,” and “water airport.” These are
aerodromes for which a certificate has been issued under
Subpart 302 of the CARs or Subpart 305 for heliports. The
objective is to protect those, such as the fare-paying public and
residents in the vicinity of an airport, who do not have the
knowledge or ability to protect themselves and who could thus be affected by unsafe operations. This is achieved by ensuring
sites are inspected periodically for compliance with
Transport Canada standards for obstacle limitation surfaces,
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGAphysical characteristics, marking, lighting, maintenance
procedures, emergency response services, etc., which have been
recorded in the Airport/Heliport Operations Manual. The current
information is to be communicated to all interested aircraft
operators through the CFS, the CAP, NOTAMs, and voice
advisories, as applicable. See AGA 2.3 for more information
about aerodrome certification.
2.2 USE OF AERODROMES, AIRPORTS,
AND HELIPORTS
An aerodrome, airport, or heliport listed in the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS) or the Canada Water Aerodrome
Supplement (CWAS) that does not require prior permission of
the aerodrome or airport operator for aircraft operations is
called a public-use aerodrome, airport, or heliport.
An aerodrome, airport, or heliport that can be listed in the CFS
or CWAS but whose use can be limited is called a private-use
aerodrome. This can include:
(a) Prior Permission Required (PPR): The aerodrome operator’s
permission is required prior to use. All military aerodromes
require PPR for Civilian aircraft.
(b) Prior Notice Required (PN): The aerodrome operator owner
or operator is to be notified prior to use so that current
information on the aerodrome may be provided.
NOTE S:
1. Pilots and aerodrome operators are reminded that trespass
restrictions are not applicable to aircraft in distress.
2. Pilots intending to use a non-certified aerodrome are advised
to obtain current information from the aerodrome operator
concerning operating conditions prior to using that
aerodrome for aircraft operations.
2.3 AIRPORT/HELIPORT/WATER AIRPORT
CERTIFICATION
2.3.1 General
Transport Canada is responsible for the regulatory development
and compliance oversight in support of a safe national air
transportation system. Therefore, airports supporting commercial
operations involving the carrying of passengers must meet
accepted safety standards. The airport operator that holds an
airport certificate testifies that the aerodrome meets such safety
standards. Where variances from airport certification safety
standards are required, studies will be undertaken to devise
offsetting procedures, which will provide equivalent levels
of safety.2.3.2 Applicability of Airport Certification
The requirement for aerodrome certification applies to:
(a) any aerodrome that is located within the built-up area of a
city or town;
(b) any land aerodrome that is used by an air operator for the
purpose of a scheduled service for the transport of passengers;
and
(c) any other aerodrome, where the Minister is of the opinion that it is in the public interest for that aerodrome to meet
the requirements necessary for the issuance of an airport
certificate because it would further the safe operation of
the aerodrome.
Exemptions include:
(a) military aerodromes; and
(b) aerodromes for which the Minister has written an exemption
and an equivalent level of safety is defined.
2.3.3 Transport Canada’s Responsibilities
The responsibilities of Transport Canada include:
(a) developing safety standards, policies, and criteria for
elements such as, but not limited to:
(i) physical characteristics of the manoeuvring area,
including separations,
(ii) marking and lighting, and
(iii) obstacle limitation surfaces in the vicinity of airports,
heliports and water airports;
(b) reviewing aeronautical studies where variances from airport
certification safety standards are required;
(c) certifying and inspecting against the requirements and
conditions of the respective operations manuals (for airports,
heliports, or water airports); and
(d) verifying, amending, and relaying, as appropriate, pertinent
airport/heliport/water airport information to be identified
in the appropriate AIS publications.
2.3.4 Operator’s Responsibilities
The responsibilities of the operator of an airport/heliport/water
airport include, but are not limited to:
(a) complying with the applicable regulations and standards
in Part III of CARs;
(b) completing and distributing an approved operations manual;
(c) maintaining the facility in accordance with the requirements
specified in the airport/heliport/water airport operations
manual; and
(d) advising Transport Canada and aircraft operators whenever
services or facilities fall below requirements prescribed in
the operations manual or differ from the information published in the aeronautical publications for their
aerodrome.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA2.3.5 Airport Certification Process
Airport certification is a process whereby Transport Canada
certifies that an aerodrome meets airport certification safety
standards and that aerodrome data, as provided by the owner
or operator and as confirmed by Transport Canada inspectors
at the time of certification, is correct and published in the
appropriate aeronautical information publications. When these
requirements are met, an airport certificate is issued. The airport
certificate documentation includes:
(a) the airport certificate, which certifies that the airport meets
required standards at the time of issuance; and
(b) the operations manual, which details the airport
specifications, facilities, and services, and specifies the
responsibilities of the operator for the maintenance of airport
certification standards. The operations manual is a reference
for airport operations and inspections, which ensures that
variances from airport certification safety standards and
the resulting conditions of airport certification are approved.
2.3.6 Regulatory References for Aerodrome
Certification (Airport/Heliport/
Water Airport)
The regulatory authority for airport, heliport, and water
airport certification is Subpart 302 of the CARs. The regulatory
authority for heliport certification can be found under Part III
of the CARs, which includes reference to the respective compliance
standards for aerodrome certification. Depending on the date
on which the certificate was initially issued, some aerodrome
operators may be complying with previous versions of the
certification standards.
2.4 AIRPORT/HELIPORT/WATER AIRPORT
CERTIFICATE
2.4.1 Issue
A certificate will be issued when an inspection confirms that
all requirements for airport certification have been met, including
the following:
(a) where variance from the certification standards exists,
measures have been implemented to provide for an equivalent
level of safety; and
(b) the operations manual has been approved by the Regional
Director, Civil Aviation.2.4.2 Airport Certificate Validity and Amendments
The airport certificate is a legal aviation document that remains
valid as long as the airport is operated and maintained in
accordance with the operations manual. Periodic inspections
are conducted to verify continued conformity to the certification
standards and conditions specified in the operations manual.
Transport Canada may make amendments to the conditions
applicable to the issuing of an airport certificate when:
(a) an approved variance from certification standards and a
change in the conditions of certification are required;
(b) there is a change in the use or operations of the airport; and
(c) it is requested by the holder of the airport certificate.
3.0 RUNWAY CHARACTERISTICS
3.1 RUNWAY LENGTH AND WIDTH
Runways are generally dimensioned to accommodate an aircraft
considered to be the critical aircraft. Critical aircraft is defined in the fifth edition of the Transport Canada publication titled
Aerodrome Standards and Recommended Practices (TP 312) as
“the aircraft identified as having the most demanding operational
requirements with respect to the determination of movement
area dimensions, and other aerodrome physical characteristics
at the aerodrome or part thereof”. To identify the critical aircraft,
flight manual performance data of a variety of aircraft is
examined. Once the critical aircraft has been determined, the longest distance determined after analyzing both take-off and
landing performance is used as the basis for runway dimensions.
Generally, the runway width can be increased by a maximum of 60 m as a function of length.
3.2 RUNWAY STRIP
Each runway is bounded by a runway strip on its sides and ends to protect aircraft that overfly the runway at very low altitudes
during a balked approach for landing. This is achieved by
restricting the presence of objects to only those that must be in
proximity of the runway as part of normal operations and by
prescribing frangibility requirements.
3.3 RUNWAY SAFETY AREA
Each runway is bounded by a prepared area on its sides and
ends, within the dimensions of the runway strip. It is graded to
prevent catastrophic damage to aircraft leaving the runway sides.
3.4 RUNWAY END SAFETY AREA (RESA)
On some runways there may be an area, at the end and beyond the runway strip, prepared to reduce the severity of damage to an aircraft overrunning or undershooting the runway.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA3.5 RUNWAY THRESHOLD DISPLACEMENT
Occasionally, natural and human-made obstacles penetrate the
obstacle limitation surfaces of the approach paths to runways.
To ensure that a safe clearance from these obstacles is maintained,
it is necessary to displace the threshold upwind from the adjacent
runway end where the approach slope cannot be raised. In the
case of runways for which instrument approach procedures (IAP)
are published in the Canada Air Pilot (CAP), the usable runway
distances for landings and takeoffs are specified as declared
distances. The displacements are also depicted on the aerodrome
or airport diagram in both the CAP and the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS). For other runways that do not have approaches
published in the CAP, the requisite data is given in the CFS.
Where a threshold is displaced, it is marked as shown in AGA 5.4.1,
Figure 5.5.
When the portion of the runway preceding the threshold is
marked with arrows (see AGA 5.4.1), it is permissible to use that portion of the runway for taxiing, takeoff, and landing roll-out
from the opposite direction. When taking off from the end
opposite the threshold, pilots should be aware of the fact that
there are obstacles present that have penetrated above the
approach slope leading to the physical end of the runway and
have resulted in the threshold being displaced. In some cases,
this may result in the publication of a specified climb and/or
visibility.
3.6 RUNWAY TURN PAD
Some runways have thresholds that are not served directly by
taxiways. In such cases, there may be a runway turn pad, a widened
area that can be used to facilitate turnaround. Pilots are cautioned
that these pads do not give sufficient clearance from the runway
edge and thus cannot be used for holding while other aircraft
are using the runway.
3.7 BLAST PAD
A blast pad is defined in the Aerodrome Standards and
Recommended Practices (TP 312) as “an area before the threshold
that is prepared to resist erosion arising from jet exhaust or
propeller wash.” When over 60 m in length, this entire paved,
non-load-bearing surface is marked with yellow chevrons, as
shown in AGA 5.4.2, Figure 5.6.
3.8 STOPWAY
A stopway is defined in the Aerodrome Standards and
Recommended Practices (TP 312) as “a rectangular area on the
ground at the end of take-off run available prepared as a suitable
area in which an aeroplane can be stopped in the case of a rejected
takeoff”. Where paved, it is marked over its entire length with
yellow chevrons (when its length exceeds 60 m) as shown in
AGA 5.4.2, Figure 5.6, and is lit with red edge and end lights in
the take-off direction. Its length is included in the accelerate-
stop distance available (ASDA) declared for the runway.3.9 CLEARWAY
A clearway is defined in the Aerodrome Standards and
Recommended Practices (TP 312) as “a defined rectangular area
over land or water under the control of the aerodrome operator,
selected as a suitable area over which an aircraft may make a
portion of its initial climb to a specified height”.
3.10 DECLARED DISTANCES
The Canada Air Pilot (CAP) provides information on declared
distances, which are defined in the fifth edition of the Aerodrome
Standards and Recommended Practices (TP 312) as follows:
“The distances that the aerodrome operator declares available
for aircraft take-off run, take-off distance, accelerate stop
distance, and landing distance requirements. The distances are categorized as follows:
(a) Take-off run available (TORA): The length of runway
declared available and suitable for the ground run of an
aircraft taking off.
(b) Take-off distance available (TODA): The length of the takeoff
run available plus the length of the clearway, if provided.
(c) Accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA): The length of
the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway, if provided.
(d) Landing distance available (LDA): The length of the runway
available and suitable for the ground run of an aircraft
landing.”
3.11 RAPID-EXIT TAXIWAYS
To reduce the aircraft runway occupancy time, some aerodromes
or airports provide rapid-exit taxiways, which are connected to the runway at an angle of approximately 30 degrees.
3.12 RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY BEARING
STRENGTH
The bearing strength of some aerodrome or airport pavement
surfaces (runways, taxiways, and aprons) that is required to
withstand continuous use by aircraft of specific weights and tire
pressures has been assessed at specific locations. The
Transport Canada (TC) pavement load rating (PLR) and
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) pavement
classification number (PCN) define the weight limits at or below
which the aircraft may operate on pavements without prior
approval of the aerodrome or airport authority. The tire pressure
and aircraft load rating (ALR)/aircraft classification
number (ACN) must be equal to or less than the PLR/PCN
figures published for each aerodrome or airport. Aircraft
exceeding the published load restrictions may be permitted for limited operations following an engineering evaluation by the airport operator. Requests to permit such operations should be
forwarded to the airport operator and should include the aircraft
type, operating weight, and tire pressure, as well as the frequency
of the proposed operation and the pavement areas required at the aerodrome or airport.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA3.12.1 Pavement Load Rating Charts
Operators who require information about the aircraft weight
limitations in effect at an aerodrome or airport can contact the
aerodrome or airport operator.
3.13 HELIPORTS
Because of the unique operational characteristics of helicopters,
a heliport’s physical characteristics differ significantly from the
physical characteristics of other aerodromes. For instance, a
heliport does not require a runway, but instead requires a final
approach and take-off area (FATO). The FATO is 1.5 times larger
than the longest helicopter for which the heliport is certified
and is surrounded by a safety area, which is to be kept free of
obstacles, other than visual aids.
Figure 3.1—FATO/Safety Area
3.13.1 Final Approach and Take-Off Area (FATO)
Obstacle-free arrival and departure paths to and from a FATO are always required. In some cases, a FATO can be offset from
the intended landing area. In this case, helicopter parking
positions are established on an apron area and pilots will hover taxi to transition between the FATO and the parking position.
Figure 3.2—Heliport General Layout
Safety Area
GroundtaxiwayFATO
(NoTLOF)FATO with TLOF
Helicopter parking positions
Illustration of a heliport general layoutAir taxiway3.13.2 Heliport Classification
Non-instrument heliports have three classifications: H1, H2,
and H3.
H1 heliports have no suitable or available emergency landing
areas within 625 m of the FATO. Their use is restricted to
multi-engine helicopters capable of remaining 4.5 m above all
obstacles within the defined approach/departure pathways when
operating in accordance with their AFM with one engine
inoperative.
H2 heliports do have suitable and available emergency landing
areas within 625 m of the FATO; however, they may only be used
by multi-engine helicopters because the associated approach
slopes are higher due to high obstacles within the approach/
departure pathways.
H3 heliports have suitable and available emergency landing areas
within 625 m of the FATO and no obstacles that penetrate the
OLSs; they may therefore be used by single- or multi-engine
helicopters. Heliport classifications are specified in the CFS.
3.13.3 Heliport Operational Limitations
All heliports have three operational limitations. The limitations
for each specific heliport are listed in the CFS.The load-bearing strength shall be identified for each elevated
or rooftop FATO or floating supporting structure. Surface-level
heliports do not need to list a load-bearing strength.The maximum helicopter overall length shall be identified for
each FATO. This is calculated as the width or diameter of each FATO, divided by 1.5. This number represents the largest size of helicopter for which the FATO is certified.
The heliport category (instrument or non-instrument) and
classification, as detailed in AGA 3.13.2, above, shall also
be listed.
4.0 OBSTACLE RESTRICTIONS
4.1 GENERAL
The safe and efficient use of an aerodrome, airport, or heliport
can be seriously compromised by the presence of obstacles within
or close to the take-off or approach areas. The airspace in the
vicinity of take-off or approach areas, which is to be maintained
free from obstacles so as to facilitate the safe operation of aircraft,
is defined for the purpose of:
(a) regulating aircraft operations where obstacles exist;
(b) removing obstacles; or
(c) preventing the creation of obstacles.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA4.2 OBSTACLE LIMITATION
SURFACES (OLS)
4.2.1 General
An OLS establishes the limit to which objects may project into
the airspace associated with an airport so that aircraft operations
at the airport may be conducted safely. It includes an approach
surface, a take-off surface, and a transitional surface.
Figure 4.1—Example of OLSs
approach
surface
slope change(Note 1)
PLAN VIEW
PROFILE VIEWrunwaystriptransitional
(2nd segment)
45 mtransitional
(1st segment)
3D VIEWtransitional
approach surface
2nd slope1st slope inner edge
4.2.2 Heliports
Heliports are normally served by two approach and departure
paths. In some instances, they only have one approach and
departure path and will then require a transitional surface.
Figure 4.2—Heliport Take-off/
Approach Areas and Surfaces4.3 AIRPORT ZONING REGULATIONS
4.3.1 General
An airport zoning regulation is a regulation applicable to a given
airport pursuant to section 5.4(2) of the Aeronautics Act that
imposes restrictions on land use, including vertical development,
with the objective of protecting an airport’s current and future accessibility, usability, and viability by:
(a) preventing lands adjacent to or in the vicinity of a federal airport or an airport site from being used or developed in
a manner that is, in the opinion of the Minister, incompatible
with the operation of an airport;
(b) preventing lands adjacent to or in the vicinity of an airport or airport site from being used or developed in a manner
that is, in the opinion of the Minister, incompatible with
the safe operation of an airport or aircraft; and
(c) preventing lands adjacent to or in the vicinity of facilities used to provide services relating to aeronautics from being used or developed in a manner that would, in the opinion
of the Minister, cause interference with signals or
communications to and from aircraft or to and from those facilities.
NOTE :
An airport zoning regulation applies only to land outside the
boundary of the airport it protects. Obstacles within an airport boundary must not penetrate an OLS for the runway(s) involved
unless the obstacle is exempted as a result of an aeronautical study.
4.3.2 Airports Where Zoning Regulations Are
in Effect
A list of airports where airport zoning regulations are in effect
is maintained in the Regional Aerodrome Safety office and
online on the Aeronautics Act page of the Department of Justice
Web site, under the heading “Regulations made under this Act”.
5.0 MARKERS, MARKINGS, SIGNS,
AND INDICATORS
5.1 AIRCRAFT TAKE-OFF OR LANDING
AREA BOUNDARY MARKERS
The take-off or landing area boundaries of aerodromes without
prepared runways are indicated by conical- or gable-type markers
(highway-type cone markers are acceptable) or by evergreen
trees in winter. No boundary markers are required if the entire
movement area is clearly delineated from that of the surrounding
ground. The markers are typically coloured international orange
and white or solid international orange.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGAFigure 5.1—Examples of Conical and Gable Markers
conical markers gable markersgable markers
(alternate arrangement)
stopwaystopway edge markers
conical type marker (runway edge)
conical type marker (stopway)
gable type marker90 m
90 cm
90 cm75 cm
(refer text)
75 cm
(refer text)side viewbreak point
5 cm above groundunpaved runway
top view
side view top view
side view front viewapproach side:background colour
75 cm
(refer text)50 cm
max.1 m
min.2.4 m min.
break point5 cm above ground
5.2 AIR TAXIWAY EDGE MARKERS
The edges of the air taxiway route are indicated by markers
35 cm in height that consist of three horizontal bands of equal size arranged vertically. The top and bottom bands are yellow and the middle one is green.
Figure 5.2—Air Taxiway Edge Marker
35 cm35 cm5.3 SEAPLANE DOCK MARKERS
Seaplane docks are marked to facilitate their identification. The dock is marked with an equilateral triangle measuring 2.4 m on each side. The dock to which this marker is affixed also has red and white side markings.
Figure 5.3—Seaplane Dock Markers
white border
red or fluorescent orange
2.4 m
dock marker
red/white side marking
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA5.4 RUNWAY MARKINGS
Runway markings vary depending on the runway’s length, width,
surface type, and, if available, aircraft group number (AGN).
They are described in detail in Transport Canada’s Aerodrome
Standards and Recommended Practices (TP 312).
Where an aiming point marking is provided, it is white and
located at a specific distance from the threshold per Table 5.1
below.
Table 5.1—Location of Aiming Point Marking
Declared landing distance
available (LDA)Location of aiming point
marking distance from
threshold (m)
less than 800 m 150
800 m up to but not
including 1 200 m250
1 200 m up to but not
including 2 400 m300
2 400 m or more 400
Where touchdown zone (TDZ) markings are provided, they are
white and found in pairs in accordance with Table 5.2 and
Figure 5.4 below. The location of pairs of TDZ markings is based
on a horizontal spacing of 150 m. However, aiming point markings
take precedence over TDZ markings; therefore, a pair of TDZ
markings is omitted if it would otherwise fall within 50 m of
the aiming point marking.
Figure 5.4—Aiming Point and TDZ Markings
900 m
750 m
600 m
400 m
450 mLDA: 2400 m or more
LDA: 1500 m up to but not including 2400 m
LDA: 1200 m up to but not including 1500 m
LDA: 900 m up to but not including 1200 m
LDA: less than 900 m450 m
Touchdown zone
marking300 m
300 m
250 m
300 m
150 m
Aiming zone
markingThreshold
marking5.4.1 Displaced Threshold Markings
Figure 5.5—Displaced Threshold Markings
THRESHOLD MARKINGS
6 m
DISPLACED PORTION OF RUNWAY
DISPLACED PORTION OF RUNWAYL 1
50 m min
75 m max
30 m minL 215 m min
PERMANENT TEMPORARYThreshold bar
1.8 m 1.8 m
1.8 m
THRESHOLD MARKINGSa a aa
2a
3 m
3 mOR10 m
85 cmARROW DETAIL
10 m3 lines
15 cm
wide at
35 cm
centres30 m ≤ L1≥ L2
NOTE: Formula to be used
for multiple arrows
7.5 m ≤ a ≤ 15 m
a = width of runway
no. of arrows
(minimum 2 arrows)
NOTE :
When the threshold must be displaced for a relatively short
period of time, painting a temporary threshold bar is impractical.
Instead, flags, cones, or wing bar lights are installed to indicate
the position of the displaced threshold. A NOTAM or voice
advisory warning of the temporary displacement will contain
a description of the markers and the expected duration of the
displacement in addition to the length of the closed portion and
the remaining usable runway.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA5.4.2 Stopway Markings
The paved area preceding a runway threshold prepared,
maintained, and declared as a stopway is marked with yellow
chevrons when its length exceeds 60 m. This area is not available
for taxiing, the initial take-off roll, or the landing rollout. The
chevron markings may also be used on blast pads.
Table 5.2—TDZ Marking Pairs
Distance between thresholds/declared
LDA Location of TDZ markings
distance from threshold (m)Location of aiming
point marking distance
from threshold (m)Pairs of TDZ
markings
less than 900 m 0 150 0
900 m up to but not including 1 200 m 150 250 1
1 200 m up to but not including 1 500 m 150 and 450 300 2
1 500 m up to but not including 2 400 m 150, 450 and 600 300 3
2 400 m or more 150, 300, 600, 750 and 900 400 5
Figure 5.6—Stopway Markings
1.8 m1.8 mThreshold barThreshold markingsLDATORA
LDATORA
0.9 m15 - 30 m
1.5 m maxPRE-THRESHOLD AREA
(Eg. Stopway or Blast pad)
PRE-THRESHOLD AREA
(Eg. Stopway or Blast pad)
Note: For information on marking tolerances, refer to the respective standards.15 - 30 m
15 - 30 m
15 - 30 m7.5 mmax0.9 m45° 45°
15 - 30 m½ D
½ D
D
½ DRunway
centrelineDemarcation
bar5.4.3 Runway Holding Position Markings
Runway holding position markings are provided near all runway/
taxiway intersections and runway/runway intersections to protect
the operational environment of the runway in use. They may
also be established at other locations to protect the arrival and
departure flight paths to a runway.
The standard runway holding position marking consists of two
solid and two dashed lines as depicted in Figure 5.7.
Some airports may have multiple runway holding position
markings on a given taxiway. These additional markings are
commonly referred to as having a ladder-type pattern as depicted
in Figure 5.7. It is important to note that in all cases, the runway
holding position marking nearest to the runway will be the
standard presentation.
Figure 5.7—Runway Holding Position Markings
Supplemental runway holdingposition marking
Standard runway holdingposition marking
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA5.5 HELIPORTS
5.5.1 Heliport Touchdown and Lift-Off
Area (TLOF) Marking
When the perimeter of the TLOF is not otherwise obvious, it
will be marked by a solid white line.
5.5.2 Safety Area Markers
The safety area that surrounds the FATO may be indicated by
gable, conical, or other types of suitable markers or markings.
5.5.3 Heliport Identification Markings
Heliports are identified by a white capital letter “H” centred
within the TLOF. Where it is necessary to enhance the visibility
of the letter “H”, it may be centred within a dashed triangle.
Hospital heliports are identified by a red capital letter “H” centred
within a white cross.
The letter “H” will be oriented with magnetic north, except in
the area of compass unreliability, where it will be oriented with true north.
Figure 5.8—Heliport Identification Markings
Maximum allowablemass indicator(x 1 000 lbs.)
(Dashedtriangle optional)
HELIPORT MARKINGS HOSPITAL HELIPORTSNORTH
5.5.4 Final Approach and Take-Off Area (FATO)
Markers
Where practicable, the boundary of the FATO will be indicated
by gable, conical, or other types of suitable markers. The markers
shall be frangible and shall not exceed a height of 25 cm. An
aiming point marking will be provided and located in the centre
of the FATO, where practicable. Where the direction of the
helicopter parking position is not obvious, an indicator will
show its direction.5.5.5 Helicopter Parking Position Markings
Helicopter parking position markings consist of two concentric yellow circles. The diameter of the outer circle shall not be less
than 1.2 times the overall length of the longest helicopter for
which the helicopter parking position is certified. The diameter of the inner circle is one-third of the size of the outer circle. An “H” marking will be centred within the inner circle.
Figure 5.9—Helicopter Parking Position Markings
5.5.6 Approach and Take-Off Direction
Indicator Markings
There may be heliports where, due to nearby obstacles or noise-
sensitive areas, approach and take-off directions are designated.
The direction of the approach and take-off paths is indicated
by a double-headed arrow, showing their inbound and outbound
directions. The arrows are located beyond the edge of the safety area or on the aiming point marking.
Figure 5.10—Approach and Take-Off Direction Marking
1.8 m0.60 m
2 m
1/2 L
LApproach / Take-offpath centre line
5.6 CLOSED MARKINGS
The closed portion of the runway may be shown on the aerodrome
or airport diagram in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) and
the Canada Air Pilot (CAP) for identification purposes; however,
declared distances will only include runway length starting at the new threshold position.
Runways, taxiways, helicopter final approach and take-off areas (FATO), and other helicopter areas that are closed to
operations are marked by “Xs”, as shown in Figure 5.11. Snow-
covered areas may be marked by “Xs” using conspicuously
coloured dye.
“Xs” applied to runways are white in colour and placed within
a maximum spacing of 300 m of each other. For taxiways, the
“Xs” are yellow in colour and placed at each end of the
closed portion.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGAFor helicopter FATOs, the “X” is white in colour. For other
helicopter areas such as helicopter parking positions, the “X” is
yellow in colour.
Figure 5.11—Closed Markings
FATOhelicopter parking positiontaxiway300 mmax.
A lighted “X” may also be used within 75 m of the threshold to mark a temporary full-length closure of a runway.
Figure 5.12—Lighted “X” Marking a
Temporary Full-Length Runway Closure
5.7 UNSERVICEABLE AREA MARKERS
Unserviceable portions of the movement area other than runways
and taxiways are delineated by markers such as marker boards,
cones, or red flags and, where appropriate, a flag or suitable
marker is placed near the centre of the unserviceable area. Red flags are used when the unserviceable portion of the movement
area is sufficiently small for it to be by-passed by aircraft without
affecting the safety of their operations.5.8 AIRSIDE SIGNS
5.8.1 General
The primary purpose of airside signs is to ensure the safe and expeditious movement of aircraft on the aprons, taxiways, and runways by providing direction and information to pilots.
The two main categories of airside signs are information signs
and mandatory instruction signs, differentiated by using black/yellow and red/white colour combinations, respectively.
5.8.2 Information Signs
Information signs identify a specific destination, location,
frequency, or routing information to pilots. The inscriptions
incorporate arrows, numbers, letters, or pictographs to convey instructions or to identify specific areas.
(a) Location Sign: A location sign has a yellow inscription on
a black background and is used to identify the taxiway that
the aircraft is on or entering. A location sign never contains
arrows.
(b) Direction Sign: A direction sign has a black inscription on
a yellow background and is used to identify the intersecting
taxiways toward which an aircraft is approaching. The sign
is, whenever practicable, positioned on the left-hand side
of the taxiway and prior to the intersection. A direction
sign will always contain arrows to indicate the approximate
angle of intercept. Direction signs are normally used in
combination with location signs to provide the pilot with
position information. The location sign will be in the centre
or datum position. In this configuration, all left turn
direction signs are located to the left of the location sign
and all right turn direction signs are located to the right of the location sign.
The only exception to this rule is for a simple “T” intersection,
where the information sign is located on the opposite side (the top of the “T”) of the intersection, facing the taxiway.
When a taxiway continues through the intersection and
changes heading by more than 25° or changes its designation,
a direction sign will indicate this fact.
(c) Runway Exit Signs: A runway exit sign has a black inscription
on a yellow background and is used to identify a taxiway
that exits a runway. The sign is positioned prior to the
intersection on the same side of the runway as the exit. The
sign will always contain an arrow and will indicate the
approximate angle at which the taxiway intersects the
runway. When a taxiway crosses a runway, a sign will be
positioned on both sides of the runway. Runway exit signs may be omitted in cases where aircraft do not normally use the taxiway to exit or in cases of one-way taxiways.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA(d) Destination Signs: A destination sign has a black inscription
on a yellow background and is used to provide general
guidance to points on the airfield. These signs will always
contain arrows. The use of destination signs will be kept to
a minimum. Airports with a good direction sign layout will
have little need for destination signs.
(e) Other Information Signs: Other information signs have a
black inscription on a yellow background and include
information such as stand identification, parking areas and
frequency.
Figure 5.13—Information Signs
Stand-alone location sign
right turn direction sign left turn direction sign(note 2)
(note 2)
Inbound Destination Signs
Outbound Destination Signs
ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign(note 2)
(note 2)
Notes:
(1) Colour display is for internally illuminated signs. Refer to Figure 5-59 for
colour display of pixel [fibre-optic] signs.
(2) Arrows are orientated in increments of 22.5 degrees. DIRECTION AND LOCATION
RUNWAY EXIT
DESTINATION
RUNWAY VACATED
INTERSECTION TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLEtaxiway
sidetaxiway
side
LEGEND Yellow Black
5.8.3 Mandatory Instruction Signs
Mandatory instruction signs are used to identify runway designations, holding positions, NO-ENTRY areas, and
obstacle-free zones, where pilots must receive further ATC
clearance to proceed. At uncontrolled aerodromes, pilots are
required to hold at points marked by these signs until they have
ascertained that there is no air traffic conflict. Mandatory
instruction signs have white letters, numbers, or symbols against
a red background and are installed on both sides of a taxiway
or runway, unless it is physically impossible to do so and provided
that an equivalent painted sign marking is provided on the
taxiway or runway.
(a) Runway Designation Sign: A runway designation sign is
installed at all taxiway/runway and runway/runway
intersections at certified aerodromes. A runway designation
sign is used for runways certified for VFR, IFR non-precision,
and take-off operations. The sign, when installed at the
runway end, shows the designator of the departure runway. Signs installed at locations other than the runway ends shall
show the designator for both runways. A location sign is
positioned in the outboard position beside the runway
designator.
In the following examples, “A” shows that an aircraft is
located on Taxiway “A” at the threshold of Runway 34. The
second example has the aircraft on Taxiway “C” at the
intersection of Runway 34/16. The threshold of Runway 34 is to the left and Runway 16 to the right.
Figure 5.14—Examples of Runway Designation Signs
For airports located within the area of compass unreliability,
the same rules apply, except that the sign shows the exact true azimuth of the runway(s) as a three-digit number.
Figure 5.15—Runway Designation Sign
in Area of Compass Unreliability
(b) Category I, Category II, and Category III holding position
signs: CAT I, CAT II, and CAT III holding position signs are
installed to protect the ILS critical area during IFR precision
operations. A sign is installed on each side of the taxiway in
line with the CAT I/II/III hold position marking. The inscription
will consist of the designator of the runway and the inscription
CAT I, CAT II, CAT III, or a combination, as appropriate.
NOTE :
Where only one holding position is necessary for all categories of operation, a CAT I/II/III sign is not installed. In all cases, the
last sign before entering a runway will be the runway designation
sign.
(c) NO-ENTRY sign: A NO-ENTRY sign, as shown in
Figure 5.16, will be located at the beginning and on both
sides of the area to which entrance is prohibited.
(d) APCH sign: Located at a runway holding position that has
been established for the protection of approach or departure
paths. The airport configuration may be such that these
holding positions are located on runways or taxiways.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGAFigure 5.16—Mandatory Instruction Signs
Runway designation
of a runwayextremity
Runway designation
of both extremitiesof a runway
ILS
Category I holdposition
ILS
Category II holdposition
ILS
Category III holdposition
ILS
Category II and IIIhold position
NO ENTRY
Approach or
departure surfaceholding positionIndicates a runway-holding position at a runway extremity.
Note: For single runway designators, the width of the sign isincreased to make the red background more conspicuous.
Indicates runway-holding position located at other than arunway extremity. A runway holding position sign at arunway/runway intersection does not include a location sign.
Indicates a runway holding position atrunway/runway/taxiway, orrunway/runway/runway intersection.
Indicates a Category II runway-holding positionat the threshold of a runway (e.g. rwy25).Indicates a Category I runway-holding position atthe threshold of a runway (e.g. rwy25).
Indicates a Category III runway-holdingposition at the threshold of a runway(e.g. rwy25).
Indicates a joint Category II and IIIrunway-holding position at thethreshold of a runway (e.g. rwy25).
Indicates that entry to an area is prohibited.
Indicates a runway holding position that hasbeen established for the protection of anapproach or departure surface OLS to a runway
5.8.4 Illumination of Airside Signs
Airside signs are illuminated at airports that are used at night or
in low visibility. Signs, which are illuminated internally, may be of two types. One type has a sign face constructed from material,
such as plexiglass, which permits the entire sign face to be
illuminated. The other type has a sign face that incorporates
imbedded fibre optic bundles that illuminate the individual letters,
numbers, and arrows, not the face of the sign. At night or in low
visibility, pilots approaching a fibre optic sign will see RED
illuminated characters on mandatory instruction signs, YELLOW
characters on a location sign, and WHITE characters on all other information signs.
5.9 WIND DIRECTION INDICATORS
At aerodromes that do not have prepared runways, the wind
direction indicator is usually mounted on or near some
conspicuous building or in the vicinity of the general aircraft
parking area.
Runways greater than 1 200 m in length will have a wind direction
indicator for each end of the runway. It will be typically located
adjacent to the touchdown zone, 60 m outward from the edge of
the runway, and clear of the obstacle-free zone.
Runways 1 200 m in length and shorter will have a wind direction
indicator located centrally on the aerodrome or near each end of the runway, typically positioned in proximity to the aiming point markings. For night operations the wind direction indicator will
be illuminated.
NOTE :
At aerodromes certified as airports, a dry standard wind direction
indicator will react to wind speed as follows:
Table 5.3—Wind Indicator Angle Based on Wind Speed
Wind Speed Wind Indicator Angle
15 kt or above Horizontal
10 kt 5˚ below horizontal
6 kt 30˚ below horizontal
At aerodromes not certified as airports, non-standard wind
indicator systems, which could react differently to wind speed,
may be in use.
6.0 OBSTRUCTION MARKING AND LIGHTING
6.1 GENERAL
Where an object, regardless of its height, has been assessed as
constituting an obstacle to air navigation as per subsection
601.23(1) of the Canadian Aviation Regulation (CARs), it requires
marking and/or lighting in accordance with the standards
specified in CAR Standard 621.
6.2 REGULATIONS
Sections 601.23–601.27 of the Canadian Aviation
Regulations (CARs) provide regulations regarding marking and
lighting of obstacles to air navigation. The following objects are
marked and/or lighted in accordance with the standards specified
in CAR Standard 621:
(a) any object penetrating an airport obstacle limitation surface (OLS) as specified in Chapter 4 of Aerodrome
Standards and Recommended Practices ( TP 312);
(b) any object greater than 90 m above ground level (AGL)
within 6 km of the geographical centre of an aerodrome;
(c) any object greater than 90 m AGL within 3.7 km of the
imaginary centreline of a recognized visual flight rules (VFR)
route, including but not limited to a valley, a railroad, a
transmission line, a pipeline, a river, or a highway;
(d) any permanent catenary wire crossing where any portion of the wires or supporting structures exceeds 90 m AGL;
(e) any object greater than 150 m AGL; and
(f) any other object, other than the above, deemed by the
Minister to represent a likely hazard to aviation safety, in accordance with section 601.25 of the CARs.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA6.3 AERONAUTICAL EVALUATION
A person planning to erect or modify an obstacle, namely a
building, structure, or object, including a moored balloon or
kite, either permanently or temporarily, is required to contact
the appropriate regional Transport Canada Civil Aviation office
at least 90 days prior to erection and provide the information
on the planned obstruction, using Form 26-0427E, Aeronautical
assessment form for obstacle notice and assessment , available
in Transport Canada’s forms catalogue at < https://wwwapps.
tc.gc.ca/Corp-Serv-Gen/5/forms-formulaires/search/
results?Keywords=&FormNumber=26-0427&TransportationMode=&Format=&ResultView=Submit> .
6.4 MARKING
Day marking of obstructions that are 150 m above ground level (AGL)
in height or less, such as poles, chimneys, antennas, and cable
tower support structures, may consist of alternate bands of
aviation orange and white paint. A checkerboard pattern may
be used for water tanks, as shown in Figure 6.1. Where a structure
is provided with medium or high-intensity white flashing strobe
lighting systems that are operated during the day, paint marking
of the structure may be omitted.
Figure 6.1—Storage Tank Marking
roof or a portion of may besolid orange where theprojection is equal or lessthan 1.5 m
1/2
to
2/3ANYTOWN.CA6.5 LIGHTING
Lighting is installed on obstructions in order to warn pilots of a potential collision.
The required intensity for this lighting is based upon an
acquisition distance from which the pilot would recognize the
lighting as identifying an obstruction, and be able to initiate
evasive action to miss the obstruction by at least 600 m. For an
aircraft operating at 165 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS), the
acquisition distance is 1.90 km. For an aircraft operating between
165 and 250 KIAS, the acquisition distance is 2.4 km.
A variety of lighting systems are used on obstructions. Table 6.1
indicates the characteristics of light units according to their
name or designation. Although these designations are similar
to those of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the
photometric characteristics (intensity distribution) are not
necessarily the same.
CL-810 lights are used primarily for night protection on smaller
structures and for intermediate lighting on antennas of more
than 45 m.
CL-856 lights are used primarily for high structures and day
protection on towers where marking may be omitted.
CL-857 lights are used for lighting catenary crossings where
marking can be omitted.
CL-864 lights are used for night protection of extensive obstacles,
such as wind farms and towers, of more than 45 m.For CL-865 lights, when operated 24hr/day on towers of less than 150m,
paint marking may be omitted.
CL-866 lights are used for white catenary lighting.CL-885 lights are used for red catenary lighting.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA6.5.1 Rotating Obstruction Light
The majority of flashing obstruction light units are of a strobe
(capacitor discharge) design. An exception is one type of CL-865
medium-intensity flashing light, which is of a rotating design,
i.e. the light display is produced by rotating lenses. Since this
particular light unit might otherwise be mistaken for an
aerodrome beacon, colour coding is used to produce a sequenced
display of white, white, red, white, white, and red.
Figure 6.2—Rotating Obstruction Light
The rotating type CL-865 also has the same 20 000 candela
intensity for nighttime as for daytime operation. The absence
of dimming is allowed for two reasons: (1) the specified intensities
are minimum requirements; and (2) the rotating characteristic
does not produce glare for the pilot.6.5.2 Tower Configurations
Depending on the height of the towers and other factors, the
installation of lights on towers and antennas may vary as shown in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3—Configurations of Lighting
on Skeletal Structures
Appurtenance
more than 12 m
in height
CL-810
red LICL-864
red MICL-865
white MICL-864CL-865
dualCL-856
white HIA B C D E
dualF
dualA' A' configurationTable 6.1—Light Unit Characteristics
Name Colour IntensityIntensity Value
(candelas)Signal TypeFlash Rate
(flashes per min)
CL-810 red low 32 steady burning n/a
CL-856 white high 200 000 flashing 40
CL-857 white high 100 000 flashing 60
CL-864 red medium 2 000 flashing 20–40
CL-865 white medium 20 000 flashing 40
CL-866 white medium 20 000 flashing 60
CL-885 red medium 2 000 flashing 60
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA6.6 APPURTENANCES
Where an obstruction is provided with a red obstruction lighting
system, any appurtenance 12 m in height will require an
obstruction light at the base of the appurtenance. Where such
an appurtenance is more than 12 m in height, the light must be installed on the top of the appurtenance. If the appurtenance is not capable of carrying the light unit, the light may be mounted on the top of an adjacent mast.
Where a high-intensity white flashing lighting system is required,
appurtenances higher than 12 m in height will require a
top-mounted medium-intensity white flashing omnidirectional
light unit.
6.7 SUSPENDED CABLE SPAN MARKINGS
Suspended cable spans, such as power line crossings, assessed
as being hazardous to air navigation are normally marked with coloured balls suspended from a messenger cable between the tops of the support towers. The support towers are obstruction painted. When painting the support towers is not practical, or
when additional warning is necessary, shore markers painted
international orange and white will be displayed. In some cases,
older marker panels that have not been updated are of a
checkerboard design.
An alternative method of marking is to use strobe lights on
shore-based cable support towers. Normally three levels of lights
are installed as follows: one light unit at the top of the structures
to provide 360° coverage; two light units on each structure at
the lowest point of the arc of the lowest cable; and two light units
at a point midway between the top and bottom levels with 180° coverage. The beams of the middle and lower lights are adjusted so that the signal will be seen from the approach direction on
either side of the power line. The lights flash sequentially: middle
lights followed by the top lights and then the bottom lights in
order to display a “fly up” signal to the pilot. The middle light may be removed in the case of narrow power line sags; in this
case the bottom lights will flash first then the top lights will
flash in order to display a “fly up” signal to the pilot. When
deemed appropriate by an aeronautical study, medium-intensity
white flashing omnidirectional lighting systems may be used
on supporting structures of suspended cable spans lower than 150 m above ground level (AGL).
Obstruction markings on aerial cables (i.e. marker balls) that
define aeronautical hazards are generally placed on the highest
line for crossings where there is more than one cable. Obstruction
markings can also be installed on crossings under the Navigation
Protection Act. In this case, the marker balls are placed on the lowest power line and are displayed to water craft as a warning of low clearance between the water and an overhead cable.
In accordance with the foregoing, pilots operating at low levels
may expect to find power line crossings marked as either an
aeronautical hazard or a navigable water hazard. They may be
unmarked if it has been determined by the applicable department
or agency that they are neither an aeronautical nor a navigable
waters hazard. Pilots operating at low altitudes must be aware of these hazards and exercise extreme caution.Figure 6.4—Markers for Cable Span
staggering of markers on highest wire
wire markers
orange and white
pole markerorange and white
5 m diameter filled aviation orange circleon a 6m square aviation white panel.
6.8 AIRCRAFT DETECTION SYSTEMS
A technology has been developed so that obstacle lighting is
activated only when required to alert pilots who are on a flight path that may lead to a collision with the obstacle. The system addresses public complaints regarding light pollution.
The system uses radar to detect and track aircraft. The potential
for collision with an obstacle is determined by the aircraft’s
speed and angle of approach. If there is a risk of collision, the
lighting turns on and an audio warning (if provided) is broadcast
on the very high frequency (VHF) radio. The lighting does not
turn on until it is needed by the detected aircraft. Since the
system uses radar, its operation is independent of any equipment
on board the aircraft (e.g. a transponder).
The obstacle lighting is turned on and the audio warning is
emitted approximately 30 s before the aircraft reaches the obstacle.
In the case of catenaries, the audio warning will state “POWER
LINE, POWER LINE”. For other types of obstructions, a different
message will be sent. In some cases, such as those involving wind
farms near aerodromes, an audio signal might not be provided,
in order to avoid confusing pilots making an approach to landing.
Any questions or comments may be directed to the Transport Canada Flight Standards office in Ottawa
(see GEN 1.1.1 for contact information).
7.0 AERODROME LIGHTING
7.1 GENERAL
The lighting facilities available at an aerodrome or airport are described in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS). Information
concerning an aerodrome or airport’s night lighting procedures
is included as part of the description of lighting facilities, where
routine night lighting procedures are in effect. Where night
lighting procedures are not published for an aerodrome or airport,
pilots should contact the aerodrome operator concerned and
request that the appropriate lights be turned on to facilitate their
intended night operations.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA7.2 AERODROME BEACON
Many aerodromes are equipped with a flashing white beacon
light to assist pilots in locating the aerodrome at night. The
aerodrome beacon may be of the rotating or flashing type. The
flash frequency of beacons at aerodromes or airports used by
aeroplanes is 22 to 26 evenly spaced flashes per minute (fpm)
for rotating beacons or 20 to 30 for flashing beacons.
The flash frequency of beacons at aerodromes and heliports
used only by helicopters is sequenced to transmit the Morse code
letter “H” (in groups of four quick flashes) at the rate of three to
four groups per minute.
7.3 MINIMUM NIGHT LIGHTING
REQUIREMENTS AT AERODROMES
Section 301.07 of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs)
requires that any area of land that is to be used as an aerodrome
at night shall have fixed (steady) white lights to mark the runway,
and fixed red lights to mark unserviceable (hazardous) areas.
Retroreflective markers may be substituted for lights to mark the
runway at aerodromes, provided alignment lights are installed
(see AGA 7.19). This alternative for night marking of runways,
however, is not approved for certified sites.
7.4 UNSERVICEABLE AREA LIGHTING
Unserviceable areas within the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome
being used at night are marked by steady burning red lights
outlining the perimeter of the unserviceable area(s). Where it is
considered necessary in the interest of safety, one or more flashing
red lights may be used in addition to the steady red lights.
7.5 APPROACH LIGHTING
The approach lighting systems depicted in the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS) include the following:
7.5.1 Non-Precision Approach Runways
Low Intensity Approach Lighting System (LIAL) : This system
is provided on non-precision approach runways and consists of
aviation yellow fixed-intensity twin light units spaced at 60-metre
intervals commencing 60 m from the threshold and extending
back for a total distance of 900 m (terrain permitting).
Figure 7.1—LIAL
60 m
runway900 mLIAL
dual fixtures
Omnidirectional Approach Lighting System (ODALS) : This
system is a configuration of seven omnidirectional, variable-
intensity, sequenced flashing lights. An ODALS provides circling,
offset, and straight-in visual guidance for non-precision approach
runways. There are five lights on the extended centreline
commencing 90 m from the threshold and spaced 90 m apart over a total distance of 450 m. Two lights are positioned 12 m
to the left and right of the threshold. The system flashes towards
the threshold, then the two threshold lights flash in unison; the cycle repeats once per second.
Figure 7.2—ODALS
ODALSrunway450 m
90 m
flashing lights
Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System (MALS) or
Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System with Sequenced
Flashing Lights (MALSF) : This system consists of seven barrettes
of variable-intensity lights spaced 60 m apart, commencing 60 m
from the threshold, over a distance of 420 m. In a MALSF, the
three barrettes farthest away from the threshold contain a
sequenced flashing light unit. These lights flash sequentially
towards the threshold, repeating at two cycles per second.
Figure 7.3—MALSF
60 mMALSF420 m
flashing
lightssteady
burning lights threshold
runway
Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway
Alignment Indicator Lights (MALSR) : This system consists of
variable-intensity approach lights spaced 60 m apart, commencing
at 60 m from the threshold, and extending 720 m. This system consists of the following:
(a) seven barrettes of light over a distance of 420 m;
(b) one side barrette of light on each side of the centreline barrette
at 300 m from the runway threshold; and
(c) five sequenced flashing lights over the remaining distance
of 300 m. These lights flash in sequence towards the threshold
at a rate of two cycles per second.
The MALSR has the same configuration as the SSALR, but has lower intensity lights.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGAFigure 7.4—MALSR
60 mMALSR
720 m
flashing lights
steady burning lightsthreshold
runway
Simplified Short Approach Lighting System (SSALS) : This
system is the same as MALS (i.e. MALSF without the sequenced
flashing lights) but high intensity lights are used instead. (See
Figure 7.3 for the layout without the sequenced flashing lights.)
7.5.2 Precision Approach Runways
Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Runway
Alignment Indicator Lights (SSALR) : This system is the same
as the MALSR but high intensity lights are used instead. See
Figure 7.4 for the layout.
Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashers—CAT II
(ALSF-2) : This system consists of rows of five white variable-
intensity light units placed at longitudinal intervals of 30 m
commencing 30 m from the threshold and extending for a total
distance of 720 m. In view of the very low decision height
associated with CAT II operations, the following additional
lights are provided:
(a) runway threshold (green)
(b) 150 m distance bar (white wit h red barrettes)
(c) side barrettes (red)
Figure 7.5—ALSF-2
ALSF-2
720 m
30 mflashing lights steady burning lights
threshold
runway7.6 VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR
SYSTEMS (VASIS)
7.6.1 General
V ASIS is a generic term referring to different approach slope
indicators. Types of VASIS are VASI (visual approach slope indicator ),
AVA SI ( abbreviated VASI ), PAPI ( precision approach path indicator ),
and APAPI ( abbreviated PAPI ).
A VASIS consists of a series of lights visible from approximately
4 NM and designed to provide visual indications of the desired approach slope to a runway (usually 3°). At a certified airport,
aircraft following the on-slope signal are provided with safe
obstruction clearance to a minimum of 6° on either side of the
extended runway centreline out to 7.5 km (4.1 NM) from the
runway threshold. Newly certified airports are commonly
protected up to 8° on each side of the extended runway centreline
and up to 15 km (8 NM) from the runway threshold. Exceptions
will be noted in the CFS. Descent using VASIS should not be
initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the runway
centreline.
The vertical distance from a pilot’s eyes to the lowest portion of
the aircraft in the landing configuration is called the
eye-to-wheel height (EWH), and this distance varies from less
than 10 ft (3 m) up to 45 ft (14 m) for some wide-bodied aircraft,
such as the B-747. Consequently, approach slope indicator systems
are related to the EWH for the critical aircraft declared by the airport operator, and they provide safe wheel clearance over the threshold when the pilot is receiving the on-slope indication.
Pilots and/or air operators should ensure that the VASIS type
to be used is appropriate to the given aircraft type, based on the EWH group for that aircraft. If this information is not already
available in the AFM or other authoritative aircraft manuals
(e.g. the flight crew operating manual), the aircraft manufacturer
should be contacted.
CAUTION :
Incompatibility between the EWH and the VASIS type could
result in decreased terrain clearance margins and, in some cases,
even premature contact with terrain (e.g. a CFIT accident).
The current Canadian civil aviation standard for VASIS is the
PAPI. Some airports still have the older VASI systems. The VASI
and PAPI light units have the same purpose of descent indication
with respect to an approach corridor but are arranged in a
different pattern, as shown below.
The VASI and PAPI have lights normally situated on the left side
of the runway only. When available strip widths preclude the
use of a full system, an AVASI or APAPI, consisting of only two
light units, may be installed.
Where a PAPI or VASI signal has been harmonized with an
electronic vertical guidance signal, it will be for the critical
aircraft with a specific EWH group as determined by the airport
operator. It is therefore possible for the pilot flying an aircraft type from a different EWH group to see a conflict between the approach vertical guidance signal and the visual (VASI/PAPI) glide slope signal.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA7.6.2 Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) V1
and V2 and Abbreviated VASI (AVASI) AV
The VASI (V1 and V2) consists of four light units situated on
the left side of the runway in the form of a pair of wing bars (two
light units per wing bar), referred to as the upwind and downwind
wing bars. Each light unit of a wing bar projects a beam of light.
The upper part of the beam shows white while the lower part
shows red. When the pilot is:
(a) above the approach slope, both upwind and downwind bars
show white.
(b) on the approach slope, the upwind bar shows red and the downwind bar shows white.
(c) below the approach slope, both upwind and downwind bars
show red.
(d) well below the approach slope, the lights of the two wing
bars merge into one red signal.
The AVASI (AV) consists of two light units situated on the left side of the runway in the form of a pair of wing bars (one light unit per wing bar). The display is similar to that of a VASI and depends on the position of the pilot’s eyes.
Figure 7.6—VASI and AVASI Display
VASI (V1, V2) AVASI (AV)
ABOVE
APPROACH
SLOPE
ON
APPROACH
SLOPE
BELOW
APPROACH
SLOPEUPWIND BAR
DOWNWIND BAR
7.6.3 Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) and Abbreviated PAPI (APAPI)
PAPI consists of four light units typically situated on the left
side of the runway in the form of a wing bar. When the pilot is:
(a) well above the approach slope, all four units show white.
(b) slightly above the approach slope, the one unit nearest the runway edge shows red and the other three show white.
(c) on or close to the approach slope, the two units nearest the runway edge show red and the two units farthest from the runway edge show white.
(d) slightly below the approach slope, the three units nearest
the runway edge show red and the other shows white.
(e) well below the approach slope, all four units show red.
APAPI consists of two light units situated on the left side of the runway in the form of a wing bar. When the pilot is:
(a) above the approach slope, both units show white.(b) on or close to the approach slope, the unit nearer to the
runway edge shows red and the unit farther from the runway
edge shows white.
(c) below the approach slope, all units show red.
Figure 7.7—PAPI and APAPI Display
PAPI (P1, P2, P3) APAPI (AP)
TOO
HIGH
SLIGHTLY
HIGH
ON CORRECT
APPROACH PATH
SLIGHTLY LOW
TOO LOW
CAUTION:
Lens Contamination —The PAPI/APAPI light box is a sealed
design with a front lens or cover glass. When the temperature of the PAPI/APAPI unit lens or cover glass descends below the dew point, frost or condensation may occur depending on the
season. Frost or condensation contamination may produce a
false signal by mixing the red and white colours of the beam.
Under these conditions, the relative intensities of the red and
white portions of the beam may cause the mixture to be perceived
as predominantly white in colour for a period of time after the
PAPI/APAPI is first turned on. Since the mixture may be
interpreted as a fly-down signal, the pilot should be aware of
other cues (e.g. the runway perspective) so as to avoid descent below the OPS. When the PAPI/APAPI provides a true signal,
it should display a crisp transition from white to red as the aircraft descends through the sectors. If contamination is
suspected, flight crews are advised to disregard the PAPI/APAPI
display.
7.6.4 Categories According to Eye-To-Wheel
Height (EWH) in the Approach
Configuration
7.6.4.1 General
VASIS are categorized according to the EWH in the approach
configuration, as shown in Tables 7.1 and 7.2 below. Where a
VASIS is given for a published category, it is intended to be
useable by all aircraft within the stated EWH group unless
otherwise stated.
NOTE :
The EWH is the vertical distance in-flight of the eye path to the
wheel path, as shown in Figure 7.8, and is determined by the
approach slope angle and the pitch angle for the maximum
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGAcertified landing weight at Vref. This should not be confused with
the horizontal and vertical dimensions as may be measured
when the aircraft is on the ground.
7.6.4.2 Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
Categories
The VASI installations are designed according to aircraft height
group categories AV, V1, and V2, as indicated in Table 7.1. The
greater the value of the EWH in the approach configuration,
the farther the VASI is installed upwind from the threshold to
provide the appropriate MEHT.
Table 7.1—VASI Categories
Category System Aircraft height group EWH
in the approach configuration
AV AVASI 0 ft (0 m) ≤ EWH < 10 ft (3 m)
V1 VASI 0 ft (0 m) ≤ EWH < 10 ft (3 m)
V2 VASI 10 ft (3 m) ≤ EWH < 25 ft (7.5 m)
7.6.4.3 Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
Categories
PAPI and APAPI installations are designed for aircraft height
group categories AP, P1, P2, and P3, as indicated in Table 7.2.
The greater the value of the EWH in the approach configuration,
the farther the PAPI is installed upwind from the threshold to provide the appropriate MEHT.
Table 7.2—PAPI Categories
Category System Aircraft height group EWH
in the approach configuration
AP APAPI 0 ft (0 m) ≤ EWH < 10 ft (3 m)
P1 PAPI 0 ft (0 m) ≤ EWH < 10 ft (3 m)
P2 PAPI 10 ft (3 m) ≤ EWH < 25 ft (7.5 m)
P3 PAPI 25 ft (7.5 m) ≤ EWH < 45 ft (14 m)
The aircraft position with respect to the PAPI display is shown
in Figure 7.8. The approach corridor is defined by the setting
angles of light units C and B. The MEHT is defined by the angle
M, which is 2 min of arc below the angle B. This accounts for
the pilot’s difficulty in discerning when the transition from
white to full red has occurred. The available MEHT is the sum of the EWH in the approach configuration and the prescribed
wheel clearance. The distance D for the location of the PAPI
from the threshold is calculated using the tangent of the angle M.
In other words, D = MEHT/tan(M). For more information about
wheel clearance, see Aerodromes Standards and Recommended Practices (TP 312).Figure 7.8—PAPI: Pilot Eye Path to Wheel Path
DPAPIthresholdMEHTEWHeye path
wheel pathM = B - 2'
BC
approach corridorABCD
ON CORRECT
APPROACH PATH
wheel to threshold clearance
7.6.5 Knowing the Eye-to-Wheel Height (EWH)
For a particular category of PAPI and aircraft group, there is an available wheel clearance. This is why knowing the EWH in the
approach configuration is important. For example, if your aircraft
belongs in the aircraft height group for a P3 PAPI, using a P2
PAPI means having much less wheel clearance at threshold
crossing. Figure 7.8 also shows why flying below the approach
corridor (with the lights showing three red and one white) is not
recommended.
7.6.6 Obstacle Protection Surface (OPS)
For certified aerodromes, the installation of a PAPI or an APAPI
requires the establishment of an obstacle protection surface (OPS).
The OPS provides a buffer below unit angle A, which, for PAPI, is the transition from one white light and three red lights to four red lights, and for APAPI, is the transition from one white light
and one red light to two red lights, as shown in Figure 7.9. Objects
do not penetrate the OPS. Where an object or terrain protrudes above the OPS and beyond the length of the approach OLS, one of a number of possible measures may be taken such as raising
the approach slope, moving the PAPI further upwind of the
threshold, or reducing the operational length of the OPS and
marking/lighting the obstacle. At some aerodromes, particularly
in mountainous regions, a limitation is established as a PAPI
useable distance from the threshold and is published in the CFS.
The PAPI signal is not to be used until the aircraft is within that
specified distance. For more information about OPS dimensions,
see Aerodromes Standards and Recommended Practices (TP 312).
Figure 7.9—PAPI/APAPI OPS
D
CBADivergence
Obstacle protection surface (OPS)
Plan View Display
Approach slope
OPSUnit A anglePAPI APAPIA
OPS inner edge
PAPI
PAPI
Threshold
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA7.7 RUNWAY IDENTIFICATION LIGHTING
7.7.1 Runway Threshold Identification
Lights (RTIL)
These are provided at aerodromes where terrain precludes the
installation of approach lights, or where unrelated non-
aeronautical lights or the lack of daytime contrast reduces the
effects of approach lights. When an aerodrome is equipped with
RTILs, it is indicated in the CFS by the notation “AS”.
7.7.2 Visual Alignment Guidance System (VAGS)
The VAGS consists of two lights similar to RTILs. However, by
means of light beam rotation, the pilot is presented with a
sequenced display, as shown in Figure 7.10 below. The display
directs the pilot towards the runway/helipad axis, where he or
she then sees the lights flash simultaneously.
Figure 7.10—VAGS
AIRCRAFT
LEFT OF AXIS
FLASH SEQUENCE
AIRCRAFT
ON AXIS
SIMULTANEOUS FLASHES
AIRCRAFT
RIGHT OF AXIS
FLASH SEQUENCE11 11 2
7.8 RUNWAY LIGHTING
A runway on an aerodrome that is used at night shall display
two parallel lines of fixed white lights visible for at least 2 mi. to mark take-off and landing areas. These lights are arranged so that:
(a) the lines of lights or markers are parallel and of equal length
and the transverse distance between the lines is equal to
the runway width in use during the day;
(b) the distance between adjacent lights or markers in each line
is the same and is not more than 60 m (200 ft);
(c) each line of lights or markers is not less than 420 m (1 377 ft)
in length and contains no fewer than eight lights or markers;
and
(d) each light or marker in a line of lights or markers is situated opposite to a light or marker in the line of lights or markers
on the other side of the runway, so that a line connecting
them forms a right angle to the centreline of the runway.
For a certified aerodrome, runway lighting may include centreline
and touchdown zone lighting depending on runway visibility
and approach category.7.8.1 Runway Edge Lights (REDL)
These are variable-intensity white lights at the runway edges
along the full length of the runway spaced at maximum intervals
of 60 m, except at intersections with other runways. On some
runways, a 600-m section of lights or the last third of the runway
at the remote end—whichever is shorter—may show yellow. The
units are light in weight and mounted in a frangible manner.
7.8.2 Runway Threshold Lights and Runway End Lights (RENL)
Runway threshold/end indication is provided by green and red
light units respectively, in the form of a pair of bars along the
threshold on each side of the runway centreline, where there is
an ODALS or where no approach lighting is provided. Red shows
in the direction of takeoff and green shows in the approach
direction.
Where approach lighting other than ODALS is provided, an
approach threshold bar that extends across the full width of the
runway forms part of the approach lighting configuration.
Figure 7.11 shows the different configurations of such lights.
RENL are always provided. Runway threshold lights are
independent from approach threshold bar lights and are only
lit if the approach threshold bar is not lit.
Where MALSR, MALSF or MALS is provided, the green threshold
lighting is physically separated from the approach threshold bar
due to difference in light intensities and circuitry.
Where SSALR or SSALS is provided, the runway threshold lights
form part of the approach threshold bar configuration (opposite
the runway end lights).
Where an ALSF-2 is provided, the green threshold lighting is
extended farther as wing bars to each side of the runway.
Figure 7.11—Runway Threshold and End Lights
RWY Edge Light
(White or Yellow)
Runway
Runway
Runway
RunwayWith ODALS or no approach lighting
RWY End Lights
(Red)
RWY End Lights
(Red)RWY THLD Lights
(Green)
With MALSR, MALS, MALSF approach lighting
Approach THLD Bar
(Green)
With SSALR, SALS approach lighting
With ALSF-2 approach lighting
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA7.8.3 Displaced Threshold Lighting
Where runway thresholds have been displaced from the beginning
of the runway, the runway threshold lights and the approach
threshold bar are displaced accordingly, using inset lights for
approach threshold bars and wing bar lights for runway threshold
lights, as follows:
Figure 7.12—Displaced Threshold Lighting
runway > 1 200 m with displacement
runway with inset approach lighting and displacementWith ODALS or no approach lighting
With all other approach lightinginset approach lighting
approach threshold bar
7.8.4 Runway Centreline Lighting
Runway centreline lighting is provided on CAT II and CAT III
runways. It consists of lights installed on the runway surface
spaced at intervals of 15 m. The lights leading in the take-off or
landing direction are variable white from the threshold to 900 m
from the runway end; alternate red and variable white from
900 m to 300 m from the runway end; and red from 300 m to
the end of the runway.7.8.5 Runway Touchdown Zone Lighting
Touchdown zone variable intensity white lights are provided on
CAT II and CAT III instrument runways. They consist of barrettes
of three inset lights disposed on either side of the runway
centreline, spaced at 30-m intervals commencing 30 m from the
threshold. They extend from the threshold for a distance of
900 m down the runway. The lights are unidirectional, showing in the direction of approach to landing.
Figure 7.13—Runway Touchdown Zone Lighting
600 mrunway edge lights - yellow/white
runway edge lights - white
900 mtouchdown zone lights - white
In-pavement approach lighting
approach threshold lights - green
runway centreline lights - white600 mrunway edge lights - yellow/white
600 m
alternating red/white centreline lights red centreline lights
900 m
imminence of runway end warning300 m
Inpavement lights displayed to aircraft moving from left to right
7.9 RAPID-EXIT TAXIWAY INDICATOR
LIGHTS (RETIL)
Rapid-exit taxiway indicator lights (RETIL) provide pilots with
distance-to-go information to the nearest rapid-exit taxiway on
the runway. RETIL are fixed unidirectional yellow lights located
on the runway on the same side of the runway centreline as the
associated rapid-exit taxiway, in the configuration shown in
Figure 7.14.
Figure 7.14—Rapid-Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights
100 m 100 m 100 m
60 m
direction of light outputRETIL
runway centerlineRETILs2 m lateralspacing2 m
2 m2 m
7.10 TAXIWAY LIGHTING
7.10.1 Taxiway Edge Lights
Taxiway edge lights are blue in colour and are spaced at maximum
intervals of 60 m. Where a taxiway intersects another taxiway
or a runway, two adjacent blue lights are placed at each side of the taxiway where no fillet or curve is provided. To facilitate the
identification of the taxiway entrance for an aircraft on departure
and arriving from the apron, the intersection of an apron with a taxiway is indicated by two adjacent yellow lights at taxiway/apron corners.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA7.10.2 Taxiway Centreline Lights
Taxiway centreline lights are green in colour and are installed
on the taxiway surface. They are spaced at 15-m intervals with less spacing on taxiway curves. Taxiway centreline lights on an
exit taxiway show alternate green and yellow from their beginning
near the runway centreline to the outer perimeter of the ILS
critical/sensitive area or the runway-holding position, whichever
is farther from the runway; thereafter, all lights show green.
7.10.3 Stop Bars
A stop bar is provided at every runway-holding position serving
a runway intended to be used in visibility conditions below
RVR 1200 (¼ SM). Stop bars are located across the taxiway at
the desired stopping point for traffic and consist of lights spaced
at intervals of 3 m across the taxiway. They show red in the
intended direction of approach to the intersection or runway-holding position.
Where the stop bar is co-located with taxiway centreline lighting,
a 90-m segment of the taxiway centreline lighting beyond the
stop bar is turned off when the stop bar is illuminated. The stop bar is illuminated again after a timed duration or by means of sensors installed on the taxiway.
CAUT ION :
Pilots and vehicle drivers are reminded of the following:
(a) An aircraft or vehicle shall never cross an illuminated stop
bar, even with clearance from ATC.
(b) ATC switching the illuminated stop bar off does not
constitute a clearance to enter the runway.
(c) An aircraft or vehicle shall only proceed past a stop bar
when ATC provides the appropriate verbal clearance AND switches the illuminated stop bar off.
(d) If ATC issues a clearance to enter the runway and the stop bar remains on:
(i) DO NOT PROCEED;
(ii) advise ATC that the stop bar is still on; and
(iii) wait for further clearance.Figure 7.15—Stop Bar Lighting
90 m
stopbar
lead-on lights segment
on off on
7.11 RUNWAY GUARD LIGHTS
Runway guard lights are provided at each taxiway/runway
intersection to enhance the conspicuity of the holding position
for taxiways supporting runway operations below a visibility
value of runway visual range (RVR) 2600 (½ SM). They consist of yellow unidirectional lights that are visible to the pilot of an aircraft taxiing to the holding position, but their configuration may vary:
(a) They can consist of a series of lights spaced at intervals of 3 m across the taxiway. Where this is the case, the adjacent
lights illuminate alternately and even lights illuminate
alternately with odd lights.
(b) They can consist of two pairs of lights, one on each side of
the taxiway adjacent to the hold line. Where this is the case,
the lights in each unit illuminate alternately.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA7.12 HELIPORT LIGHTING
7.12.1 Touchdown and Lift-Off Area (TLOF)
Lighting
Where a heliport is used at night, the perimeter of the TLOF
may be lighted by yellow perimeter lights or by floodlighting.
Yellow perimeter lights: Where the TLOF is circular, no fewer
than eight yellow lights are used to mark the perimeter. In a
rectangular layout, the perimeter is marked by a minimum of
four yellow lights on each side, with a light at each corner.
Floodlighting: When provided, the floodlighting will illuminate
the TLOF such that the perimeter marking of the TLOF is visible.
Floodlight units will be located beyond the perimeter of the
FATO.
NOTE :
Perimeter lighting or reflective tape may be used in addition to
floodlighting.
Figure 7.16—Examples of TLOF Lighting
TLOF
edge marking
TLOF
edge marking
Luminescent
panel lights5 m
maximum Inset lights
5 m
maximumCircular TLOF
minimum 8 lights5 m
maximum
5 m
maximum7.12.2 Final Approach and Take-Off (FATO)
Lighting
A FATO perimeter is marked by white or green lights in the
same configuration as TLOF perimeter lighting (see AGA 7.12.1).
Where a TLOF is not located within a FATO, the aiming point will be defined by at least seven red aeronautical ground lights located on the triangular marking.
FATO or TLOF perimeter lights may be LEDs. Consult the CFS
for verification of lighting type.
CAUT ION:
Heliports using LED lighting systems may not be visible when
certain NVIS equipment is employed. This is an operational
limitation of the NVIS equipment, as the purpose of heliport
lighting is to be viewed by the naked eye.
Candela values for heliport lighting systems are detailed in
Figure 5-11 of ICAO Annex 14, Volume II.
Figure 7.17—FATO and Aiming Point Lighting
FATO with TLOF FATO without TLOFInset lights to be used
when installed ondashed form of aimingpoint markingLuminescent panels(lights may be installedas an alternative)N N
7.12.3 Approach/Take-Off Direction Lights
At some heliports, where it is necessary to follow preferred
approach and take-off paths to avoid obstructions or noise-
sensitive areas, the direction of the preferred approach and
take-off routes will be indicated by a row of five yellow fixed
omnidirectional lights outside the FATO.
Figure 7.18—Maximum Mounting Height for TLOF,
FATO, and Approach/Take-Off Direction Lights
Approach/Take-Off
direction lightsFATO length minimum
FATOTLOF5 cm max
25 cm maxMaximum slope from the first
approach/take-off direction light ± 4%
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA7.13 EMERGENCY LIGHTING
Airports with Category (CAT) I, II, and III precision approaches
in Canada are equipped with a secondary power system for
visual aids lighting. This system is normally capable of assuming
the electrical load within approximately 15 s for CAT I operations,
and within 1 s for CAT II and III operations.
7.14 AIRCRAFT RADIO CONTROL OF
AERODROME LIGHTING (ARCAL)
Aircraft radio control of aerodrome lighting (ARCAL) systems
are becoming more prevalent as a means of conserving energy, especially at aerodromes not staffed on a continuous basis or at which it is not practicable to install a land line to a nearby flight service station (FSS). Aside from obstacle lights, some or all of the aerodrome lighting may be radio-controlled.
Control of the lights should be possible when aircraft are within
15 NM of the aerodrome. The frequency range is 118 to 136 MHz.
The system is activated via the aircraft very high frequency (VHF)
transmitter and by pressing the push-to-talk button on the
microphone a given number of times within a specified number
of seconds. Each activation will start a timer to illuminate the
lights for a period of approximately 15 min. The timing cycle may
be restarted at any time by repeating the specified keying sequence.
It should be noted that ARCAL Type K runway threshold
identification lights (RTIL) (code AS) can be turned off by keying
the microphone three times on the appropriate frequency. The
code for the intensity and the lighting period varies for each
installation. Consequently, the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS)
must be consulted for each installation.
NOTE :
Pilots are advised to key the activating sequence when beginning
their approach, even if the aerodrome or airport lighting is on.
This will restart the timing cycle so that the full 15-min cycle is available for their approach.
7.15 RETROREFLECTIVE MARKERS
Some aerodromes may use retroreflective markers in place of
lights to mark the edges of runways or helipads. These retroreflective markers are approved for use on runways at
registered aerodromes only; however, they may be used as a
substitute for edge lighting on taxiways or apron areas at some certified airports.
Retroreflective markers are to be positioned in the same manner
as runway lighting described earlier in this chapter. Therefore, when the aircraft is lined up on final approach, retroreflective
markers will provide the pilot with the same visual representation
given by normal runway lighting. A fixed white light or strobe light shall be installed at each end of the runway to assist pilots
in locating the aerodrome and aligning the aircraft with the
runway. Similarly, retroreflective markers at heliports are to be
positioned in the same pattern that is prescribed for helipad
edge lighting.The approved standard for retroreflective markers requires that
they be capable of reflecting the aircraft landing lights so that
they are visible from a distance of 2 NM. Pilots are cautioned
that the reflective capabilities of retroreflective markers are
greatly affected by the condition of the aircraft landing lights,
the prevailing visibility, and other obscuring weather phenomena.
Therefore, as part of pre-flight planning to an aerodrome that
uses retroreflective markers, pilots should exercise extra caution
in checking the serviceability of their aircraft landing lights and
making provision for an alternate airport with lighting in case of an aircraft landing light failure.
8.0 AIRCRAFT RESCUE AND FIRE
FIGHTING (ARFF)
8.1 GENERAL
Aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) service is provided at
some airports in accordance with the criteria stated in Canadian
Aviation Regulation (CAR) 303. The primary responsibility of
an ARFF service is to provide a fire-free egress route for the
evacuation of passengers and crew following an aircraft accident.
8.2 AIRCRAFT RESCUE AND FIRE
FIGHTING (ARFF) HOURS OF
AVAILABILITY
Aerodromes or airports that provide aircraft rescue and
firefighting (ARFF) publish the hours during which an ARFF
service is operated in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) under
the ARFF annotation. If there are no published hours next to
the ARFF critical category number, this means 24-hour service is offered.
8.3 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Table 8.1 identifies the critical category for firefighting as it
relates to the aircraft size, the quantities of water and
complementary extinguishing agents, the minimum number of
aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) vehicles, and the total
discharge capacity. For ease of interpretation, the table is a
combination of the two tables found under Canadian Aviation
Regulation (CAR) 303.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGATable 8.1—Classification for ARFF Purposes
Aircraft
CategoryAircraft Overall
LengthMaximum
Fuselage
Width
(m)Quantity of
Water
(L)Quantity of
Complementary
Agents
(kg)Minimum
Number
of Aircraft
Firefighting
VehiclesTotal Discharge
Capacity
(L/min)
1 less than 9 m 2 230 45 1 230
2at least 9 m but
less than 12 m2 670 90 1 550
3at least 12 m but
less than 18 m3 1 200 135 1 900
4at least 18 m but
less than 24 m4 2 400 135 1 1 800
5at least 24 m but
less than 28 m4 5 400 180 1 3 000
6at least 28 m but
less than 39 m5 7 900 225 2 4 000
7at least 39 m but
less than 49 m5 12 100 225 2 5 300
8at least 49 m but
less than 61 m7 18 200 450 3 7 200
9at least 61 m but
less than 76 m7 24 300 450 3 9 000
10 at least 76 m 8 32 300 450 3 11 200
8.4 AIRCRAFT RESCUE AND FIRE
FIGHTING (ARFF) STANDBY REQUEST
Local standby means the level of response when an aircraft has,
or is suspected to have, an operational defect. This defect could
compromise a safe landing.
Full emergency standby means the level of response when an
aircraft has, or is suspected to have, an operational defect that
affects normal flight operations to the extent that there is
possibility of an accident.When informed that an emergency has been declared by a pilot,
the airport aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) unit will take
up emergency positions adjacent to the landing runway and
stand by to provide assistance. Once response to an emergency
situation has been initiated, the ARFF unit will remain at the
increased state of alert until informed that the pilot-in-command
has terminated the emergency. After the landing, ARFF will
intervene as necessary and, unless the pilot-in-command
authorizes their release, escort the aircraft to the apron and
remain in position until all engines are shut down.For an adequate response on the part of the ARFF unit, a pilot
request to “stand by in the fire hall” is not appropriate. Pilots
are reminded, however, that the ARFF unit will terminate their
state of alert when informed by the pilot that the emergency
situation no longer exists.8.5 AIRCRAFT RESCUE AND FIRE
FIGHTING (ARFF) DISCREET
COMMUNICATION
The capability to communicate on a discreet frequency is normally
available at airports that provide aircraft rescue and
firefighting (ARFF) services.
9.0 AIRCRAFT ARRESTING
SYSTEMS
9.1 ENGINEERED MATERIAL ARRESTING
SYSTEMS (EMAS)
The engineered material arresting system (EMAS) is an arresting
system designed for transport category aeroplanes in the event
of a runway overrun. An EMAS bed is designed to stop an
overrunning aeroplane by exerting predictable deceleration
forces on its landing gear as the EMAS material crushes.
9.1.1 System Description
The strength of the arrester bed is designed to reduce the
aeroplane’s speed without leading to structural failure of the
landing gear. The beds are made up of a grouping of crushable
cellular concrete blocks that will reliably and predictably be
crushed under the weight of an aeroplane.
To arrest an aeroplane overrunning a runway end, EMAS beds
are placed beyond the end of a runway and in alignment with the extended runway centreline.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGAFigure 9.1—Photograph of an EMAS Installation
(The EMAS bed is the grey area under the yellow chevrons)
9.1.2 System Depiction
The aerodrome sketch will show the location and dimensions
of the EMAS beds. In the example below, the EMAS bed is shown
as an outlined box with diagonal lines running through it. The
dimensions are provided in feet.
Figure 9.2—EMAS Depiction on an Aerodrome Sketch
E
o
ELEV
61249’
28’EMAS
164 X 170
31C
9.1.3 Pilot Considerations for Engagement
Prior to using a runway, pilots should be aware of the presence
of an EMAS bed. Pilots should review the aerodrome sketch and
other aerodrome information to determine whether the runway
that they will be using is equipped with an EMAS.If, during the take-off or landing phase, a pilot determines that
the aeroplane will overrun the runway end and enter the EMAS,
the following procedure should be followed:
(a) Continue to follow the rejected-takeoff procedures or, in
the case of landing, the maximum-braking procedures
outlined in the AFM, regardless of the aeroplane’s speed
upon overrunning the runway.
(b) Continue straight ahead—do not veer left or right. The
EMAS’s stopping capability is maximized when all of the
aeroplane’s landing gears enter the bed. Veering to the side may result in the aeroplane missing the bed altogether or
having only one set of wheels enter the bed with reduced
effectiveness. The quality of deceleration will be best within
the confines of the bed. The further the aeroplane travels
into the bed, and into deeper concrete, the greater the
deceleration.
(c) Do not take any action—the arrester bed is a passive system,
similar to other traditional arresting systems such as cables,
chains, and aircraft netting.
(d) Do not attempt to taxi or otherwise move the aeroplane
once it has stopped.
(e) Use standard aircraft emergency ground egress procedures,
should an emergency egress be required. Where the surface
of the bed has been breached, the loose material will crumble
underfoot. During egress, it is important to note that the
two sides and the back of the arrester bed have built-in
continuous steps built in to help provide easy access for
ARFF vehicles and to enable passengers to step off the bed safely.
(f) Use slides or aircraft stairs to allow passengers to deplane
after an EMAS arrestment, since the EMAS bed will not
provide a stable base for the air stairs.
9.2 MILITARY AIRCRAFT ARRESTING
SYSTEMS
9.2.1 Background
Some civil airports and military aerodromes are equipped with
aircraft arresting systems. An aircraft arresting system usually
consists of two sets of gear, called energy absorbers, with one
located on each side of the runway, normally approximately
460 m from the threshold. These energy absorbers are
interconnected by an arrester cable, which is attached to a nylon
tape that is wound onto a tape storage drum (reel) on each energy
absorber. To keep the energy absorbers away from the edge of
the runway, runway edge sheaves are located next to the runway
edge. The runway edge sheaves act as a guide (pulley) for the
tape and have sloped sides to permit an aircraft to roll over them.
When the tailhook of a fighter aircraft engages the cable, the
tape storage drums start to turn. The energy absorbers apply a
braking force to the storage drums, which in turn slows the
aircraft and brings it to a stop.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA9.2.2 Markings
For identification, yellow circles are painted across the runway
at the location of the aircraft arrester cable. A lighted sign with a yellow circle is located beside the runway to mark the location during darkness.
9.2.3 Operations
At civil airports, civil aviation operations will not be permitted
while the arrester cable is deployed across the runway. At military
aerodromes, civil aeroplane operations may be permitted with the arrester cable deployed across the runway.
9.2.4 Damage Hazards
Cables: Pilots are advised to avoid crossing the aircraft arrester
cable at speeds in excess of 10 mph because a wave action may
develop in the cable, which could damage the aircraft. This is
particularly important for nose-wheel aircraft with wheel fairings
or minimal propeller or undercarriage-door clearance. Tail-wheel
aircraft may also sustain damage if the tail wheel engages the
cable.
Runway edge sheaves: The runway edge sheaves are above grade
and located next to the runway edge, on the runway shoulder. The two sides perpendicular to the runway are sloped, but the other two sides, parallel to the runway, are vertical. The runway
edge sheaves are not frangible and may cause damage to aeroplanes
that contact or roll over them.
Energy absorbers: The energy absorbers are normally located
beside the graded area of the runway strip (at a distance greater
than 61 m from the runway centreline). The energy absorbers
are not frangible and will cause damage to aeroplanes that come
into contact with them.
9.2.5 Information for Pilots
Pilots will normally be advised of the status of the arrester cable through ATIS or by ATC. The presence of an aircraft arresting system should be included in the RWY DATA entry of the CFS for the aerodromes. The location of an aircraft arresting system should also be depicted on the aerodrome sketch.10.0 AIRPORT COLLABORATIVE DECISION MAKING (A-CDM)
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) is a method for improving the predictability of airport operations, resulting
in the more efficient use of available resources and a better
passenger experience. A-CDM has been in use for some years
in various parts of the world and its benefits have been
demonstrated.
A-CDM requires the partners involved in the operation of the
airport to exchange certain information that meets prescribed
levels of quality and timeliness. Furthermore, aircraft operations
will be subject to defined A-CDM procedures. Adherence to
these procedures is usually mandatory for most aircraft operators,
unless a specific exemption applies.
10.2 OPERATIONAL CONCEPT
One of the objectives of Airport Collaborative Decision
Making (A-CDM) is to make aircraft turnaround more predictable
and create an efficient outbound flow of traffic. This is achieved
by requiring a reliable and accurate Target Off-Block Time (TOBT)
for each flight. This TOBT is then used to set up an optimal
pushback and start-up sequence that considers all applicable
constraints, like de-icing and possible air traffic flow
management restrictions.
Operators and their designated representatives are responsible
for keeping the TOBT up to date by providing updates as
necessary. The flight crew is responsible for operating the aircraft,
taking the Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) into account.
Failure to comply with these responsibilities will usually result
in an operational penalty.
More details about a typical A-CDM operation can be found in
the A-CDM Operations Manual – YYZ Edition , available from
the Greater Toronto Airports Authority at < http://torontopearson.
com/acdm/ >.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA10.3 TERMS
The following terms and abbreviations are generally used with
Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM):
Table 10.1—Terms and Abbreviations Used With A-CDM
Term Definition
Appropriate radio
frequencyThe radio frequency that a flight crew must use to contact the Apron Management Unit (AMU) or other air traffic services (ATS) unit as part of an A CDM procedure.
Calculated take off time (CTOT)The time calculated and issued by the air navigation service provider that indicates when an aircraft should be airborne if it is to meet the constraints arising from the applicable Traffic Management Initiatives (TMIs).
Commercial air transport operationAn aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers, cargo, or mail for remuneration or hire.
Designated representativeA person or organization authorized by an operator to act and perform tasks on its behalf within the constraints of their representation agreement.
Estimated off-block time (EOBT)The estimated time at which the aircraft will start movement associated with departure.
Note: This is the time shown in
Item 13 of the flight plan.
Flight crew member A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of an aircraft during a flight duty period.
Flight plan Specified information provided to ATS units, relative to an intended flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft.
General aviation (GA) operationAn aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation. GA operations include business aviation (BA) operations.
Ground handler An organization offering the ground handling services that an aircraft needs for the period during which it is on the ground.
HMI Human-Machine Interface
Minimum turnaround time (MTTT)The minimum amount of time agreed upon with an operator or ground handler for a specified flight or aircraft type.
Operator The person, organization, or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft operation.
Pilot-in-command (PIC)The pilot designated by the operator, or, in the case of GA, the owner, as being in command and charged with the safe conduct of a flight.Term Definition
Scheduled off-block time (SOBT)The time that an aircraft is scheduled to depart from its parking position.
Note: SOBT is the coordinated
airport slot.
Target off-block time (TOBT)The time at which an operator or ground handler estimates that an aircraft will be ready, with all doors closed, the boarding bridge removed, and a pushback vehicle available and ready to start up/push back immediately upon receiving clearance from the AMU.
Note: TOBT is equivalent to
estimated time of departure (ETD) as used by operators and ground handlers.
Target start-up approval time (TSAT)The time at which an aircraft can expect to receive start-up/pushback approval. The TSAT may be equal to the TOBT.
Target take off time (TTOT)The time at which an aircraft is expected to be airborne based on its TSAT and on the time it takes to taxi to the assigned runway.
10.4 SCOPE OF APPLICABILITY
Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) procedures
are normally mandatory for all flights operated as commercial
air transport or general aviation (GA) operations. Depending
on the airport, helicopters and flights identified by any one of
the following designators in Item 18 of their flight plan, or by
any other agreed-upon means that may be applicable, are
sometimes exempt from adhering to A-CDM procedures:
Table 10.2—Operations Exempted
From A-CDM Procedures
STS/FFR Fire fighting
STS/HEAD Flight with Head of State status
STS/HOSP Flight on an actual medical mission
STS/
MEDEVACFlight operated for life-critical medical emergency evacuation
STS/SAR Flight engaged in a search and rescue mission
STS/STATE Flight engaged in military, customs, or police services
STS/FLTCK Aircraft performing NAVAID flight check
Any exemptions would be granted based on the type of mission
an aircraft is engaged in and not on the identity of the operator.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA10.5 AIRPORT COLLABORATIVE DECISION
MAKING (A-CDM) PROCEDURES
Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) procedures
generally fall into the following three categories:
(a) Commercial Air Transport Operations—Procedures for
Operators and Handling Agents
(b) Commercial Air Transport Operations—Flight Crew
Procedures
(c) General and Business Aviation Operations—Air Operator Procedures
10.5.1 Commercial Air Transport Operations — Procedures for Operators and Handling Agents
10.5.1.1 Requirement for All Flights to Have a Current
Target Off-Block Time (TOBT)
The TOBT is used to indicate when the aircraft will be ready to
push back and start its engines. The initial TOBT is usually
obtained by the A-CDM system from one of the following sources:
(a) Estimated time of departure (ETD) provided by an operator
via the appropriate communications channel;
(b) EOBT from the flight plan; or
(c) SOBT from the airport coordinated schedule data held by
the GTAA.
10.5.1.2 Preferred Way of Providing the Target Off-
Block Time (TOBT)
Operators are reminded that using the SOBT may result in an
inaccurate TOBT. It is therefore highly recommended that they
explore options for providing the ETD via the appropriate
communications channel. This can be normally be done by
contacting the Manager of Operations, Airport Flow, who
typically serves as the single point of contact for all A-CDM-
related matters.
10.5.1.3 Access to the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT)
The TOBT will be shown and accessible via the A-CDM
application and the A-CDM HMI (such as a web portal) as soon as it is set in the A-CDM system.
10.5.1.4 Pre-Departure Sequencing — Target Start-Up
Approval Time (TSAT) Generation
Based on the TOBT, a TSAT is generated by the A-CDM system
for every flight. The TSAT is used to indicate the sequence in
which aircraft can expect to receive pushback and start-up
approval, ensuring an optimal flow of traffic to the assigned
runways. An update to the TOBT will always result in the
recalculation of the TSAT. However, this may not always result
in a different TSAT or position in the sequence for the flight
concerned.
Any applicable constraints, like the CTOT, resulting from TMIs,
taxi times, and possible de-icing time are considered in the calculation of the TSAT to ensure that such constraints are
always met.
10.5.1.5 Access to the Target Start-Up Approval
Time (TSAT)
The TSAT will be shown in the A-CDM system via the A-CDM
application and the A-CDM HMI as soon as stand and runway information are both available in the A-CDM system.
10.5.1.6 Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT)
Swapping
An operator or handling agent (as applicable) may be able to
swap the TSATs between flights of its own operator family if a
given flight is delayed or if a reduction of the waiting time for a flight is desirable. Eligible flights are identified as such on the A-CDM system HMI.
10.5.1.7 The Importance of Updating the Target Off-
Block Time (TOBT)
Operators and ground handlers (as appropriate) are responsible
for updating the TOBT if there is a difference of +/- 5 minutes
compared to the initial or previously updated TOBT. Failing to
update the TOBT will result in a TSAT that is no longer
operationally correct, and this, in turn, may cause the flight to be subject to unnecessary delay.
10.5.1.8 Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) Update
Limitations
The TOBT can normally be updated as many times as necessary
until 10 minutes prior to the TOBT. Thereafter, only two more
updates are possible. Should a third update be necessary, the
operator or handling agent will likely need to contact the Manager
of Operations, Airport Flow, for further instructions.
10.5.1.9 Methods for Updating the Target Off-Block
Time (TOBT)
The TOBT may be updated via any of the available systems
providing access to it.
10.5.2 Commercial Air Transport Operations —
Flight Crew Procedures
10.5.2.1 Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) and Target
Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) Delivery Channels
Several channels are often provided for the delivery of the TOBT
and TSAT to the flight crew. Operators are free to use any available
channel. The following channels are examples:
(a) Advanced Visual Docking Guidance System (AVDGS),
where available.
(b) Any specific means of communication that may exist
between the operator or ground handler and the flight crew.
This means of communication may be shared with other
operational communications.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA(c) An A-CDM web portal.
10.5.2.2 Access to the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT)
The TOBT will be displayed for the flight crew on all channels
as soon as it is set in the A-CDM system.
10.5.2.3 Access to the Target Start-Up Approval
Time (TSAT)
The TSAT will be displayed for the flight crew on all channels except the AVDGS as soon as it is set in the A-CDM system. It is expected that the TSAT will be displayed for the flight crew on the AVDGS as follows:
(a) 10 minutes before TOBT; or
(b) 20 minutes before TOBT if the TSAT is later than the TOBT
by 20 minutes or more (as may be the case due to TMIs).
10.5.2.4 Information Related to Airport Collaborative
Decision Making (A-CDM) on the Advanced Visual Docking Guidance System (AVDGS)
The information displayed on the AVDGS depends on the
operating mode of the A-CDM system, such as:
(a) Traditional Ramp Information Display (e.g. ETD) = A-CDM
is not running or A-CDM procedures have been suspended;
or
(b) TOBT + time or TOBT + time and TSAT + time = A-CDM
is running.
10.5.2.5 Call Ready Procedure
The flight crew usually must call the Apron Coordinator on the
published radio frequency for the airport at TOBT +/- 5 minutes
to confirm that the flight is ready as defined for the TOBT and
state the location “gate.” Thereafter, the crew will need to change
to the appropriate radio frequency and monitor it for pushback and start-up approval.
If the flight crew fails to call within the specified time window,
it will be assumed that the TOBT is no longer valid and the
corresponding TSAT will be removed from the sequence. The
operator or ground handler will need to provide a new TOBT
for a new TSAT to be generated. This may result in a substantial
delay for the flight concerned.
10.5.2.6 Procedures for Extended Times Between
Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) and Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT)
The time difference between the TOBT and the TSAT assigned
to the flight may be substantial. Airports usually have a policy for aircraft to stay at the gate until the assigned TSAT time. In
cases where the gate is required for another flight, or on the
specific request of the operator or ground handler, the aircraft concerned could be relocated to a waiting area.10.5.2.7 Airport Collaborative Decision Making
(A-CDM)-Imposed Waiting Time and On-Time Performance
Traditionally, on-time performance (OTP) is measured by the
point in time when the aircraft releases the brakes and is ready for movement associated with departure. If an aircraft waits at
the stand for its TSAT, the time between TOBT and TSAT might
be counted as a departure delay, adversely impacting the air
operator’s OTP. It is recommended that air operators implement
procedures whereby the time at which the flight crew makes the
ready call is considered as the reference for OTP and any waiting
time after the TOBT is met can be successfully ignored.
10.5.2.8 Pushback / Start-Up Approval
Depending on the airport, flight crews might expect pushback
instructions and start-up approval to be issued on the appropriate
radio frequency by the AMU at TSAT +/- 5 minutes without a need for the flight crew to make an additional call.
If the pushback and start-up process does not commence within
2 minutes of the time the approval was issued, the flight crew must call the AMU on the appropriate radio frequency, explain
the situation, and request guidance on how to proceed. If this
call is omitted, it will be assumed that the TSAT is no longer
valid, and it will be removed from the sequence. The operator or ground handler will need to provide a new TOBT for a new TSAT to be generated. This may result in a substantial delay for the flight concerned.
If the pushback and start-up process is interrupted for any reason
after the aircraft has cleared the stand area or if the start-up
process is expected to take longer than normal, the flight crew must call the AMU on the appropriate radio frequency, explain the situation, and request guidance on how to proceed.
Flight crews are reminded that the actual order of pushback and
start-up approval depends on the operational decisions of the
AMU and hence, a difference may exist between the system-
generated sequence and the sequence as established by the AMU.
However, even after a manual intervention, any applicable
constraints, like CTOT, would be met by the modified sequence.
10.5.2.9 Flight Crew Concerns About Meeting
Constraints
All functions of an A-CDM system are designed to ensure that
applicable constraints, most importantly those resulting from
TMIs, are always fully met. For example, the TSAT is calculated
taking all applicable constraints into account, and if duly observed
by the flight crew, the runway slot (CTOT) allocated to the flight
will not be missed.
Nevertheless, if flight crew members estimate that a TSAT
assigned to them and their applicable CTOT are not compatible,
they should contact their operator or ground handler to resolve
the issue via the Manager of Operations, Airport Flow.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AGA10.5.2.10 De-icing Operations
The need for de-icing has a substantial impact on standard
A-CDM procedures, in particular the extended taxi times needed
to account for the duration of the de-icing operation. To ensure
that the de-icing needs of individual flights are properly
considered, the following additional procedures are typically
applicable during de-icing operations:
(a) A request for de-icing would normally be transmitted by
the flight crew on the clearance delivery frequency.
(b) If the flight crew determines, following clearance delivery,
that de-icing is required, they would contact the AMU on the applicable radio frequency and request de-icing.
10.5.3 General and Business Aviation Operations — Air Operator Procedures
10.5.3.1 Prior Permission to Operate Required
(Reservation)
Operators or the designated representatives of general and
business aviation aircraft typically obtain prior permission to
operate (reservation) from the applicable airport authority using
A-CDM procedures up to 72 hours before the EOBT, or a
minimum of 60 minutes before the EOBT of the planned
operation. Some airports have special arrangements with GA/BA Tenant Carriers allowing them to book up to 30 days prior to the EOBT.
Permission or reservation can normally be obtained by contacting
the airport authority.
10.5.3.2 Requirement to Provide the Target Off-Block
Time (TOBT)
Similar to Commercial Air Transport Operations, General and
Business Aviation flights must also have a TOBT. Operators can
typically obtain their TOBT using the airport’s A-CDM
web portal.
10.5.3.3 Pre-Departure Sequencing — Target Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) Generation
Based on the TOBT, a TSAT is generated by the A-CDM system
for every flight. The TSAT is used to indicate the sequence in
which aircraft can expect to receive start-up approval, ensuring
an optimal flow of traffic to the assigned runways. An update to the TOBT will always result in the recalculation of the TSAT; however, this may not always result in a different position in the sequence for the flight concerned.
Any applicable constraints, like the CTOT resulting from TMIs,
taxi times, and possible de-icing time are considered in the
calculation of the TSAT, ensuring that such constraints are
always met.10.5.3.4 Access to the Target Start-Up Approval
Time (TSAT)
The TSAT will be shown in the A-CDM web portal as follows:
(a) 10 minutes before the TOBT; or
(b) 20 minutes before the TOBT if the TSAT is later than the
TOBT by 20 minutes or more (as may be the case due to
TMIs).
10.5.3.5 The Importance of Updating the Target Off-
Block Time (TOBT)
Operators or their designated representatives are obliged to
update the TOBT if there is a difference of +/- 5 minutes compared
to the initial or previously updated TOBT. Failing to update the
TOBT will result in a TSAT that is no longer operationally correct.
This, in turn, may cause the flight to be subject to unnecessary
delay.
10.5.3.6 Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) Update
Limitations
The TOBT may normally be updated as many times as necessary
until 10 minutes prior to the TOBT. Thereafter, only two more
updates are usually possible. Should a third update be necessary,
the operator or its designated representative should contact the
Manager of Operations, Airport Flow, for further instructions.
10.5.3.7 Method for Updating the Target Off-Block
Time (TOBT)
The TOBT must be updated either by updating the flight plan EOBT or via the airports A-CDM web portal.
10.5.3.8 Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) and Target
Start-Up Approval Time (TSAT) Delivery Channels
Several channels are provided for the delivery of the TOBT and
TSAT to the flight crew, such as:
(a) The A-CDM web portal;.
(b) Any specific means of communication that may exist
between the operator or its designated representative and the flight crew; or
(c) The AVGDS, where available.
10.5.3.9 Access to the Target Off-Block Time (TOBT)
The TOBT will be displayed for the flight crew on all channels as soon as it is set in the A-CDM system.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AGA10.5.3.10 Access to the Target Start-Up Approval
Time (TSAT)
The TSAT will usually be displayed for the flight crew on all
channels as follows:
(a) 10 minutes before the TBOT; or
(b) 20 minutes before the TOBT if the TSAT is later than the
TOBT by 20 minutes or more (as may be the case due to
TMIs).
10.5.3.11 Call Ready Procedure
The flight crew should expect to call the AMU Apron Coordinator
at TOBT +/- 5 minutes to confirm that the flight is ready as
defined for the TOBT; they must state their location on the
airport. The Apron Coordinator will advise the TSAT and then
instruct the flight crew to change to the appropriate radio
frequency. If the flight crew fails to call within the specified time
window, it will be assumed that the TOBT is no longer valid and
the corresponding TSAT will be removed from the sequence.
The operator or its designated representative will need to provide
a new TOBT for a new TSAT to be generated. This may result
in a substantial delay for the flight concerned.
10.5.3.12 Start-Up Procedures
The start-up procedure typically commences at TSAT +/- 5
minutes without a need for the flight crew to make an
additional call.
If the start-up process does not commence within 2 minutes of
the TSAT time that was issued, the flight crew must call the
AMU on the appropriate radio frequency, explain the situation,
and request guidance on how to proceed. If this call is omitted, it will be assumed that the TSAT is no longer valid and it will be removed from the sequence. The operator or its designated
representative needs to provide a new TOBT via the A-CDM
web portal or via the Manager of Operations, Airport Flow, for
a new TSAT to be generated. This may result in a substantial
delay for the flight concerned.
If the start-up process is interrupted for any reason or if the
start-up process is expected to take longer than normal, the
flight crew must call the AMU on the appropriate radio frequency,
explain the situation, and request guidance on how to proceed.
Flight crew are reminded that the actual order of start-up approval
depends on the operational decisions of the AMU. Hence, a
difference may exist between the system-generated sequence
and the sequence as established by the AMU. However, even
after such manual intervention, the applicable constraints, like CTOT, would be met by the modified sequence.
10.5.3.13 Flight Crew Concerns About Meeting
Constraints
All functions of the A-CDM system are designed to ensure that
applicable constraints, most importantly those resulting from
TMIs, are always fully met. For example, the TSAT is calculated
to take all applicable constraints into account. If duly observed
by the flight crew, the runway slot (CTOT) allocated to the flight
would not be missed.Nevertheless, if flight crew members estimate that a TSAT
assigned to them and their applicable CTOT are not compatible,
they should contact their operator or ground handler to resolve the issue via the Manager of Operations, Airport Flow.
10.5.3.14 De-icing Operations
The need for de-icing has a substantial impact on standard
A-CDM procedures, especially the extended taxi times needed to account for the duration of the de-icing operation. To ensure
that the de-icing needs of individual flights are properly
considered, the following additional procedures are applicable during de-icing operations:
(a) A request for de-icing would normally be transmitted by
the flight crew on the airport clearance delivery frequency.
(b) If members of the flight crew determine after clearance
delivery that de-icing is required, they must contact the
AMU and request de-icing.
10.6 CONTINGENCY OPERATIONS
If the Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) system
fails or becomes unreliable, the A-CDM procedures will be
suspended. The suspension and eventual restarting of the
procedures will be announced via the airport terminal information
service (ATIS) broadcast and a NOTAM. During suspension of
the A-CDM procedures, no target off-block time (TOBT) or
target start-up approval time (TSAT) will be provided.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMCOM—COMMUNICATIONS,
NAVIGATION AND
SURVEILLANCE
1.0 VOICE COMMUNICATIONS
1.1 GENERAL
This subpart deals with mobile radio communications between
aircraft and ground stations. Particular emphasis is placed on
radiotelephony procedures that are intended to promote
understanding of messages and reduce communication time.
The primary medium for aeronautical voice communications
in Canada is very high frequency–amplitude modulation (VHF-AM)
in the frequency range of 118 to 137 MHz. For increased range
in northern areas and the North Atlantic, high frequency–single
sideband (HF-SSB) is available in the frequency range of 2.8 to 22 MHz.
1.2 REGULATIONS AND GUIDANCE
MATERIAL
(a) Operator’s certificates— In accordance with section 33 of
the Radiocommunication Regulations , a person may operate
radio apparatus in the aeronautical service…only where
the person holds [a Restricted Operator Certificate with
Aeronautical Qualification, issued by Innovation, Science
and Economic Development Canada].
(b) Station licences —All radio equipment used in aeronautical
services is required to follow Innovation, Science and
Economic Development Canada radio licensing policy.
For complete information on the requirements for communication
in Canada, please consult the Study Guide for the Restricted
Operator Certificate With Aeronautical Qualification (ROC-A)
(RIC-21). To obtain a copy of this study guide, search for
“RIC-21” on the Innovation, Science and Economic
Development Canada Web site < www.canada.ca/en/innovation-
science-economic-development.html >, contact the nearest
Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada district
office, or call 1-877-604-7493.
NAV CANADA has published phraseology guides for visual
flight rules (VFR), instrument flight rules (IFR), area
navigation (RNAV), and ground traffic operations. These guides
support standardized pilot-controller-specialist communications
and are intended as learning tools and reference guides to
phraseology for all pilots flying within Canadian airspace. These
guides are available at < https://www.navcanada.ca/en/
aeronautical-information/operational-guides.aspx#d21312acae
c74bbdbc5cf437abccb139 >.1.3 LANGUAGE
The use of English and French for aeronautical radio
communications in Canada is detailed in Canadian Aviation
Regulations (CARs) sections 602.133, 602.134, and 602.135. For
definitions of terminology and phraseology used in aviation in Canada, refer to the Glossary for Pilots and Air Traffic Services
Personnel (AC 100-001), which is available on TC’s Web site
<https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/reference-centre/advisory-
circulars/advisory-circular-ac-no-100-001 >.
1.4 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF)
COMMUNICATION FREQUENCIES—
CHANNEL SPACING
The standard very high frequency (VHF) air-ground channel
spacing in Canada is 25 kHz. A 760-channel transceiver is
necessary for operation of 25 -kHz channel s. This channel spacing
means that some operators with 50 -kHz capabil ity will have
their access to certain Canadian airspace and airports restricted,
as 25 -kHz channels are implemented for air traffic control (ATC)
purposes. In some areas of Europe, channel spacing has been
reduced to 8.33 kHz, which means that the same restrictions
may apply.
Because the frequency selectors on some 25 -kHz transcei vers
do not display the third decimal place, misunderstanding may
exist in the selection of frequencies. With such transceivers, if
the last digit displayed includes two and seven, then the equipment
is capable of 25 -kHz operatio ns.
Example:
Toronto Centre: ............................ 132.475 (actual frequency)
ATC Assigned Frequency: ............... 132.47 (digit 5 omitted)
Aircraft Radio Display: ............................... 132.475 or 132.47
In either case, the aircraft radio is actually tuned to the proper frequency.
1.4.1 Remote Communications Outlets (RCOs)
and Dial-Up Remote Communications
Outlets (DRCOs)
RCOs are VHF transmitters/receivers installed at designated
aerodromes to permit communications between aircraft and an
FSS or FIC for the provision of FISE or RAAS. An RCO may
also be installed at an off-aerodrome location to enhance en route
communication coverage for the provision of FISE by FICs.
FISE RCOs use one of the following four frequencies: 123.275,
123.375, 123.475, or 123.55 MHz. At most of these outlets,
126.7 MHz is not active or monitored by a FIC. At these sites,
as required, the FIC activates and transmits on 126.7 MHz to
provide aeronautical broadcast services (broadcast of SIGMET
or urgent PIREP) and to conduct communication searches for
overdue aircraft. Further details on the use of RCOs can be found
in the General section of the CFS.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMA DRCO is a standard RCO with a dial-up unit installed to
connect the pilot with an ATS unit (e.g. FIC) via a commercial
telephone line. The line is only opened after communication has
been initiated by the pilot or ATS. The radio range of the RCO
is unaffected by the conversion.
Activation of the system by the pilot is accomplished via the
aircraft radio transmitter by keying the microphone button four
times with a deliberate and constant action on the published
DRCO frequency. Procedures for establishing the link can be
found in the General section of the CFS.
See the CFS for more information.
1.4.2 Emergency Frequency 121.5 MHz
Pilots should continuously monitor 121.5 MHz when operating
within sparsely settled areas or when operating a Canadian
aircraft over water more than 50 NM from shore, unless essential
cockpit duties or aircraft electronic equipment limitations do
not permit simultaneous monitoring of two VHF frequencies
or the pilot is using other VHF frequencies.
Only control towers and FSSs have 121.5 MHz capability, and
this emergency frequency is monitored only during these facilities’
hours of operation. Remote communication facilities (PAL,
RAAS RCO and FISE RCO) do not have 121.5 MHz capability.
During an emergency, a pilot has the following options for
communicating with ATS:
(a) When within radio reception of a control tower or FSS
during the facility’s hours of operation, call ATS on the
tower frequency/FSS MF or 121.5 MHz. It is recommended
that pilots use the normal frequency or the frequency in use
at the time.
(b) When within radio reception of a remote communications
facility (FISE RCO, RAAS RCO or PAL), call ATS on the
published frequency.
NOTE :
FISE RCOs and PALs operate 24 hr/day, while most RAAS RCOs
operate part time.
(c) When out of range for VHF communications (for example
at low altitude, along a highway corridor), pilots may use a cell phone if they have cell phone coverage.
(d) If beyond the radio reception of an ATS facility, or when
outside the facility’s hours of opera tion, broadcast on
121.5 MHz or 126.7 MHz, or both, for assistance from other
pilots who may be monitoring the frequency.
1.5 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF)
ALLOCATIONS
See AIP Canada GEN 3.4.1.6 USE OF FREQUENCY 5 680 KHZ
See AIP Canada (GEN 3.4.
1.7 PHONE USE DURING A RADIO
COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE
In the event of an in-flight radio communications failure, and
only after normal communications failure procedures have been
followed, the pilot-in-command may attempt to contact the
appropriate NAV CANADA air traffic service (ATS) unit by
means of a conventional cell or satellite phone. Before placing
the call, transponder-equipped aircraft should squawk Code 7600.
Public switched telephone network (PSTN) numbers to be used
in the event of a communication failure are published in the
Canada Flight Supplement (CFS).
1.8 CANADIAN BASE OPERATORS (CBO)
See AIP Canada GEN 3.4.
1.9 OTHER TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM OPERATORS
See AIP Canada GEN 3.4.
1.10 SATELLITE VOICE
COMMUNICATIONS (SATVOICE)
The aeronautical satellite voice communications (SATVOICE)
system uses the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and/
or dedicated networks to route calls between aircraft and the
appropriate ground party. Dedicated network access switches
locate the aircraft anywhere in the world, regardless of the satellite
and ground earth station (GES) to which the aircraft is connected.
For ground-to-air calls, the ground party initiates the call using
a network access number. Once connected to the network access
switch, the ground party provides as a minimum the following
information to the appropriate service provider in order to route
the call to the aircraft:
(a) user identification (ID) [Required by Iridium. Inmarsat
does not require a user ID, but does require that the telephone
number be registered in their system as part of the validation
process.];
(b) personal identification number (PIN);
(c) priority level; and
(d) aircraft address in octal format.
In addition to registration, every aircraft is assigned an aircraft
address. An aircraft address can be defined in one of three formats:
24-bit format (24 binary characters), hexadecimal format (6
alpha-numeric characters) or octal format (8 characters).
The user ID and/or PIN are given by the service provider when
access to the network is granted, and they are used to secure
the call.The priority level may be used by dedicated networks (and the
aircraft systems) to end calls of a lower priority, if necessary, and
allow incoming calls of a higher priority, although some systems
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMmay establish a 3-way call, so that the higher priority call can
interrupt the ongoing conversation without ending it. In that
case, the pilot can hear both ground parties at the same time
and determine which is more important.
Table 1.1—Priority Levels for Satellite
Voice Communications
Priority level Use Examples
1/EMG/Q15
Emergency Safety of FlightDistress and
urgencyRapid descent
Urgent weather
deviation
2/HGH/Q12
Operational High Safety of FlightFlight safety Altitude request
3/LOW/Q10 Operational Low Safety of FlightRegularity
of flight, meteorological, administrative.
Typically assigned
to calls between aircraft operators and their aircraftFlight information service
Dispatch Maintenance
4/PUB/Q9 Non-operational Non-safetyPublic
correspondencePublic phone calls
Flight crews should only act on an air traffic control (ATC)
clearance or instruction from a SATVOICE call with priority
level 2. (Priority level 1/EMG/Q15 is reserved for outbound calls
from aircraft.).
For air-to-ground calls, a telephone numbering plan has been
developed that assigns short codes, as well as PSTN numbers,
specific to each flight information region (FIR). When a GES
receives the unique short code from the aircraft via satellite, it
is converted and the call is routed to the appropriate air traffic services (ATS) unit.
Prior to using SATVOICE equipment for priority level 1, 2 or 3
calls, the aircraft operator should address flight crew training
and qualification, maintenance, minimum equipment list (MEL),
user modifiable software and service agreements with the
commercial service provider. Installations would normally be
approved by the state of registry or state of the operator, in
accordance with Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Advisory Circular (AC) 20-150A (or equivalent).
When using SATVOICE, pilots should apply the radiotelephony
conventions and phraseology used for VHF/HF communications.
Operational procedures, along with SATVOICE short codes and
PSTN numbers for aeronautical stations, are published in
AIP Canada GEN 3.4, and on en route low altitude and en route
high altitude charts.2.0 LOCATION INDICATORS
Responsibility for Canadian location indicators rests with the
Aeronautical Information Services Division of NAV CANADA.
Location indicators are listed in the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS) and Canada Water Aerodrome
Supplement (CWAS).
3.0 DATA LINK COMMUNICATION
3.1 DATA LINK APPLICATIONS
The generic term “data link” encompasses different types of
applications that can transfer data to and from an aircraft. In
Canada, data link applications used by air traffic service (ATS)
include data link automatic terminal information service (D-ATIS),
pre-departure clearance (PDC) via the airline host, departure
clearance (DCL), automatic dependent surveillance waypoint
position reporting (ADS WPR) and controller-pilot data link
communications (CPDLC). Operational information regarding
Canadian applications can be found in AIP Canada GEN 3.4.
3.2 AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATIONS
ADDRESSING AND REPORTING
SYSTEM (ACARS) AND FUTURE AIR
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (FANS) 1/A
Many aircraft data link applications transfer data using the
aircraft communications addressing and reporting
system (ACARS). In the early 1990s, air traffic control (ATC)
units in the United States began to use ACARS-based pre-
departure clearance (PDC) applications to alleviate the problem
of congestion on clearance delivery frequencies.
Seeing the benefits of this early type of application, airlines
began to push for additional air traffic service (ATS) data link
applications. Notwithstanding the reduced performance of
ACARS networks that existed at the time, using ACARS-based
applications was a valuable step towards early introduction of
future air navigation systems (FANS). Based on this, various
ATS applications operating on the ACARS network were
developed. The original Boeing version of these applications
was known as FANS 1, whereas the Airbus version was termed
FANS A. Today, new FANS applications such as FANS 1/A+ and
FANS B continue to be used in airspace not suited for traditional
surveillance coverage.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COM3.3 AERONAUTICAL
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
NETWORK (ATN)
As reliance on data link increased, a new aeronautical
telecommunications network (ATN) was implemented to enable
greater data link performance. Compared to the original aircraft
communications addressing and reporting system (ACARS)
network, the new ATN uses well-defined protocols, specifically
designed to provide reliable communications service over
dissimilar networks. Aircraft equipped for both ATN and future
air navigation system (FANS) applications are said to be equipped
with “dual-stack”.
3.4 DATA LINK SERVICE PROVIDERS
To operate data link, it is necessary to have a contract with at
least one data link service provider. Major service providers
include Rockwell Collins (formerly ARINC) and Société
Internationale de Télécommunications Aéronautiques (SITA).
These companies provide a variety of air-ground data links,
operating in different frequency bands to ensure global coverage.
3.5 DATA LINK NETWORKS
Traditionally, analog very high frequency (VHF) was the most
commonly used medium to transmit aircraft communications
addressing and reporting system (ACARS) messages. This
medium of ACARS transmission is known as plain old ACARS
(POA). The low-speed characteristics of a POA data link require
a number of frequencies to fully service all users. For example,
almost a dozen VHF frequencies are required in North America
in order to provide a reliable service. As the number of analog VHF data link transmissions continues to increase across busy
areas, available channels in the aeronautical VHF band are
approaching saturation.
New high speed digital data link systems transmitting in the
VHF range are known as VHF digital link (VDL). Different
forms of VDL (Mode 1 through 4) have been defined. This new digital architecture is called ACARS Over AVLC (AOA), where the term AVLC refers to aviation VHF link control, which is the
protocol used over the VHF link for the relatively common VDL
Mode 2 system.
To access VDL service, aircraft must be fitted with a
communications management unit (CMU) that is equipped with
a digital connection to a VHF data radio (VDR) transceiver. The
CMU processes all the ACARS applications and can be upgraded
to integrate both VDL and ATN functionality. The CMU
automatically switches between AOA and POA according to
service availability.
While VDL may provide faster message response times (two to
eight seconds) than analog VHF, the system is still limited to
line-of-sight coverage. When beyond line-of-sight of a VDL
ground station, some aircraft may also have the capability for
HF data link (HFDL) and/or communications through satellite
data link (SATCOM).Satellite data links provide greater coverage, although except for
Iridium they are limited in the polar regions since most of the satellites are stationary over the equator. Satellite data links are
also slower than VHF in response time (12–25 s). Service providers
with near-global coverage include Inmarsat (geostationary earth
orbit [GEO] satellites) and Iridium (low earth orbit [LEO] satellites
in polar orbits for worldwide coverage); others provide coverage
in particular regions, such as the multifunctional transport
satellite (MTSAT) over the Pacific Ocean.
HFDL provides near global coverage including over the polar
regions, but message transit times (approximately 80 s) are much
lengthier than other mediums.
3.6 AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATIONS
ADDRESSING AND REPORTING
SYSTEM (ACARS) INITIALIZATION
The core of the airborne data link system is called the aircraft
communications addressing and reporting system (ACARS)
management unit (MU) or communications management
unit (CMU). At the initiation of a flight, one of the first flight
crew actions is to perform the ACARS system initialization. This
INIT REQUEST establishes a link with the airline ground system,
and informs it that the aircraft is being prepared for departure.
3.7 DATA LINK AUTOMATIC TERMINAL
INFORMATION SERVICE (D-ATIS)
Data link automatic terminal information service (D-ATIS)
enables delivery to the cockpit of automatic terminal information
service (ATIS) information in text format via data link. This
results in a reduction of flight crew workload, eliminating the
need to listen to the ATIS broadcast and hand transcribe the
message during busy periods. Thanks to data link service provider
coverage areas, D-ATIS can also be accessed well in advance of
descent and approach. Flight crew flying aircraft communications
addressing and reporting system (ACARS) equipped aircraft
can send ATIS requests and receive ATIS information using
their multipurpose control and display unit (MCDU).
D-ATIS implementation can vary in both avionics and ground
systems. In Canada, D-ATIS is available on the Rockwell Collins
(formerly ARINC) air traffic service (ATS) server.
3.8 PRE-DEPARTURE CLEARANCE (PDC)
Pre-departure clearance (PDC) via the airline host is a system
that provides instrument flight rules (IFR) departure
clearances (DCL) via data link to subscribing airlines at selected
airports. The PDC message is sent from the tower to an airline’s
server. The airline then takes responsibility for delivery of the
PDC via either the aircraft communications addressing and
reporting system (ACARS) data link or, for non-ACARS-equipped
aircraft, through some other means such as a gate printer.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMInstead of a verbal readback of the entire clearance, air traffic
control (ATC) primarily requires readback of the flight plan
unique identifier (FPUI). This is a four-character (three numeric
and one alphabetic) code included in the PDC message. See
AIP Canada GEN 3.4 for a list of airports offering PDC service
along with registration instructions.
3.9 DEPARTURE CLEARANCE (DCL)
Another data link application similar to pre-departure
clearance (PDC) is called DCL, which stands for departure
clearance. The DCL message itself may contain the abbreviation
PDC, however the delivery method is different for the DCL
application. In DCL, the data link dialog is directly between the
flight crew and the controller. The flight crew initiates DCL by
sending a departure clearance request (RCD). That RCD is routed
to the tower, where the controller can send the clearance to the aircraft directly via data link. When sending a RCD, the flight
crew will immediately receive the following flight system message (FSM): RCD RECEIVED – REQUEST BEING
PROCESSED – STANDBY.
If the RCD cannot be correlated to the flight plan or if the RCD
was sent too late, the flight crew may receive one of the following
FSMs: RCD REJECTED – FLIGHT PLAN NOT HELD – REVERT
TO VOICE PROCEDURES or RCD REJECTED – ERROR IN
MESSAGE – REVERT TO VOICE PROCEDURES – RCD TOO
LATE.
When air traffic control (ATC) receives a valid RCD, it will
respond by sending the departure clearance message (CLD) and,
in turn, the flight crew will respond with a departure clearance
readback (CDA). Upon successful reception of a matching CDA,
the flight crew will receive a FSM that states: CDA RECEIVED
– CLEARANCE CONFIRMED.
At any time during the clearance process, if the flight crew
receives a FSM stating to REVERT TO VOICE, the data link
clearance becomes void and the flight crew should contact ATC.
Other examples of FSM error messages include:
(a) RCD REJECTED – REQUEST ALREADY RECEIVED –
STANDBY
(b) RCD REJECTED – ERROR IN MESSAGE – REVERT TO VOICE PROCEDURES
(c) CDA REJECTED – CLEARANCE CANCELLED – REVERT
TO VOICE PROCEDURES
Unlike PDC, there is no registration requirement to use DCL;
however, operators must be Rockwell Collins (formerly ARINC)
or Société Internationale de Télécommunications
Aéronautiques (SITA) data link subscribers. A list of airports
offering DCL service can be found in AIP Canada GEN 3.4.3.10 AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT
SURVEILLANCE CONTRACT (ADS-C)
Position reporting is required in oceanic and remote airspace
where there is no other means of surveillance. Automatic
dependent surveillance - contrac t (ADS -C) waypoint p osition
reporting (WPR) via data link can overcome issues with voice
reporting. Automatic dependent surveillance (ADS) is a
surveillance technique for use by air traffic services (ATS) in
which aircraft automatically provide, via data link, information
derived from on-board position-fixing and navigation systems. ADS allows controllers to obtain position data from future air
navigation system (FANS) equipped aircraft in a timely manner,
thereby facilitating route conformance monitoring in non-
surveillance airspace.
An ADS -C is initiate d by the ATS facility and it identifies the
types of information and the conditions under which reports
are to be sent by the aircraft. Some types of information are
included in every report, while other types are provided only if
specified in the ADS -C request. Th ere are three types of ADS -C:
(a) periodic (a time interval at which the aircraft system sends
an ADS -C report),
(b) demand (a single ADS -C periodic r eport), and
(c) event (triggered by a particular event such as a waypoint
change event).
ADS -C are managed by ATS facilities based on their surveillance
requirements, and ADS reports are sent automatically without
notification to, or action required by, the flight crew. In the event
that an ADS report is not received, air traffic control (ATC)
would attempt to contact the flight crew to obtain the position
report via voice. In the event of ADS service interruptions, aircraft
equipment failures or loss of signal coverage, flight crews are
expected to resume voice reporting. Flight crews should be aware
of the limitations associated with available aircraft equipment and the signal coverage over the intended route.
Operational procedures for automatic dependent surveillance
waypoint position reporting (ADS WPR) can be found in
AIP Canada GEN 3.4.
3.11 CONTROLLER -PILOT DATA LINK
COMMUNICATIONS (CPDLC)
Controller -pilot data li nk communications (CPDLC) is a data
link application that supports the exchange of text-based messages
between a controller and the flight crew. Text messages provide greater clarity than spoken very high frequency (VHF) or high
frequency (HF) radio communications, so the risk of error is
significantly decreased. Other advantages associated with CPDLC
include:
(a) reducing voice channel congestion in busy airspace;
(b) providing direct controller -pilot commu nications (DCPC)
in airspace where it was not previously available on voice
channels;
(c) facilitating air traffic control (ATC) communications with flight crews whose first language is not English;
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COM(d) reducing flight crew input errors, by allowing the loading
of information from specific uplink messages into other
aircraft systems, such as the flight management system (FMS)
or aircraft radios;
(e) allowing the flight crew to request complex route clearances,
which the controller can respond to without having to
manually enter a long string of coordinates;
(f) reducing flight crew workload by supporting automatically
transmitted reports when a specific event occurs, such as
reaching the new flight level on an altitude change clearance;
and
(g) reducing controller workload by providing automatic flight
plan updates when specific downlink messages (and
responses to some uplink messages) are received.
CPDLC messages consist of a set of message elements, most of
which correspond to radiotelephone phraseology. CPDLC
message elements that are sent to an aircraft are referred to as
uplink messages, or UM, whereas message elements that are sent
by the aircraft are downlink messages, or DM. There are two
types of CPDLC implementations: future air navigation
systems (FANS) 1/A and aeronautical telecommunications
network (ATN) based CPDLC.
Operational procedures for CPDLC can be found in
AIP Canada GEN 3.4 and ENR 7.5.5 for use of CPDLC in the
ICAO NAT Region.
3.12 AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES FACILITIES
NOTIFICATION (AFN)
The first step for automatic dependent surveillance (ADS) or
controller-pilot data link communications (CPDLC) is the air
traffic services facilities notification (AFN), sometimes known
as the air traffic control (ATC) logon process; it is typically
initiated by the flight crew. The purpose of the AFN is to provide
air traffic service (ATS) with the data link applications supported
by the aircraft system and the unique identification of the aircraft.
This allows ATS to correlate the logon information with the
flight plan on file, ensure that messages are sent to the correct aircraft, and make certain that any subsequent reports and/or messages update the correct flight plan. This exchange of data link context is needed prior to any CPDLC or ADS connection.
An AFN is needed when the aircraft does not already have a
connection, such as when the aircraft is preparing for departure,
or when the aircraft is planning to enter an area where ADS and
CPDLC services are available after transiting an area where those
services were not available.
To perform an initial logon request, the flight crew enters into
the data link equipment:
(a) the four-character International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) facility identifier for the ATS unit
that the logon request will be sent to;
(b) the aircraft identification (as entered in Item 7 of the ICAO flight plan); (c) the aircraft registration and/or aircraft address (as entered
in Item 18, preceded by REG and/or CODE, of the ICAO
flight plan); and
(d) the departure and destination aerodromes, when required (as entered in Items 13 and 16 of the ICAO flight plan).
Canadian ATS facility identifiers can be found in
AIP Canada GEN 3.4.
3.13 CURRENT/NEXT DATA AUTHORITIES
Aircraft can display two controller-pilot data link communications (CPDLC) air traffic service (ATS) facility
connections at any time, but only one can be active. The ATS
facility with which an aircraft has an active connection is the
current data authority, sometimes displayed to the flight crew
as CURRENT ATC. The ATS facility with the inactive connection
is referred to as the next data authority. Under normal
circumstances, the current data authority will initiate a transfer
to an adjacent data link-capable ATS facility when the aircraft
approaches the appropriate boundary. These transfers are
normally automatic and no flight crew action is required.
4.0 GROUND-BASED RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS
4.1 GENERAL
Ground-based radio navigation systems available for use in
Canada include: distance measuring equipment (DME),
instrument landing system (ILS), localizer (LOC), non-directional
beacon (NDB), precision approach radar (PAR), tactical air
navigation aid (TACAN), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR), and a combination of VOR and TACAN (VORTAC).
4.2 ACCURACY, AVAILABILITY AND
INTEGRITY OF GROUND-BASED NAVIGATION AIDS
Aviation navigation systems must meet stringent accuracy,
availability and integrity requirements as specified in the
International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) Annex 10.
Measures to improve availability include:
(a) Electronic means— The provision of alternate or redundant
circuitry for the electronic elements of the navigation
a id (NAVA I D).
(b) Emergency back -up power— All instrument landing
system (ILS) and VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) facilities
for which NAV CANADA has responsibility, as well as
distance measuring equipment (DME) and tactical air
navigation aid (TACAN) associated with these facilities,
are provided with emergency power. Additionally, many
non-directional beacons (NDBs) are provided with
emergency power.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMMeasures to maintain accuracy and integrity of the navigation
signals include:
(a) Executive monitoring— An electronic means in which the
system checks its critical parameters. In the event of an
out-of-tolerance condition, it either changes to an auxiliary
back-up equipment or shuts the system down if there is no redundancy or if the redundant circuit has also failed. This monitoring is continuous.
(b) Periodic maintenance— NAVAIDs are periodically tested
by qualified technologists.
(c) Flight inspection— In-flight inspections of ILS, VOR and
DME are carried out by specially equipped aircraft on a
regular basis to ensure that standards are met.
During periods of routine or emergency maintenance, or when
a NAVAID is identified as not meeting the required performance
standard, it is temporarily removed from service and a NOTAM
is issued to advise pilots of the deficiency. The removal of the
transmitted NAVAID identification can also warn pilots that
the facility may be unreliable, even though it may still transmit
a navigation signal. Under these circumstances, the facility
should not be used. Similarly, prior to commissioning, a new
facility (particularly VOR or ILS) may transmit with or without identification. In such cases, a NOTAM would identify that the facility is unavailable and is not to be used for navigation.
A NAVAID may also no longer be monitored by air traffic services
due to a malfunction in the monitoring equipment. If the NAVAID
was functioning normally before the monitoring equipment
failure, a NOTAM will be issued stating that the NAVAID is
“unmonitored.” This informs the pilot that they may still use
the NAVAID but must monitor it to confirm it is working properly.
The end result of these combined efforts is a safe and reliable
air navigation system which meets the established standards.
Nevertheless, prior to using any NAVAID, pilots should do the following:
(a) Check NOTAMs prior to flight for information on NAVAID
outages. These may include scheduled outages for
maintenance or calibration. For remote aerodromes, or
aerodromes with community aerodrome radio
station (CARS), it is recommended that pilots contact the
CARS observer -communica tor (O/C) or the aerodrome
operator prior to flight to determine the condition of the
aerodrome, availability of services and the status of
NAVA I Ds .
(b) Ensure that on-board navigation receivers are properly
tuned and that the NAVAID identifier is aurally confirmed.
(c) Visually confirm that the appropriate indicator displays are
presented.4.3 PILOT REPORTING OF ABNORMAL
OPERATION OF GROUND-BASED
NAVIGATION AIDS (NAVAIDS)
Pilots are responsible for reporting any navigation aid (NAVAID)
failure or abnormality to the appropriate air traffic service (ATS)
facility. If it is not practical to report while airborne, a report
should be filed after landing.
Reports should contain the nature of the abnormal operation
detected by the pilot and the approximate magnitude and
direction of any course shift (if applicable). The magnitude may
be either in miles or degrees from the published bearing. Reports
should also include the approximate distance of the aircraft from
the NAVAID when the observation was made and the time and date of the observation.
4.4 INTERFERENCE WITH AIRCRAFT
NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT
Some portable electronic devices can interfere with aircraft
communications and radio navigation systems. The radiation
produced by frequency modulation (FM) radio receivers and
television broadcast receivers falls within the instrument landing
system (ILS) localizer (LOC) and VHF omnidirectional
range (VOR) frequency band, while the radiation produced by
amplitude modulation (AM) radio receivers falls within the
frequency range of automatic direction finder (ADF) receivers.
This radiation could interfere with the correct operation of ILS,
VOR and ADF equipment. Pilots are therefore cautioned against
permitting the operation of any portable electronic device on
board their aircraft during takeoff, approach and landing.
After extensive testing, Industry Canada has concluded that the
switching on or use of handheld electronic calculators can cause
interference to airborne ADF equipment in the 200 to 450 kHz
frequency range when the calculator is held or positioned within
5 ft of the loop or sense antenna, or lead-in cable installation of
the system. Pilots, especially of small aircraft and helicopters,
are therefore cautioned against allowing the operation of
calculators on board their aircraft while airborne.
4.5 VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)
The VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) is a ground-based, short-distance navigation aid (NAVAID) which provides
continuous azimuth information in the form of 360 usable radials
to or from a station. It is the basis for the very high frequency (VHF)
airway structure. It is also used for VOR non-precision instrument
approaches.
(a) Frequency band— VORs in Canada operate on assigned
channels spaced at 0.05 MHz (50 kHz) increments within the frequency range 112.0 to 117.95 MHz.
The implication for users is that, in airspace serviced solely
by VOR, aircraft equipped with older VOR receivers which
cannot be tuned to two decimal places (e.g. 115.25 MHz)
may not be able to operate under instrument flight rules (IFR).
Of course, area navigation (RNAV), where approved for
use, may enable operation under IFR.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMReceivers with integrated distance measuring
equipment (DME) (i.e. VOR/DME receivers) normally select
the associated DME “Y” channel automatically, while stand-
alone DME receivers display the “X” and “Y” channels
separately.
(b) Range— VOR reception is subject to line-of-sight restrictions
and range varies with aircraft altitude. Subject to shadow
effect, reception at an altitude of 1 500 ft above ground
level (AGL) is about 50 NM. Aircraft operating above
30 000 ft normally receive VOR at a distance of 150 NM
or more.
(c) Identification— Identification is accomplished by means
of a three-letter location indicator keyed in Morse code at
regular intervals.
(d) VOR courses— Theoretically, an infinite number of courses
(radials) are radiated from a VOR station; however, in actual
practice, 360 radials are usable under optimum conditions.
The accuracy of course alignment for published VOR radials is ±3˚. Unpublished radials are not required to meet a particular standard of accuracy and may be affected by siting difficulties.
Any significant anomalies in published radials sent out from
VOR serving an aerodrome will be published in the Canada
Flight Supplement (CFS).
4.5.1 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) Receiver
Checks
Where RNAV routes have not been published, VOR remains the
primary NAVAID for use in Canada. It is important that the
accuracy of the aircraft equipment be checked in accordance
with principles of good airmanship and aviation safety.
While standard avionics maintenance practices are used for
checking aircraft VOR receivers, dual VOR equipment may be
checked by tuning both sets to the same VOR facility and noting
the indicated bearings sent to that station. A difference greater than 4˚ between the aircraft’s two VOR receivers indicates that
one of the aircraft’s receivers may be beyond acceptable tolerance.
In such circumstances, the cause of the error should be investigated
and, if necessary, corrected before the equipment is used for an IFR flight.
4.5.2 Airborne VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
Check
Aircraft VOR equipment may also be checked while airborne
by flying over a landmark located on a published radial and
noting the indicated radial. Equipment which varies more than
±6˚ from the published radial should not be used for
IFR navigation.
4.6 NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB)
Non-directional beacons (NDBs) combine a transmitter with
an antenna system providing a non-directional radiation pattern
within the low frequency (LF) and medium frequency (MF)
bands of 190–415 kHz and 510–535 kHz. NDBs are the basis of
the LF/MF airway and air route system. In addition, they function
as marker beacons for instrument landing system (ILS) as well as non -precision approach (NPA) aids for NDB instrument
approaches.
(a) Identification— Identification consists of two or three letter
or number indicators keyed in Morse code at regular intervals. (Private NDBs consist of a letter/number
combination.)
(b) Classification— NDBs are classified by high, medium or
low power output as follows:
(i) “H” power output is 2 000 W or more;
(ii) “M” power output is from 50 W to less than 2 000 W;
and
(iii) “L” power output is less than 50 W.
(c) Accuracy— NDB systems are flight checked to an accuracy
of at least ±5˚ for an approach and ±10˚ for en route. However,
much larger errors are possible due to propagation
disturbances caused by sunrise or sunset, reflected signals from high terrain, refraction of signals crossing shorelines at less than 30˚ and electrical storms.
4.7 DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
Distance measuring equipment (DME) functions by means of two-way transmissions of signals between the aircraft and the DME site. Paired pulses at a specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft and are received by the ground station. The ground
station then transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft on a
different frequency. The time required for this signal exchange
is measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated into
distance (nautical mile [NM]) from the aircraft to the ground
station. Distance information received from DME is slant range
distance and not actual horizontal distance. Accuracy of the
DME system is within ±0.5 NM or three percent of the distance,
whichever is greater.
DME is collocated with most Canadian VHF omnidirectional
range (VOR) installations (VOR/DME) and with many instrument
landing system (ILS) and localizers (LOCs). In some cases, DME
are also collocated with non -direction al beacons (NDBs) to
provide improved navigation capability. For colloca ted sites, a
single keyer is used to key both the VOR/ILS/LOC and the DME
with the three-letter location indicator. The VOR/ILS/LOC
transmits three consecutive indicator codes in a medium pitch
of 1 020 Hz followed by a single DME indicator code transmitted
on the DME frequency (ultrahigh frequency [UHF]) and
modulated at a slightly higher pitch of 1 350 Hz. In the event
that synchronization from the VOR/ILS/LOC should fail, the
DME identification will be transmitted independently.
The DME system is in the UHF band and therefore is limited
to line-of-sight reception with a range similar to that of a VOR.
Most DME “X” and “Y” channels are paired with VOR and LOC
frequencies. As a result, the receiving equipment in most aircraft
provide automatic DME selection through a coupled VOR/ILS
receiver. Otherwise, the DME interrogator must be selected to the paired VOR or LOC frequency. Distance information from
an independent tactical air navigation aid (TACAN) facility can
be obtained by selecting the appropriate paired VOR frequency.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COM(In that case, only DME information is being received; any
apparent radial information must be ignored.) The DME paired
frequency and channel number are published in the Canada
Flight Supplement (CFS) and on instrument flight rules (IFR)
en route charts in the navigation data box for all TACAN and
DME installations.
By convention, those frequencies requiring only one decimal
place (e.g. 110.3 MHz) are known as “X” channels and those
associated with two decimal places are designated as “Y” channels
(e.g. 112.45 MHz).
4.8 TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN)
Tactical air navigation aid (TACAN) is a navigation aid (NAVAID)
used primarily by the military for en route, non -precision
approaches (NPAs) and other military applications. It provides
azimuth in the form of radials and slant distance in nautical
miles (NM) from the ground station. The system operates in the
ultrahigh frequency (UHF) range with the frequencies identified
by channel number. There are 126 channels.
TACAN users may obtain distance information from a distance
measuring equipment (DME) installation by selecting the TACAN
channel that is paired with the VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)
frequency. This TACAN paired channel number is published in
the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) for every VOR/DME facility.
CAUTION :
Only DME information is being received by the TACAN avionics.
Any apparent radial information obtained through the TACAN
avionics from a VOR/DME facility can only be false signals.
4.9 VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE
AND TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION
AID (VORTAC)
A number of tactical air navigation aids (TACANs), supplied by
the Department of National Defence (DND), are collocated with
VHF omnidirectional ranges (VORs) to form facilities called
VORTACs.
This facility provides VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth and slant
distance from the site. Components of a VORTAC operate
simultaneously on paired frequencies so that aircraft distance
measuring equipment (DME) avionics, when tuned using the
paired VOR frequency, will obtain distance information from
the DME component of the TACAN. An aircraft must be equipped
with a VOR receiver to use VOR, appropriate equipment to use
DME, or TACAN equipment to use TACAN (azimuth and DME).
4.10 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
The instrument landing system (ILS) is designed to provide an
aircraft with a precision final approach with horizontal and
vertical guidance to the runway. The ground equipment consists
of a localizer (LOC), a glide path transmitter, a non-directional
beacon (NDB), and a distance measuring equipment (DME) fix or an area navigation (RNAV) fix to denote the final approach fix (FAF). See Figure 4.1 for a typical ILS installation.4.10.1 Localizer (LOC)
The LOC provides the pilot with course guidance to the runway
centreline. When the LOC is used with the glide slope, it is called
an ILS. The LOC is adjusted to provide an angular width typically
between 3° and 6°, depending on runway length. The transmitter
antenna array is located at the far end of the runway away from the approach. LOCs operate in the 108.1–111.9 MHz frequency
range. The LOC may be offset up to 3° from the runway heading
and still publish as a straight-in procedure; however, the amount
of offset will be published as a note on the approach plate. LOC alignment exceeding 3° of the runway heading will have an “X”
as the first letter of the indicator, whereas LOCs and back courses
with an alignment of 3° or less will have an “I” as the first letter.
The normal, reliable coverage of ILS LOCs is 18 NM within 10°
of either side of the course centreline and 10 NM within 35° of the course centreline.
LOC and glide path identification is transmitted on the LOC
frequency in the form of a two-letter or letter-number indicator preceded by the letter “I” (e.g. IOW).
4.10.2 Glide Path (GP)
The glide path transmitter operates within the frequency range
of 329.3 to 335 MHz. The frequency is paired with the associated
LOC frequency in accordance with ICAO standards. The glide path is adjusted to a published approach angle (typically 3°) and
a beam width of 1.4°. The antenna array is located approximately
1 000 ft from the approach end of the runway and offset
approximately 400 ft from the runway centreline. As the glide
path is formed by reflecting the transmitted signal off the ground,
the beam-forming area in front of the glide path antenna can
be negatively affected by heavy snow buildup. Airports have
snow-clearing plans in effect for this area as the snow must
remain below the allowable design depth for proper glide path operation.
At some of the larger airports, an ILS is installed at each end of
a runway. Consequently, an approach may be designed to either end of the runway. The two systems are interlocked so that only one ILS can operate at any time.
Figure 4.1—Typical ILS Installation
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COM4.10.3 Non-directional Beacon (NDB)
Low-power NDB transmitters are sometimes located on the
LOC, 3.5 to 6 mi. from the runway threshold. If it is not possible
to install an NDB, a DME fix or RNAV fix may be used instead to form the FAF. In some cases, an en route NDB is located on a LOC so that it may serve as a terminal as well as an en route facility. As a general rule, NDBs transmit a two- or three-letter
indicator. The FAF provides a fix to which the pilot can navigate
for the transition to the ILS.
4.10.4 Instrument Landing System (ILS)/Distance
Measuring Equipment (DME)
At some locations, a DME paired with the ILS provides distance
information to define the IAF and MAP. At other locations,
VOR/DME, which are available either on the airport or aligned
with the appropriate runway, will be used to provide distance
information for the transition to the ILS.
4.10.5 Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Categories
Operational CAT I —Operation down to a minima of 200 ft DH
and an RVR of 2 600 ft with a high probability of success. (When RVR is not available, 1/2 SM ground visibility is substituted.)
Operational CAT II —Operation down to a minima below
200 ft DH and an RVR of 2 600 ft, to as low as 100 ft DH and an RVR of 1 200 ft, with a high probability of success.
Operational CAT III —CAT III minima will be prescribed in
the carrier’s operating specifications, in the operator’s operations
manual, or in the CAP.
4.10.6 Category II/III Instrument Landing
System (ILS)
CAT II/III ILS enable pilots to conduct instrument approaches
to lower weather minima by using special equipment and
procedures in the aircraft and at the airport.
The following airport systems must be fully serviceable to meet
CAT II/III standards:
(a) Airport lighting —A lighting system which includes:
(i) approach lights;
(ii) runway threshold lights;
(iii) touchdown zone lights;
(iv) centreline lights;
(v) runway edge lights;
(vi) runway end lights;
(vii) all stop bars and lead-on lights;
(viii) essential taxiway lights.
(b) ILS components —Including:
(i) LOC;
(ii) glide path transmitter;
(iii) NDB, DME or RNAV fix.(c) RVR equipment— For CAT II operations, two RVRs: one
located adjacent to the runway threshold (touchdown or
RVR A), and one located adjacent to the runway mid-point (mid-point or RVR B). For CAT III operations, three RVRs: one located adjacent to the runway threshold (touchdown or RVR A), one located adjacent to the runway mid-point
(mid-point or RVR B), and one located at the stop-end (rollout
or RVR C) of the runway (ref. ICAO Annex 3, 4.6.3.4).
(d) Power source —Airport emergency power (primary electrical
source for all essential system elements), commercial power
available within one second as backup.
4.10.7 Caution Regarding Use of Instrument
Landing System (ILS)
Low clearance indications —Course interference is negligible
when aircraft are flown within 6° on either side of the course
centreline. Actual anomalies are typically noted on the applicable
approach charts. However, failure of certain elements of some
multi-element LOC antenna array systems can cause false courses
or low clearances* beyond 6° from the centreline that are not
detected by the LOC monitoring system. This could result in a premature cockpit indication of approaching or intercepting an
on-course centreline. For this reason, a coupled approach should
not be initiated until the aircraft is established within 6° of the
LOC centreline. It is also essential to confirm the LOC on-course
indication by reference to the aircraft’s heading and other NAVAIDs (such as an ADF bearing or RNAV track) before
commencing final descent. Any abnormal indications experienced
within 35° of the published centreline of an ILS LOC should be reported immediately to the appropriate ATS facility.
*A low clearance occurs whenever there is less than full-scale
deflection of the omnibearing selector or CDI at a position where
a full-scale deflection should be displayed outside of 6° from the
LOC centreline.
LOC false course —False course captures may occur when the
pilot prematurely selects APPROACH MODE from either HDG
or LNAV MODE. Some ILS receivers produce lower than expected
course deviation outputs in the presence of high modulation
levels of the LOC-radiated signal. This can occur even when
both the ground transmitter and the airborne receiver meet their
respective performance requirements. The reduced course
deviation can, in turn, trigger a false course capture in the AFCS.
False course captures can occur at azimuths of anywhere from
6° to 35° but are most likely to occur in the vicinity of 6° to 10°
azimuth from the published LOC course. A false capture is
deemed to have occurred when the AFCGS allows the LOC to
switch from ARMED to CAPTURED even though the
omnibearing selector or CDI has not moved and is still at full-scale deflection.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMIn order to minimize the possibility of a false course capture
during an ILS approach, pilots should use raw data sources to
ensure that the aircraft is within 6° of the correct LOC course
prior to initiating a coupled approach. The following cockpit
procedures are recommended:
(a) APPROACH MODE should not be selected until the aircraft
is within 18 NM of the threshold and is positioned within 6° of the inbound ILS course.
(b) In addition, pilots should:
(i) ensure that the ADF bearing (associated with the
appropriate NDB site) or RNAV track for the runway
is monitored for correct orientation;
(ii) be aware when the raw data indicates that the aircraft
is approaching and established on the correct course;
and
(iii) be aware that, should a false course capture occur,
it will be necessary to deselect and re-arm APPROACH
MODE in order to achieve a successful coupled
approach on the correct LOC course.
EMI— The effect of EMI, particularly on ILS LOC system
integrity, is becoming increasingly significant. In built-up areas,
power transformer stations, industrial activity, and broadcast
transmitters have been known to generate interference that
affects LOC receivers. The effect is difficult to quantify as the
interference may be transitory, and certain LOC receivers are
more susceptible than others to EMI. If the LOC goes off the
air, the “off” flag may remain out of sight or the flag and CDI
may give erratic or erroneous indications. It is even possible that
normal on-course cockpit indications may continue. Under
normal circumstances, ATS will advise pilots conducting an
approach if there is equipment failure.
Automatic landing (autoland) operations— The commissioning,
periodic flight inspection, and maintenance of the ILS facility
serving a CAT III runway include an analysis of the ILS LOC
signal throughout the rollout to confirm that the ILS facility
will support CAT III operations. The successful outcome of any
ILS autoland depends on the performance of the aircraft’s AFCGS
and the ILS LOC and glide path signals. The course structure
and the integrity of an ILS can be compromised when protection
of the ILS critical areas is not assured. The LOC is particularly sensitive due to its larger signal volume in the aerodrome area. Surface and airborne traffic as well as vehicles that are crossing or parked in these critical areas can create a deflection in or a
disturbance to the ILS signal. An ILS CAT III signal is only
protected by ATC when low visibility procedures are in effect
at that aerodrome.
It has been common practice for operators of appropriately
equipped and certified aircraft to conduct AFCGS autoland
operations at CAT I, II, or III facilities when weather conditions
are above the appropriate minima to satisfy maintenance,
training, or reliability program requirements. A portion of these
autolands may also need to be conducted on CAT I ILS facilities,
or on CAT II/III ILS facilities when low visibility procedures are
not in force. In the case of a CAT I ILS facility, for example, the
ILS should be of CAT II signal quality without necessarily meeting the associated CAT II reliability and availability criteria for
backup equipment and automatic changeover of facility
performance.
Some CAT I and II ILS facilities that have the signal characteristics
to support AFCGS operations to CAT I and II minima, as
applicable, may not have the requisite signal characteristics to
support autoland operations. NAV CANADA maintains a record
of ILS flight check performance information. It is available here:
<https://www.navcanada.ca/en/flight-planning/communication-
navigation-and-surveillance.aspx/#e4970b9b30a240fd99eaa339c4316d66 >.
Flight crews are reminded to exercise extreme caution whenever
ILS signals are used beyond the minima specified in the approach
procedure and when conducting autolands on any category of ILS when critical area protection is not assured by ATC. Pilots must be prepared to immediately disconnect the autopilot and
take appropriate action should unsatisfactory AFCGS performance
occur during these operations.
Glide path fluctuations— While an aircraft is navigating on the
ILS, fluctuations may occur when other aircraft or vehicles are
moving through the glide path critical area, causing interference
with the signal. In some cases, the aircraft automation/autopilot
may follow momentary fluctuations, causing the aircraft to pitch
or roll. ATS will protect the glidepath signal when:
(a) The ceiling is less than 1 000 ft or visibility is less than
3 miles, or both; and
(b) The arriving aircraft is inside the FAF on an ILS approach.
The ILS critical areas are not protected when aircraft are outside
the FAF. Futhermore, except for CAT II/III operations, localizer
signal protection is not applied when a preceding aircraft passes
over or through the critical area while taking off, landing, or
executing a missed approach on the same or another runway.
Pilots must be aware of ILS signal interference threats as well as
flight display indications and autopilot functionality during
manual or fully coupled ILS approaches.
In situations where protection of the ILS signal is not required
but a pilot wishes to conduct autoland or practise low-visibility
procedures, the pilot must advise the controller of these intentions
early enough so that the controller can either protect the ILS
critical area or advise the pilot that, due to traffic, ILS critical
area protection is not possible. If ILS critical area protection is not possible, the controller will use the phrase “ILS CRITICAL
AREA NOT PROTECTED”. It then becomes the pilot’s
responsibility to continue the chosen approach mode.
Pilots should review Transport Canada’s Manual of All Weather
Operations for an understanding of ILS critical and sensitive areas.
NOTE : At uncontrolled airports, aircraft manoeuvring on the
ground may enter ILS critical areas during taxi, takeoff,
or landing.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMGlide path false course— The normal antenna pattern of glide
path installations produces a false glide path angle at two and
three times the set angle (e.g. at 6° and 9° for a typical 3° published
glide path angle).
ATC procedures in terminal areas are designed to maintain
aircraft at an altitude that provides a normal rate of descent and
a suitable position to capture the published glide path signal.
Following the instrument procedures carefully will ensure both
an approach with a stable rate of descent and the complete
avoidance of a false glide path. Failure to adhere to instrument
procedures (e.g. remaining at an altitude higher than published)
could result in positioning the aircraft in a false glide path created
by the radiated lobe.
In order to minimize the possibility of false glide path capture
during an ILS approach, pilots should verify the rate of descent and the altitude at the FAF to ensure that the aircraft is on the published glide path.
5.0 AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)
Area navigation (RNAV) is a method of navigation which permits
aircraft operation on any desired flight path within the coverage
of navigation aids (NAVAIDs) or within the limits of the capability
of self-contained NAVAIDs, or a combination of these.
Existing navigation systems which provide an area
navigation (RNAV) capability include the global navigation
satellite system (GNSS), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)/
distance measuring equipment (DME) (RHO-THETA), DME-
DME (RHO-RHO), inertial navigation system (INS) and inertial
reference system (IRS).
5.1 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE
SYSTEM (GNSS)
The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is a worldwide
position and time determination system that includes one or
more satellite constellations, aircraft receivers and system
integrity monitoring, augmented as necessary to support the
required navigation performance for the intended operation.
5.2 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE
SYSTEM (GNSS) CONSTELLATIONS
Currently, there are two complete navigation satellite constellations
in orbit: the U.S. global positioning system (GPS) and the Russian
global orbiting navigation satellite system (GLONASS). The U.S.
and Russia have offered these systems as the basis of a global
navigation satellite system (GNSS) that is free of direct user
charges. Additional constellations are being developed by the
European Union (Galileo), and by China (BeiDou). Instrument
flight rules (IFR) certified GNSS receivers manufactured in
North America use only the GPS constellation, but plans are
underway to expand that ability.
5.2.1 Global Positioning System (GPS)
The GPS constellation was developed by the U.S. military;
however, since 1996, it has been managed by an executive board, chaired jointly by the departments of Defense and Transportation,
that is comprised of representatives from several other departments
to ensure that civil user requirements are considered in the
management of the system. Title 10 of the U.S. Code , Section 2281,
assigns the Secretary of Defense statutory authority to sustain
and operate GPS for military and civil purposes. This statute
directs the Secretary of Defense to provide civil GPS service on
a continuous, worldwide basis, free of direct user fees. The system
is operated and controlled by Space Delta 8, located at Schriever Space Force Base, Colo.
The design GPS constellation contains 24 GPS satellites, orbiting
the earth twice a day at an altitude of 10 900 NM (20 200 km).
They are arranged in six separate orbital planes, with four satellites
in each; this gives complete global coverage. There are
approximately 32 operational satellites; however, at any given
time, one or more may be decommissioned or be out of service temporarily for maintenance.
All GPS orbits cross the equator at a 55° angle, so it is not possible
to see a GPS satellite directly overhead when north of 55° N or
south of 55° S latitude. This does not affect service in polar areas
adversely; in fact, on average, more GPS satellites are visible at
high latitudes since receivers can track satellites on the other
side of the pole.
GPS positioning is based on precise timing. Each satellite has
four atomic clocks on board, guaranteeing an accuracy of one billionth of one second, and broadcasts a digital PRN code that
is repeated every millisecond. All GPS satellites start generating
the same code at the same time. Code matching techniques
establish the time of arrival difference between the generation
of the signal at the satellite and its arrival at the receiver. The
speed of the signal is closely approximated by the speed of light,
with variations resulting from ionospheric and atmospheric
effects modeled or directly measured and applied. The time of
arrival difference is converted to a distance, referred to as a
pseudorange, by computing the product of the time of arrival
difference and the average speed of the signal. The satellites also
broadcast orbit information (ephemeris) to permit receivers to calculate the position of the satellites at any instant in time.
Normally, SVNs are sequential (i.e. SVN 68 was the sixty-eighth
satellite launched), but PRN codes are assigned to a position in
the constellation, and are numbered PRN 1 to 24 (with a maximum
of 32).
A receiver normally needs four pseudoranges to calculate a
three-dimensional position and to resolve the time difference
between receiver and satellite clocks. In addition to position and
time, GPS receivers can also calculate velocity—both speed and direction of motion.
GPS accuracy depends on transit time and signal propagation
speed to compute pseudoranges. Therefore, accurate satellite
clocks, broadcast orbits, and computation of delays as the signals
pass through the ionosphere are critical. The ionosphere, which
is a zone of charged particles several hundred kilometres above the Earth, causes signal delays that vary from day to night and
by solar activity. Current receivers contain a model of the nominal
day/night delay, but this model does not account for variable
solar activity. For applications requiring high accuracy, GPS
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMneeds an augmentation system to correct the computed transit
time to compensate for this delay.
Another key to GPS accuracy is the relative position of satellites
in the sky, or satellite geometry. When satellites are widely spread,
geometry and accuracy are better. If satellites are clustered in a
small area of the sky, geometry and accuracy are worse. Currently,
GPS horizontal and vertical positions are accurate to 6 m and
8 m, respectively, 95% of the time.The GPS satellite constellation is operated by the U.S. Air Force
from a control centre at Schriever Space Force Base in Colorado.
A global network of monitor and uplink stations relays information
about the satellites to the control centre and sends messages,
when required, to the satellites.If a problem is detected with a satellite, it is commanded to send
an “unhealthy” status indication, causing receivers to drop it
from the position solution. Since detection and resolution of a
problem take time, and this delay is unacceptable in aviation
operations, augmentation systems are used to provide the level
of integrity required by aviation.
The GPS constellation status is available at < http://www.navcen.
uscg.gov/?Do=constellationStatus >.
5.2.2 Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite
System (GLONASS)
GLONASS is a global satellite constellation, operated by the
Russian Aerospace Defence Forces, that provides real-time
position and velocity determination for military and civilian
users. The satellites are located at an altitude of 19 100 km and at an inclination of the orbital planes of 64.8° to the equator.
The GLONASS constellation status is available at
<https://www.glonass-iac.ru/en/sostavOG/ >.
5.2.3 Galileo Navigation Satellite System
Galileo is Europe’s GNSS constellation, which will provide a
highly accurate, guaranteed global positioning service under
civilian control. The fully deployed Galileo system will consist of 24 operational satellites plus six in-orbit spares, positioned in three circular medium Earth orbit (MEO) planes at an altitude of 23 222 km, and at an inclination of the orbital planes of 56° to the equator.
The Galileo constellation status is available at < https://www.
gsc-europa.eu/system-status/Constellation-Information >.
5.2.4 BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
BeiDou is the Chinese navigation satellite system. It consists of
two separate satellite constellations: a limited test system that
has been operating since 2000 and a full-scale global navigation system that is currently under construction. On June 23, 2020, the final BeiDou satellite was successfully launched. It was the
55th satellite in the BeiDou family. The third iteration of the
BeiDou navigation satellite ssytem provides full global coverage
for timing and navigation.
The BeiDou constellation status is available at < www.csno-tarc.
cn/en/> .5.3 AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS
Augmentation of the global positioning system (GPS) constellation
or the global orbiting navigation satellite system (GLONASS)
constellation is required to meet the accuracy, integrity, continuity
and availability requirements for aviation. There are currently three types of augmentation:
(a) aircraft-based augmentation system (ABAS);
(b) satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS); and
(c) ground-based augmentation system (GBAS).
5.3.1 Aircraft-Based Augmentation
System (ABAS)
RAIM and FDE functions in current IFR-certified avionics are
considered ABAS. RAIM can provide the integrity for the
en route, terminal, and NPA phases of flight. FDE improves the continuity of operation in the event of a satellite failure and can support primary-means oceanic operations.
RAIM uses extra satellites in view to compare solutions and
detect problems. It usually takes four satellites to compute a
navigation solution, and a minimum of five for RAIM to function.
The availability of RAIM is a function of the number of visible satellites and their geometry. It is complicated by the movement
of satellites relative to a coverage area and temporary satellite
outages resulting from scheduled maintenance or failures.
If the number of satellites in view and their geometry do not
support the applicable alert limit (2 NM en route, 1 NM terminal
and 0.3 NM NPA), RAIM is unable to guarantee the integrity
of the position solution. (Note that this does not imply a satellite malfunction.) In this case, the RAIM function in the avionics
will alert the pilot, but will continue providing a navigation
solution. Except in cases of emergency, pilots must discontinue using GNSS for IFR navigation when such an alert occurs.
A second type of RAIM alert occurs when the avionics detects
a satellite range error (typically caused by a satellite malfunction)
that may cause an accuracy degradation that exceeds the alert
limit for the current phase of flight. When this occurs, the avionics
alerts the pilot and denies navigation guidance by displaying
red flags on the HSI or CDI. Continued flight using GNSS is
then not possible until the satellite is flagged as unhealthy by
the control centre, or normal satellite operation is restored.Some avionics go beyond basic RAIM by having an FDE feature
that allows the avionics to detect which satellite is faulty, and
then to exclude it from the navigation solution. FDE requires a
minimum of six satellites with good geometry to function. It
has the advantage of allowing continued navigation in the
presence of a satellite malfunction.
Most first generation avionics do not have FDE and were designed
when GPS had a feature called SA that deliberately degraded
accuracy. SA has since been discontinued, and new generation
SBAS-capable receivers (TSO -C145a/C146 a) account for SA
being terminated. These receivers experience a higher RAIM
availability, even in the absence of SBAS messages, and also have
FDE capability.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMFor avionics that cannot take advantage of SA being discontinued,
average RAIM availability is 99.99% for en-route and 99.7% for
NPA operations for a 24-satellite GPS constellation. FDE
availability ranges from 99.8% for en route to 89.5% for NPA.
Avionics that can take advantage of SA having been discontinued
have virtually 100% availability of RAIM for en route and 99.998%
for NPA; FDE availability ranges from 99.92% for en route to
99.1% for NPA. These figures have been computed for mid-
latitudes, and are dependent on user position and also on which
satellites are operational at any given time. RAIM and FDE
availability is typically even better at high latitudes, since the
receiver is able to track satellites on the other side of the North Pole.
The level of RAIM or FDE availability for a certain airspace at
a certain time is determined by an analysis of satellite geometry,
rather than signal measurement. This is why it can be predicted
by receivers or with PC-based computer software. The difference
between the two methods is that the receivers use the current
constellation in their calculations while the PC software can use
a constellation definition that takes into account scheduled
satellite outages.
Most TSO -C129a avioni cs also accept signals from an aircraft
altitude encoder. This is called baro-aiding, and it essentially
reduces the number of satellites required by one, thus further
increasing the availability of RAIM and providing an additional
measure of tolerance to satellite failures.
With proper integration, IRS and INS can augment/enhance
GNSS navigation. This system allows “coasting” through periods
of low availability.
5.3.2 Satellite-Based Augmentation
System (SBAS)
SBAS uses a network of ground-based reference stations that
monitor navigation satellite signals and relay data to master
stations, which assess signal validity and compute error
corrections. The master stations generate two primary types of
messages: integrity, and range corrections. These are broadcast
to SBAS-capable GNSS receivers via GEO satellites in fixed
orbital positions over the equator. The SBAS GEO satellites also serve as additional sources of navigation ranging signals.
The integrity messages provide a direct validation of each
navigation satellite’s signal. This function is similar to RAIM, except that the additional satellites required for RAIM are not
necessary when SBAS integrity messages are used. The integrity
messages are available wherever a GEO satellite signal can
be received.
The range corrections contain estimates of the errors introduced
into the range measurements as a result of ionospheric delays,
and satellite ephemeris (orbit) and clock errors. Ionospheric
delay terms are critical for correction messages, and are also the
most challenging to characterize. First, each reference station
measures the ionospheric delay for each visible satellite.
These observations are sent to the master station, where they
are combined, and used to generate a model of the ionosphere, which is then transmitted to the receivers via the GEO satellite.
The accuracy of the model is dependent on the number and
placement of the reference stations providing observations of
ionospheric delays.By compensating for these errors, SBAS-capable GNSS receivers
can compute the position of the aircraft with the accuracy
necessary to support flight operations with vertical guidance.
Vertical guidance provides safer stabilized approaches and transition to visual for landing. This represents one of the
principal benefits from SBAS service. The other is lower approach
minima at certain airports, as a result of greater lateral accuracy.
The first SBAS, the U.S. FAA’s wide area augmentation
system (WAAS), was commissioned in 2003. Europe has built
a compatible system called EGNOS (European geostationary
navigation overlay service) which was approved for aviation use
in August 2010. Japan and India also have similar systems to
augment GNSS: MSAS (MTSAT satellite-based augmentation
system) and GAGAN (GPS and GEO augmented navigation),
respectively.
WAAS messages are broadcast by geostationary satellites located
on the equator. See the following Web site for their exact locations:
<https://www.nstb.tc.faa.gov/index.htm >.
5.3.3 Ground-Based Augmentation
System (GBAS)
GBAS, also known as LAAS, sends corrections directly to GBAS-
capable receivers from a ground station at an airport.
GPS receivers with antennas at surveyed surface locations provide
measurements used to generate and broadcast pseudorange
corrections. Aircraft receivers use the corrections for increased
accuracy, while a monitor function in the ground station assures
the integrity of the broadcast. GBAS provides service over a
limited area, typically within 30 NM of the ground station.
GBAS is not yet available in Canada.
5.4 DOMESTIC INSTRUMENT FLIGHT
RULES (IFR) APPROVAL TO USE
GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE
SYSTEM (GNSS) AND SATELLITE-
BASED AUGMENTATION
SYSTEM (SBAS)
The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and satellite-based
augmentation system (SBAS) approved for instrument flight
rules (IFR) use in Canada are listed in AIP Canada ENR 4.3,
Table 4.3. GNSS capability may be provided by a panel-mount receiver or
by a flight management system (FMS) that uses the appropriate sensor.
Avionics are required to meet appropriate equipment standards
and, equally important, the avionics installation must be approved
by Transport Canada (TC) to ensure proper avionics integration
and display.Handheld and other visual flight rules (VFR) receivers do not
support integrity monitoring, nor do they comply with other
certification requirements; therefore, they cannot be used for
IFR operations.
Holders of air operator certificates (AOCs) issued under Part VII
of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) and private operator
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMcertificates issued under CAR 604 are required to be authorized
to conduct GNSS instrument approach operations in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC).
5.4.1 Domestic En Route and Terminal
Operations
In practice, pilots can use GNSS for guidance most of the time.
If an integrity alert occurs while en route, the pilot can then
continue by using conventional aids, diverting if necessary from
the direct routing, notifying ATS of any changes to the flight
and obtaining a new clearance, as required.
When using GNSS to maintain a track in terminal operations,
the avionics shall be in terminal mode and/or the CDI shall be
set to terminal sensitivity. (Most avionics set the mode and
sensitivity automatically within 30 NM of the destination airport,
or when an arrival procedure is loaded.)
When using GNSS to navigate along VHF/UHF or LF/MF
airways, ground-based NAVAID reception is not an issue. This means that pilots using GNSS for navigation can file or request an altitude below the MEA, but at or above the MOCA, to avoid
icing, optimize cruise altitude, or in an emergency. However, an
ATS clearance to fly at a below-MEA altitude could be dependent
on issues such as radiocommunication reception and the base of controlled airspace. In the rare case of a RAIM alert while en route below the MEA, and out of range of the NAVAID, pilots
should advise ATS and climb to continue the flight using alternate
means of navigation.
GNSS avionics typically display the distance to the next
waypoint. To ensure proper separation between aircraft, a
controller may request the distance from a waypoint that is
not the currently active waypoint in the avionics; it may even
be behind the aircraft. Pilots must be able to obtain this
information quickly from the avionics. Techniques vary by
manufacturer, so pilots should ensure familiarity with this
function.
At times outside ATS surveillance coverage, pilots may be cleared
by ATS to a position defined by a latitude and longitude. As these
are usually outside the range of traditional NAVAIDs, there is no means to cross check that the coordinates have been entered accurately. Pilots must be particularly careful to verify that the coordinates are correct.
5.4.2 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-
Based Area Navigation (RNAV) Approach
Procedures
Prior to the advent of GNSS, only two types of approach and
landing operations were defined: precision approach and NPA. Definitions have now been added for APV to cover approaches that use lateral and vertical guidance, but that do not meet the requirements established for precision approaches.
GNSS-based approaches are charted as “RNAV (GNSS) RWY
XX.” The “(GNSS)” before the runway identification indicates
that GNSS must be used for guidance. Pilots and controllers
shall use the prefix “RNAV” in radio communications
(e.g. “CLEARED TO THE VANCOUVER AIRPORT RNAV
RUNWAY ZERO FOUR APPROACH”).GNSS-based RNAV approaches are designed to take full advantage
of GNSS capabilities. A series of waypoints in a “T” or “Y” pattern
eliminates the need for a procedure turn. The accuracy of GNSS
may result in lower minima and increased capacity at the airport.
Because GNSS is not dependent on the location of a ground-
based aid, straight-in approaches are possible for most runway ends at an airport.
In Canada, RNAV (GNSS) approach charts may depict up to
five sets of minima:
(a) LPV;
(b) LP;
(c) L NAV/ V NAV;
(d) L NAV; a nd
(e) CIRCLING.
The LP and LNAV minima indicate an NPA, while the LNAV/
VNAV and LPV minima refer to APV approaches (RNAV
approaches with vertical guidance). However, the actual terms “NPA” and “APV” do not appear on the charts because they are
approach categories not related to specific procedure design
criteria. In Canada, the depiction of the five sets of minima is
similar to the way that an ILS approach may show landing minima
for ILS, LOC and CIRCLING.
The approach chart may indicate a WAAS channel number. This
is used for certain types of avionics and permits the approach to be loaded by entering the number shown.
All approaches must be retrieved from the avionics database,
and that database must be current. While it is sometimes
acceptable to use pilot-generated waypoints en route, this is not permitted for approach procedures.
5.4.2.1 Area Navigation (RNAV) Approaches with
Lateral Guidance Only
Avionics for LNAV approaches do not define a vertical path
through space; as such, each approach segment has a minimum altitude below which the pilot may not descend.
GPS (TSO -C129/C129 a Class A1, B1, B3, C1 or C3) and WAAS
(TSO -C145a/C146a, any class) avionics are both able to provide
the lateral guidance required for these approaches.
Without vertical guidance, pilots are required to remain at or
above the MDA unless a visual transition to landing can be
accomplished, or to conduct a missed approach at the MAWP, typically located over the runway threshold.
WAAS and some GPS TSO -C129/C129 a avionics may provide
advisory vertical guidance when flying approaches without
LNAV/VNAV or LPV minima. It is important to recognize that
this guidance is advisory only and the pilot is responsible for
respecting the minimum altitude for each segment until a visual
transition to land is commenced.
Pilots using TSO -C129/C129 a avionics should use the RAIM
prediction feature (including known satellite outages obtained by NOTAM at KGPS) to ensure that approach-level RAIM will be supported at the destination or alternate airport for the ETA (±15 min). This should be done before takeoff, and again prior
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMto commencing a GNSS-based approach. If approach-level RAIM
is not expected to be available, pilots should advise ATS as soon
as practicable and state their intentions (e.g. delay the approach, fly another type of approach, proceed to alternate).
5.4.2.2 Vertical Guidance on Area Navigation (RNAV)
Approaches
LNAV/VNAV and LPV describe approaches with vertical
guidance. These deliver the safety benefits of a stabilized approach
and, in many cases, improve airport accessibility.
Aircraft with TSO -C145a/C14 6a (WAAS Class 2 or 3) or
TSO -C115b (multi-sensor FMS) avionics, may fly RNAV (GNSS)
approaches to LNAV/VNAV minima with vertical guidance in a similar manner to the way they fly an ILS approach: with both a lateral CDI and a VDI. The lateral guidance must be based on GPS or WAAS. The vertical guidance may be based on WAAS,
or on barometric inputs (baro -VNAV), depen ding on the
approach and the aircraft equipage.
Aircraft with WAAS Class 3 avionics may fly RNAV (GNSS)
approaches to LPV minima in a similar manner. In this case,
both the lateral and vertical guidance are based on WAAS.
The nominal final approach course vertical flight path angle for
LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches is 3°, avoiding the step-down
minimum altitudes associated with traditional NPAs.
The LNAV/VNAV and LPV minima depict a DA, which requires
the pilot to initiate a missed approach at the DA if the visual
reference to continue the approach has not been established.
5.4.2.3 Area Navigation (RNAV) Approaches with
Vertical Guidance Based on Barometric
Vertical Navigation (Baro -VNAV)
Multi-sensor FMSs that meet TSO -C115b have been certified
since the late 1980s to provide guidance for a stabilized final
approach segment during NPAs. The vertical guidance for these
systems has been derived from a barometric altitude input; hence,
these approaches are known as baro -VNAV approa ches. This
equipment has typically only been installed on transport category
aeroplanes. The information provided by these systems is advisory
only, and pilots are required to respect all minimum altitudes, including step-down altitudes, since NPAs are not specifically
designed to take advantage of baro -VNAV capab ility.
With the publication in Canada of RNAV (GNSS) approaches
with vertical guidance, suitably-equipped aircraft may fly
baro -VNAV approaches to the LNAV/VNAV minima published
on these approach plates. The standard for equipage is a multi-
sensor FMS that meets TSO -C115b and is cer tified in accordance
with FAA AC 20-138C or equivalent. The FMS must use GNSS sensor input, but does not require a WAAS-capable receiver to fly to LNAV/VNAV minima. Pilots must note that the vertical
path defined by baro -VNAV is affec ted by altimeter setting
errors. For this reason, baro -VNAV is not aut horized unless a
local field altimeter setting is available.
Non-standard atmospheric conditions, particularly temperature,
also induce errors in the baro -VNAV vertica l path. A nominal
3° glide path will be steeper at warmer temperatures and shallower at lower temperatures. To compensate for these temperature
effects, some avionics allow input of the temperature at the
airport and apply temperature compensation to the vertical path
angle so that the baro -VNAV vertica l path is not biased as a
function of temperature. Unfortunately, not all systems have
similar capabilities to compensate for temperature effects, and pilots need to understand their system’s capabilities.
When temperature compensation is not or cannot be applied
through the FMS, pilots shall refer to a temperature limit, referred
to as TLim, published on the approach chart. This limiting
temperature protects a baro-VNAV’s final segment vertical path
only (it does not protect any of the published minimum IFR
altitudes on the chart). Below this temperature, the uncompensated
vertical path generated by the FMS will not provide the required
obstacle protection. Therefore, when the temperature is below the published TLim, an aircraft with an uncompensated baro-
VNAV system shall not fly an RNAV approach to LNAV/VNAV
minima. TLim will be a function of the reduced obstacle clearance
resulting from flying an uncompensated VPA and will vary
from approach to approach. For avionics systems that have the
capability to correctly adjust the VPA for temperature deviations,
the published TLim does not apply if the pilot enables the
temperature compensation.
In short, regardless of whether or not the FMS (or other automated
means) provides temperature compensation of the vertical path,
and whether or not the actual reported airport temperature is
within the temperature limit for the procedure, pilots are responsible for correcting the temperature of all minimum
published IFR altitudes on the approach, including the DA.
5.4.2.4 Area Navigation (RNAV) Approaches with
Vertical Guidance Based on Wide Area
Augmentation System (WAAS)
RNAV (GNSS) approaches with vertical guidance based on
WAAS require a Class 2 or 3 (for LNAV/VNAV minima) or
Class 3 (for LPV minima) TSO -C145a WAAS re ceiver, or a
TSO -C146a sensor interfaced to appropriate avionics.
RNAV (GNSS) approaches with vertical guidance based on
WAAS are entirely dependent on the WAAS signal. WAAS meets
essentially the same navigation performance requirements
(accuracy, integrity and continuity) as ILS, and pilots can expect
guidance to be similar to that provided by an ILS, with some
improvement in signal stability over ILS.
WAAS avionics continuously calculate horizontal and vertical
protection levels during an approach and will provide a message
to the crew if alert limits for the procedure are exceeded, similar
to the way in which ILS monitors shut down an ILS signal when
its accuracy does not meet the required tolerances.
Although the WAAS integrity monitor is very reliable, good
airmanship nevertheless dictates that pilots verify the FAWP
crossing altitude depicted on approach plates with LNAV/VNAV
and LPV minima, in the same way that the glide path check
altitude is used when flying an ILS approach. Large altitude
deviations could be an indication of a database error or otherwise
undetectable incorrect signal.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COM5.5 FLIGHT PLANNING
NOTAM on ground-based navigation aid (NAVAID) outages
are of direct use to pilots because if a NAVAID is not functioning,
the related service is not available. With the global positioning
system (GPS) and wide area augmentation system (WAAS), the
knowledge of a satellite outage does not equate to a direct
knowledge of service availability. The procedures for determining
service availability are different for GPS (TSO -C129/C129a ) and
WAAS (TSO -C145a/C146a ) avionics, and are explained in the
next subsections.
5.5.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) NOTA M
NOTE :
This section applies only to operators using TSO -C129/C129a
avionics.
Research has shown minor differences among avionics’
computations of RAIM availability, making it impractical to
develop a GPS RAIM NOTAM system that will work reliably
for all receivers. Because of this, and since IFR GPS approval
requires aircraft to be equipped with traditional avionics to be used when RAIM is unavailable, NOTAM information on GPS
RAIM availability is not provided in Canada. Canadian FI Cs
can supply NOTAM on GPS satellite outages by querying the
international NOTAM identifier KGPS. (This information is
also available at < www.notams.faa.gov >.) The availability of
RAIM can then be computed from the satellite availability
information by entering the expected outages into PC-based
RAIM prediction software provided by some avionics
manufacturers or through direct entry into the GNSS receiver or FMS computers that support this function.
GNSS avionics also contain such a model, and this allows pilots
to determine if approach-level RAIM will be supported (available)
upon arrival at destination or at an alternate. The calculation
typically uses current information, broadcast by the satellites,
identifying which satellites are in service at that time. However,
unlike the software that is based on the NOTAM data, this
prediction does not always take into account scheduled satellite
outages.
Operators using TSO -C129/C129a a vionics who wish to take
advantage of an RNAV (GNSS) approach when specifying a
destination or alternate airport must check KGPS NOTAM to verify the status of the constellation.
5.5.2 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
NOTAM
A NOTAM will be issued whenever the FAA advises
NAV CANADA that LPV, LP and WAAS-based LNAV/VNAV
service is unavailable for a period of more than 15 min. The
NOTAM is issued for the FIR and will read either:
(a) LPV, LP AND WAAS-BASED LNAV/VNAV APCH NOT AVBL (and may include a description of the affected area,
if WAAS messages issued by a particular WAAS satellite
are not available); or
(b) WAAS UNMONITORED (indicating that WAAS messages
may not be available across the entire service area).Pilots should flight plan based on the assumption that the services
referred to in a NOTAM will not be available. However, once
they arrive at the aerodrome, they may discover that a service
is in fact available, in which case they may use the approach
safely if they so choose.
When LPV, LP and WAAS-based LNAV/VNAV are not available,
pilots may fly the LNAV procedure to the published MDA, as
this will almost always be available to pilots using WAAS avionics.
Since LNAV procedures will be used when LPV and
LNAV/VNAV are not available, pilots should ensure that they
maintain their skills in flying these approaches.
NOTE :
WAAS NOTAM information is not applicable to users of
TSO -C129a avionics.
NOTAM examples can be found in the Canadian NOTAM
Operating Procedures , available here: < https://www.navcanada.
ca/en/aeronautical-information/operational-guides.aspx >.
5.5.3 Procedures on the Fringe of Wide Area
Augmentation System (WAAS) Coverage
When WAAS coverage for an aerodrome is expected to be
marginal or unavailable, WAAS-based approach procedures
will normally not be designed. However, at aerodromes on the fringe of WAAS coverage areas, for which LPV-, LP- or WAAS-
based LNAV/VNAV lines of minima have been published, pilots
will be alerted that occasional outages may occur by a note on
the chart that states: “Procedure on the fringe of WAAS coverage.
Occasional outages may occur.”
Pilots should flight plan as though LPV-, LP- and WAAS-based
LNAV/VNAV will not be available at these aerodromes; however,
if the service is available, it may be used safely at the pilot’s
discretion.
5.5.4 Space Weather
The source of space weather is the sun, which releases streams
of charged particles made up of energized electrons and protons.
Two types of solar phenomena can have a major impact on GNSS:
coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and coronal holes. Coronal mass
ejections are gigantic amounts of electrified gas or plasma
launched into space that can have a major influence, typically
reaching the Earth within 1–3 days. Coronal holes are regions
of open magnetic field lines where high-speed streams of plasma
can flow out from the sun. If conditions are right when these
particles reach the Earth, geomagnetic storms can occur.
At the Earth’s surface, geomagnetic storms are characterized by
a K-level index that ranges from 0–9. Storms having little effect would range from 0–3, while those with moderate effects would be 4–7, and strong storms with a lot of impact would be > 7. The Canadian Space Weather Forecast Centre (CSWFC) monitors,
analyzes and forecasts space weather. Based on solar observations,
it can predict when the particles will reach the Earth, and forecast
the expected geomagnetic activity that will result. More detailed
measurements are made using space weather monitoring satellites,
which provide information approximately 30 min before the
particles reach the Earth.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMCanada has three zones of geomagnetic activity: the polar cap,
the auroral zone and the subauroral zone. The highest geomagnetic
activity and greatest disturbances are observed in the auroral
zone. Changes in electron density, due to space weather activity,
can change the speed at which radio waves travel, introducing
a “propagation delay” in the GNSS signal through the ionosphere.
The propagation delay can vary from minute to minute, and
these intervals of rapid change can sometimes last for several
hours, especially in the polar and auroral regions. Changing
propagation delays cause errors in the determination of the range.
ABAS, SBAS and GBAS use different techniques to correct for
ionospheric delays. ABAS uses simple models implemented in the receiver software that are adequate for en route navigation
through non-precision approach phases of flight, but are not
adequate for any type of approach during which vertical guidance
is provided. SBAS provides ionospheric delay corrections derived
from measurements at a set of reference stations distributed over
a wide area. GBAS provides corrections for the combined effects
of various sources of ranging errors, including ionospheric delays.
The corrections provided by SBAS and GBAS are much more
accurate that those calculated by ABAS, because they are derived
in real-time from actual measurements, and are therefore
adequate for approach procedures with vertical guidance.
GNSS provides navigation either using unaugmented GNSS and
RAIM or FDE, or using SBAS corrections. The availability and continuity of GNSS en route and NPA services are very robust against ionospheric delays caused by geomagnetic storms. This
robustness is primarily due to the relatively wide alert limits
associated with en route and non-precision approach operations.
SBAS augmentation makes APV possible by ensuring real-time
monitoring of core constellation satellites and ionospheric delays.
APV operations require accurate ionospheric corrections, as
well as relatively narrow integrity bounds, and these bounds
may be widened during periods when the ionosphere is severely
disturbed, in order to account for the increased variability of
ionospheric delays, while ensuring the integrity of the position solutions for all users. APV service is very robust in mid- and
high-latitude regions, and losses of service due to ionospheric
effects are expected to occur less than 1% of the time. Interruptions
of APV service may occur during severe geomagnetic storms
and affect portions of the service area for short periods of time.
In rare cases, extremely severe geomagnetic storms may even
cause temporary loss of APV service over large portions of the
SBAS service area for several hours. During pre-flight planning,
pilots can consult Canadian Space Weather Forecast Centre
products to determine if APV service for their flight may be
affected. See: < www.spaceweather.gc.ca/index-en.php >.
5.6 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
FLIGHT PLAN EQUIPMENT SUFFIXES
On an instrument flight rules (IFR) flight plan, the letter “G”
in Item 10 (equipment and capabilities) indicates that the aircraft
has IFR-approved global positioning system (GPS) or wide area
augmentation system (WAAS) avionics, and can therefore be
cleared by air traffic service (ATS) on direct routings while
en route, in terminal areas, and for global navigation satellite
system (GNSS) based approaches.5.7 AVIONICS DATABASES
Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) avionics used for
instrument flight rules (IFR) flight require an electronic database
that can be updated, normally on 28- or 56-day cycles. The
updating service is usually purchased under subscription from avionics manufacturers or database suppliers.
Database errors do occur, and should be reported to the avionics
database supplier. It is good practice to verify that retrieved data
is correct, and it is mandatory to do so for approach data.
Verification can be accomplished either by checking waypoint
coordinates or by checking bearings and distances between
waypoints against charts.
5.8 USE OF GLOBAL NAVIGATION
SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS) IN LIEU OF
GROUND-BASED AIDS
See AIP Canada ENR 4.3.
5.9 AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)
APPROACHES AT
ALTERNATE AERODROMES
Pilots may take credit for an area navigation (RNAV) approach
at an alternate aerodrome as outlined in the Canada Air
Pilot (CAP).
Taking credit for RNAV approaches at an alternate aerodrome
for instrument flight rules (IFR) flight plan filing purposes is
possible because the availability of receiver autonomous integrity
monitoring (RAIM) or wide area augmentation system (WAAS)
integrity is normally very high. However, when satellites are out
of service, availability could decrease. Consequently, it is necessary
to determine satellite status to ensure that the necessary level of
integrity will be available. The procedures for this are explained
in the next two sections.
5.9.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
Approaches—Global Positioning
System (GPS) (TSO -C129/C129a ) Avionics
The status of the GPS constellation may be obtained through
the FAA by contacting a NAV CANADA FIC and requesting
the international NOTAM file KGPS.
A procedure that meets the requirement to ensure that approach-
level RAIM will be available for TSO -C129/C129a a vionics is as
follows.
(a) Determine the ETA at the proposed aerodrome.
(b) Check the GPS NOTAM file (KGPS) for a period of 60 min
before and after the ETA. If not more than one satellite
outage is predicted during that period, then this procedure
is satisfied. If two or more satellites are anticipated to be
unserviceable during the ETA ±60-min period, then it is
necessary to determine if approach-level RAIM will be
available, taking into account the reduced availability
resulting from the outages. This may be accomplished by
using commercially-available dispatch RAIM prediction
software, acquiring a current almanac, and manually
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMdeselecting those satellites for the times described in the
NOTAM.
The RAIM availability requirement is satisfied if the resulting
prediction indicates that RAIM will be unavailable for a total
of 15 min or less during the ETA ±60-min period.
It may be possible to change the alternate or adjust the departure
time (and hence the ETA) and re-run the prediction to find a
time for which the required RAIM availability is achieved, or
simply to find a time when fewer than two satellite outages
are predicted.
5.9.2 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
Approaches—Wide Area Augmentation
System (WAAS) Avionics
Operators using WAAS avionics (TSO-C145a/C146a) can verify
that an approach is expected to be available by:
(a) checking NOTAM that apply to the FIR to ensure that no widespread WAAS outages have occurred, and then
(b) checking the WAAS horizontal and vertical service status,
available at < https://www.nstb.tc.faa.gov/index.htm >, to
predict if the desired approach line of minima is available given the current ionospheric conditions.
In the event of a widespread outage of WAAS, poor WAAS
horizontal or vertical performance due to current ionospheric
conditions, or an aerodrome outside the GEO coverage area, the
pilot may need to determine if approach-level RAIM, as computed
by a WAAS receiver, will be available. In this case, the pilot may
use the procedure described in COM 5.9.1 for TSO -C129/C129a
avionics. This will provide a safe, although conservative,
indication of the availability of LNAV.
5.10 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE
SYSTEM (GNSS) VULNERABILITY—
INTERFERENCE AND
ANOMALY REPORTING
Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are used in many
applications: financial, security and tracking, transportation,
agriculture, communications, weather prediction, scientific
research, etc. Because it is used for such a wide range of civilian
purposes, when somebody wishes to disable one GNSS-based
system, their actions can also disrupt other, unrelated systems.
Jamming, directed at non-aviation users, could affect aircraft
operations. Over the past few years, Innovation, Science and
Economic Development Canada has encountered several cases
of illegal importation, manufacturing, distribution, offering for
sale, possession and use of radiocommunication jamming devices,
all of which are prohibited under the Radiocommunication Act.
Many jamming devices are manufactured for the purpose of
disrupting the functioning of GNSS receivers, cellular networks
and low-power communication devices, such as cordless telephones and Wi-Fi networks. Of primary concern is the
proliferation of radiocommunication jammers designed to defeat
vehicle tracking and fee-collecting systems. Depending on signal
strength, these jammers can also prevent communication related
to 9-1-1 and emergency services, while inadvertently andunknowingly, in most cases, inhibiting aircraft in the vicinity overhead from receiving GNSS signals.
In the event of suspected interference or other problems with
GNSS, pilots should advise air traffic service (ATS), and, if
necessary, revert to using traditional aids for navigation. Pilots are also requested to complete a GNSS Anomaly Report Form,
available at < https://www.navcanada.ca/en/flight-planning/
flight-planning-and-reporting.aspx/#b0c94be7e7554546ad8d8
5fa44fa7385 >, or equivalent, in order to assist in the identification
and elimination of sources of interference or degradation of the navigation signal.
5.11 PROPER USE OF GLOBAL NAVIGATION
SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS)
Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) offers a great
opportunity to improve aviation safety and efficiency. Many
pilots are benefiting from the advantages of GNSS as a principal
navigation tool for instrument flight rules (IFR) flight or for
visual flight rules (VFR) operations. To ensure safety, pilots must
use GNSS properly. Here are some safety tips:
(a) use only IFR-certified avionics for IFR flights because hand-
held and panel-mount VFR do not provide the integrity
needed for IFR operations;
(b) for IFR flight, use a valid database for approach—a new one
is required every 28 or 56 days;
(c) verify that all procedures that could be required are present
in the database prior to flight to remote or small aerodromes—
data storage limitations have resulted in some manufactures
omitting certain data from the avionics database;
(d) do not become an approach designer—approach designers
require special training and specific tools, and there are
many levels of validation before an approach is commissioned.
Furthermore, the receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) level and course deviation
indicator (CDI) sensitivity will not be appropriate if an
approach is not retrieved from the avionics database;
(e) never fly below published minimum altitudes while in
instrument conditions. Accidents have resulted from pilots
relying too much on the accuracy of GNSS;
(f) use VFR GNSS receivers only to supplement map reading
in visual conditions, not as a replacement for current charts;
(g) position hand-held receivers and related cables carefully in
the cockpit to avoid the potential for electromagnetic
interference (EMI), and to avoid interfering with aircraft
controls. Handheld units with valid databases could be
useful in an emergency if IFR unit failed; and
(h) resist the urge to fly into marginal weather when navigating
VFR. The risk of becoming lost is small when using GNSS,
but the risk of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) increases
in low visibility. VFR charts must also be current and updated
from applicable NOTAMs, and should be the primary
reference for avoiding alert areas, etc. Some VFR receivers
display these areas, but there is no guarantee that the
presentation is correct, because there is no standard for
such depictions.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COM5.12 VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL
RANGE (VOR)/DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME) (RHO-THETA)
SYSTEM
The capability of on-board area navigation (RNAV) computer
systems which utilize VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)/distance
measuring equipment (DME) signals varies considerably. The
computer electronically offsets a VOR/DME station to any desired
location within reception range. The relocated position is known
as a waypoint and is defined by its bearing and distance from
the station. Waypoints are used to define route segments and
the computer provides steering guidance to and from waypoints.
5.13 DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME-DME [RHO-RHO])
SYSTEM
DME-DME is a system which combines distance measuring
equipment (DME) receivers with a microprocessor to provide
an area navigation (RNAV) capability. The system has the location
of the DME facilities in its database. Measuring the distance
from two or more of these stations can provide a positional fix.
The system provides a means of entering waypoints for a random
route and displays navigation information such as bearing,
distance, cross-track error and time-to-go between two points.
6.0 PERFORMANCE-BASED
NAVIGATION (PBN)
6.1 GENERAL
Performance-based navigation (PBN) is not a stand-alone concept.
Rather, along with communications, surveillance, and air traffic
management (ATM), it is one of the four strategic enablers that
support an overall airspace concept. An airspace concept may be described as a master plan or vision for a particular section of airspace, which aims to improve safety, increase capacity and efficiency, and mitigate negative environmental impacts.
PBN is intended to enable more repeatable, reliable and predictable
flight tracks as well as smaller route containment areas to increase
operational efficiency. In the simplest form, it is area
navigation (RNAV) based on performance requirements for
aircraft operating along an air traffic service (ATS) route, on an
instrument approach procedure (IAP) or within designated
airspace. Under the PBN concept, RNAV is defined as a method
of navigation that permits aircraft operation on any desired
flight path within the coverage of ground-based or space-based
navigation aids (NAVAIDs) or within the limits of the capability
of self-contained aids (inertial navigation). Area navigation
systems can take two forms: RNAV, which is the basic definition
above, or required navigation performance (RNP), which has
an additional functional requirement for on-board performance
monitoring and alerting. The RNP system relies upon the
capability of the on-board navigation system to monitor, in real
time, the achieved navigation performance and to alert the flight
crew when the specified minimum performance appropriate to
a particular operation cannot be met. This additional functionality provided by RNP allows the flight crew to intervene and take
appropriate mitigation actions if necessary. On-board performance
monitoring and alerting allows RNP operations to provide an additional level of safety and capability over RNAV operations.
All future RNAV will identify performance requirements through
the use of navigation specifications rather than defining required
equipage of specific navigation sensors (VHF omnidirectional
range [VOR], automatic direction finder [ADF], etc.). These
navigation specifications are expressed in terms of accuracy,
integrity, availability, continuity, and functionality needed for the proposed operation.
Accuracy : In the context of PBN, accuracy is the capability of
the navigation system to maintain the computed position within
a specified distance (lateral navigation accuracy) of the actual position 95 percent of the time.
Integrity : Integrity is the level of confidence that can be placed
in the information received from the navigation system. Normally
defined as a percentage probability to satisfy the assurance
condition (i.e. 10-5), it includes the ability of an RNP system to
provide timely and valid warnings to users when the system
must not be used for the intended operation or phase of flight.
Availability : Availability is stated as a percentage of time the
navigation system can perform its function. It should provide
reliable navigation information and present it to the crew,
autopilot or other system managing flight of the aircraft.
Continuity : Continuity refers to the ability of a navigation system
to provide its service without interruption. It should do so with
the specified level of accuracy and integrity throughout the
intended period of operation, assuming that it was available at
the start of the operation.
Functionality : A set of functions or capabilities associated with
PBN operations. Examples could include course deviation scaling
and radius to fix (RF) capability.
6.2 KEY ELEMENTS OF PERFORMANCE-
BASED NAVIGATION (PBN)
Performance-based navigation (PBN) consists of three main
elements: navigation aid (NAVAID) infrastructure, navigation
specifications and navigation applications. These elements,
described in detail further on, must be present to have a fully
incorporated PBN concept.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COM6.2.1 Navigation Aid (NAVAID) I nfrastructure
The NAVAID infrastructure that contributes to an RNAV system
may consist of ground-based, space-based or on-board NAVAIDs
that support or provide positioning capabilities. System types
are as follows:
(a) Ground infrastructure, which includes commissioned VORs
and DMEs. (NDBs do not provide the specific range and
azimuth information with accuracy necessary to be used
in an RNAV system).
(b) Authorized GNSS space-based infrastructure (satellite
constellations) such as: GPS, the European Union’s Galileo,
the Russian GLONASS, etc.
(c) SBASs that correct for variance in the GNSS satellite signals
in order to provide greater accuracy and/or signal quality,
e.g. WA AS.
(d) GNSS GBASs that provide navigation and precision approach
service in the vicinity of the host airport, e.g. LAAS, GBAS landing system (GLS), etc.
(e) Certified INS or inertial reference units (IRU), which support
on-board capability.
6.2.2 Navigation Specifications
A navigation specification is used as the basis for airworthiness
and operational approval. It details the performance required
of an RNAV or RNP system in terms of accuracy, integrity,
availability, continuity, required navigation functionalities and
NAVAIDs, and any requirements placed on the flight crew.
Having a published navigation specification on Canadian routes
and procedures will ensure compliance with common aircraft
equipage and training that will result in assurance of track conformance. There are two main types of navigation
specifications: RNAV and RNP.
An RNAV specification is based on an RNAV system and would
be denoted by RNAV(X). An RNP navigat ion specification is
based on an RNP system and is denoted by RNP(X).
In the examples above, “(X)” indicates the lateral navigation
accuracy, in nautical miles, to be maintained 95 percent of the
flight time by the population of aircraft operating within the
airspace, route or procedure. For RNP specifications, it is also
possible to have advanced RNP (A-RNP) and approach navigation
specifications that cover all segments of an instrument approach.
They are denoted as RNP APCH (RNP approach) or RNP AR APCH (RNP authorization required approach).
A navigation specification identifies not only a lateral accuracy
figure but also functional and aircrew requirements. Therefore,
certification for one type of navigation specification does not
imply automatic qualification for a less stringent specification, and an RNP specification doesn’t necessarily enable an RNAV specification.
ICAO has developed guidance on a range of navigation
specifications. It is the responsibility of each State to determine
which navigation specifications would be most applicable within
their airspace concept with regards to current regulations and NAVAID infrastructure. For this reason it is important to note that what is needed to meet a navigation specification in one
State may vary from that of another.
The following chart depicts all of the navigation specifications
and their intended operational domain as outlined in ICAO’s
Performance-based Navigation (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613).
Table 6.1—Navigation Specification Designations
RNAV Specifications RNP Specifications
Oceanic
and Remote Navigation ApplicationsEn route and
Terminal Navigation ApplicationsOceanic and Remote Navigation Applications
En route and
Terminal Navigation Applications
RNAV 10*
*Formerly referred to as
RNP 10RNAV 5
RNAV 2
RNAV 1RNP 4
RNP 2RNP 2
RNP 1
A-RNP
RNP APCHRNP AR
APCH
RNP 0.3
6.2.3 Navigation Application
Navigation application is the application of a navigation
specification and supporting NAVAID infrastructure to specific
routes, procedures and/or defined airspace volumes.
6.3 NAVIGATION SPECIFICATIONS
EXPANDED
6.3.1 Area Navigation (RNAV) 10
RNAV 10 was historically designated as RNP 10. It requires
aircraft be equipped with at least two independent long range
navigation systems; any combination of INS/inertial reference
unit (IRU) or GNSS meet the RNAV 10 requirements. During operations in airspace or on routes designated as RNAV 10, the
lateral total system error must also be within ±10 NM for at least
95 percent of the total flight time. For normal operations, cross-
track error/deviation should be limited to plus or minus one-half
of the navigation accuracy associated with the route (i.e. 5 NM).
Brief deviations from this standard (e.g. overshoots or undershoots)
are allowable during and immediately after route turns, up to a maximum of one times the navigation (i.e. 10 NM).
Canadian RNAV 10 operations requirements are defined in
AC 700-006— Required Navigation Performance 4 (RNP 4) and
Required Navigation Performance 10 (RNP 10) Airspace and
the associated Special Authorization RNP 10.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COM6.3.2 Area Navigation (RNAV) 5
RNAV 5 is an en route navigation specification and may also be
used for initial STAR or ending SID segments, where the leg
segments are beyond 30 NM from an aerodrome. RNAV 5
operations are based on the use of RNAV equipment that
automatically determines aircraft position in the horizontal
plane using inputs from one or a combination of the following types of position sensors:
(a) VOR/DME
(b) DME/DME
(c) INS or IRS
(d) GNSS
VOR/DME- and DME/DME-based RNAV 5 have limited
opportunities in Canadian airspace because of the required
numbers and geometry of ground-based aids to provide robust
infrastructure. Introduction of RNAV 5 in Canadian airspace
applications is of low value since current RNPC airspace
requirements already require performance that exceeds RNAV 5
when conducting RNAV.
Operational requirements are defined in AC 700-015— En Route
Area Navigation Operations RNAV 5 (Formerl y B-RNAV) and
the associated Special Authorization RNAV 5.
6.3.3 Area Navigation (RNAV) 1 and RNAV 2
RNAV 1 and RNAV 2 operations are based on the use of the
same aircraft receivers as those required for RNAV 5. Additional
aircraft functionality and NAVAID infrastructure requirements
are needed to meet the more demanding performance of RNAV 1
and RNAV 2. This navigation specification is applicable to all
routes, inside or outside of controlled airspace, SIDs and STARs.
It also applies to IAP leg segments up to the FACF. RNAV 1 and RNAV 2 routes are expected to be conducted in a surveillance
environment with DCPC. In Canada, RNAV 1 has some potential
for terminal RNAV use for SIDs and STARs in areas where
multiple DME pairs are available.
Operational requirements are defined in AC 700-019— Terminal
and En Route Area Navigation Operations (RNAV 1 and 2) and
the associated Special Authorization RNAV 1 and RNAV 2.
6.3.4 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 4
RNP 4 is intended for oceanic or remote airspace where a robust
ground-based navigation infrastructure is not available. Aircraft
must have at least two fully serviceable independent long range
navigation systems (LRNS) listed in the flight manual; both
must be operational at the point of entry into RNP 4 airspace.
Position integrity bounding can currently only be met using
certified GNSS receivers. The GNSS receivers may be part of a stand-alone navigation system or one of the sensors in a multi-
sensor system. Where GNSS is an input as part of a multi-sensor
system, the aircraft’s position source must use GNSS positions exclusively during RNP 4 operations.
Canadian operational requirements are defined in AC 700-
006— Required Navigation Performance 4 (RNP 4) and Requi red
Navigation Performance 10 (RNP 10) Airspace and the associated
Special Authorization RNP 4.6.3.5 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 2
RNP 2 is intended for en route application, primarily in areas
where there is sparse or no ground NAVAID infrastructure,
limited or no ATS surveillance, and low- to medium-density
traffic. Use of RNP 2 in continental applications requires a lower
continuity requirement than use in oceanic or remote applications.
In oceanic or remote applications, the target traffic is primarily transport category aircraft operating at high altitude, whereas
continental applications may include a significant percentage
of other aircraft.
RNP 2 requires the use of certified GNSS receivers. Operators
are required to have the means to predict the availability of GNSS
fault detection (e.g. ABAS RAIM) to support operations along
an RNP 2 route. The AIP Canada will indicate when a prediction
capability is required and an acceptable means to satisfy that
requirement.Operational requirements for RNP 2 (Continental) are defined
in AC 700-38— Performance-based Navigation (PBN) — EnRoute
and the associated Special Authorization RNP 2 (Continental).
RNP 2 (Oceanic/Remote) has additional requirements over those
for RNP 2 Continental, but they have not yet been defined in a
Canadian AC. A separate AC will be published when RNP 2
(Oceanic/Remote) operations are implemented in Canadian-
controlled airspace.
6.3.6 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 1
The RNP 1 navigation specification is intended to be applied on
SIDs and STARs within 30 NM of the aerodrome where the
surveillance services are limited or do not exist and/or a ground-
based RNAV infrastructure is not practical. The STARs provide
a means to connect the en route structure to a variety of approach
procedures, including RNP approach (RNP APCH), RNP
authorization required approach (RNP AR APCH) and ILS.
Application of RNP 1 enables the use of RF leg segments in
applications such as the STAR, transition to the approach or
approach initial segments.
Position integrity bounding for RNP 1 can currently only be
met using certified GNSS receivers. The GNSS receivers may be
a part of a stand-alone navigation system or one of the sensors in a multi-sensor system. Where GNSS is an input as part of a
multi-sensor system, the aircraft’s position source must use
GNSS positions exclusively during RNP 1 operations. During
operations in airspace or on routes designated as RNP 1, the
lateral total system error must be within ±1 NM for 95 percent
of the total flight time. For normal operations, cross-track error/
deviation should be limited to plus or minus one half of the
navigation accuracy associated with the procedure. Brief
deviations from this standard during and immediately after
turns, up to a maximum of one times the navigation accuracy are allowable.
For RNP 1 routes, pilots must use a lateral deviation indicator,
flight director, or autopilot in lateral navigation mode. Pilots of aircraft with a lateral deviation display must ensure that lateral
deviation scaling is suitable for the navigation accuracy associated
with the route/procedure.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMCanadian RNP 1 operational requirements are defined in AC 700-
025— Required Navigation Performance 1 (RNP 1) and the
associated Special Authorization RNP 1.
6.3.7 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 0.3
RNP 0.3 was developed in response to the helicopter community’s
desire for narrower IFR obstacle-free areas to allow operations
in obstacle-rich environments and to allow simultaneous, non-
interfering operations in dense terminal airspace. While this
specification has been defined primarily for helicopter
applications, it does not exclude the application to fixed-wing
operations where demonstrated performance is sufficient to
meet the functional and accuracy requirements of this specification
for all phases of flight.
This specification requires the use of certified GNSS receivers;
its implementation is not dependent on the availability of SBAS.
DME/DME-based RNAV systems are not capable of consistently
providing RNP 0.3 performance, and RNP 0.3 operations through
application of DME/DME-based navigation is not currently
viable. Operators are required to have the means to predict the
availability of GNSS fault detection (e.g. RAIM) to support
RNP 0.3 operations. The on-board RNP system, GNSS avionics,
air navigation service provider (ANSP) or other entities may
provide a prediction capability. The AIP Canada will indicate
when a prediction capability is required and an acceptable means
to satisfy that requirement. Owing to the high availability of
RNP 0.3 performance available to SBAS receivers, prediction
will not be required where the navigation equipment can make
use of SBAS augmentation and the planned operation will be
contained within the service volume of the SBAS signal.
Operational requirements are currently defined in ICAO’s
Performance-based Navigation (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613),
Volume II, Part C, Chapter 7, but have not yet been defined in
a Canadian AC; therefore, no Special Authorization is available.
6.3.8 Advanced Required Navigation
Performance (A-RNP)
This is the only navigation specification that enables operations
under other associated navigation specifications. When advanced
RNP (A-RNP) is certified, the following other navigation accuracy
and functional requirements are met in navigation specifications:
RNAV 5, RNAV 2, RNAV 1, RNP 2, RNP 1, and RNP APCH.
Some other functional elements are optional, such as RNP
scalability, higher continuity, FRT, and baro -VNAV. However ,
RF leg capabilities are a requirement.
A-RNP has a very broad operational application; for operation
in oceanic or remote airspace, on the continental en route
structure, as well as on arrival and departure routes and
approaches. Operations would rely solely on the integrity of the RNP system without a reversionary capability to conventional
means of navigation since a conventional infrastructure may
not be available. The advantage of utilizing a designation of
A-RNP for a flight operation is the combined performance and
functionality of a range of navigation specifications encompassing
all phases of flight. For further information on A-RNP, refer to ICAO’s Performance-
based Navigation (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613), Volume II, Part C,
Chapter 4. Canadian operational approval of A-RNP is not
currently in place; therefore, no AC or Special Authorization
has been issued.
6.3.9 Required Navigation Performance
Approach (RNP APCH)
RNP approach (RNP APCH) is the ICAO navigation specification
designation for procedures currently published in Canada as
“RNAV (GNSS)” and authorized under Special Authorization
RNP APCH. They include approach operations with minima
designated as “LNAV”, “LNAV/VNAV”, “LP” and “LPV”.
Currently, integrity bounding for an RNP APCH can only be
met using certified GNSS receivers. The GNSS receivers may be part of a stand-alone navigation system or one of the sensors in a multi-sensor system.
Canadian-specific RNP APCH requirements are published in
AC 700-023— Required Navigation Performance
Approach (RNP APCH) and the associated Special
Authorization RNP APCH.
6.3.10 Required Navigation Performance
Authorization Required Approach (RNP
AR APCH)
RNP authorization required approach (RNP AR APCH) procedures can be built with various levels of RNP lateral
containment values on the initial, intermediate, final and missed
approach segments. There are increasingly demanding aircraft
certifications and operational approvals required when RNP
values lower than 0.3 NM are applied in any of the segments.
These approaches will be published in pertinent publications as “RNA V (RNP)”.
As with all the other RNP navigation specifications, RNP AR
APCH position integrity bounding can only be met by utilizing
certified GNSS receivers. There are numerous other aircraft
equipment and functional requirements needed to meet the
more demanding performance requirements. They can be found
in AC 700-024— Required Navigation Performance Authorization
Required Approach (RNP AR APCH) and Special Authorization
RNP AR APCH.
6.4 FIXED RADIUS PATHS
Typically, with conventional navigation, turns had a large range
of dispersion (some aircraft turned tight, others had wider turns)
depending on aircraft speed, turn anticipation, bank angle and
roll rate. Fixed radius paths standardize turns and provide a
predictable, repeatable and accurate ground track throughout
a turn. Using required navigation performance (RNP), aircraft
can have a smaller area of containment throughout a turn,
allowing greater flexibility to design procedures that avoid terrain,
noise sensitive areas, restricted airspace or other arrival paths
to nearby airports in a complex airspace structure. There are
two types of fixed radius paths that may be used: radius to fix (RF)
path terminator and fixed radius transitions (FRT).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMWhile complex flight paths can now be designed and displayed
as the active route, the aircraft must have the capability to
accurately follow the defined path. Pilots are familiar with flying
turns at a constant airspeed and angle of bank which enables a
circular flight path to be flown with reference to the air mass
and are trained to manually compensate for the presence of wind
if necessary. Pilots now need to understand that the RNP system
will fly an exact circular flight path over the ground. Groundspeed
and the angle of bank must be adjusted throughout the turn by
the automatic flight control system to maintain that circular
flight path and in some cases these may be limiting factors for
maintaining the specified turn radius.
6.4.1 Radius To Fix (RF) Path Terminator
The RF path terminator, referred to as an RF leg, is a specific
fixed-radius curved path in a terminal or approach procedure. An RF leg is defined by a constant radius originating from the centre fix, the arc starting fix, the arc ending fix, and the turn
direction. Only RNP systems are capable of flying RF legs, by
providing precise and positive course guidance along a curved track, with the same containment value that would be achieved
in a straight leg segment. In addition, the distance travelled from
beginning to end of the turn will remain constant for every
aircraft. This allows longitudinal separation to be maintained throughout the turn for aircraft travelling at the same speed.
Operational approval to use RF legs in conjunction with other
RNP navigation specifications can be found in AC 700-027—
Radius to Fix (RF) Path Terminat or and Special Authorization
RF Leg. Additional authorization is not required for RNP AR
APCH or A-RNP as RF capability is already mandatory in these
two Special Authorizations.
6.4.2 Fixed Radius Transition (FRT)
An FRT is used as an enabler to apply closer route spacing along
turns in the en route structure. An FRT is intended to define
the transition between airways where separation is required in
the turns. Having smaller containment areas in turns allows for
higher traffic density with closer spaced routes. The RNP system
supporting FRT is capable of providing the same track-keeping
accuracy in the turn as in the straight line segment. An RNP
system seamlessly joins associated route segments.
Operational approval is not currently available in Canada. For
further information on FRTs, refer to ICAO’s
Performance-based Navigation (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613),
Volume II, Part C, Appendix 2.
6.5 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION
ORGANIZATION (ICAO) FLIGHT PLAN
COMPLETION
Pilots should review the planned route of flight to determine
that area navigation (RNAV)/required navigation
performance (RNP) requirements, the aircraft, and the operator
are approved for the desired route. Performance-based
navigation (PBN) compliant aircraft should enter the appropriate
equipment code in Item 10 of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) flight plan. A corresponding indication
of RNAV and/or RNP capabilities must be entered in Item 18. 6.6 NAVIGATION ERROR COMPONENTS
The inability to achieve the required lateral navigation accuracy
may be due to navigation errors related to aircraft tracking and
positioning. These errors produce a path that is offset horizontally
from the desired path. The following are sources of error for
area navigation (RNAV) systems:Where:
(a) Desired path is the path over the ground that the aircraft
is expected to fly.
(b) Defined path is the reference path computed by the flight
plan management function of the RNAV system.
(c) Estimated position is provided by the navigation function of the RNAV system.
(d) True position is the aircraft’s actual position over the ground.
Path definition error (PDE): The difference between desired and
defined paths which reflects errors in the navigation database,
computational errors in the RNAV system and display errors.
PDE is usually very small and often assumed to be negligible.
Flight technical error (FTE): The difference between estimated
position and defined path. It relates to the ability of an air crew or autopilot to fly along a defined path. Any display errors, such
as a course deviation indicator (CDI) centering error, may cause
FTE. FTE is usually the largest error component of the total
system error (TSE).
Navigation system error (NSE): The difference between true and
estimated position. The NSE is defined during navigation system
certification.
TSE: The difference between true position and desired position.
This error is equal to the sum of the vectors of the PDE, FTE
and NSE.
Any of the errors mentioned above would affect the ability of
the aircraft to meet the required lateral navigation accuracy. If
the on-board performance monitoring system cannot guarantee,
with sufficient integrity, that the position meets the RNP defined
in a navigation specification, an alert will be issued to the crew.
Figure 6.1—Lateral Navigation Errors
True positionEstimated positionDefined pathDesired path
Navigation system error (NSE)Flight technical error (FTE)Path definition error (PDE)Total system error (TSE)
TC AIM March 20, 2025COM7.0 SURVEILLANCE
Surveillance enables air traffic control (ATC) to increase airspace
use by allowing a reduction in aircraft-to-aircraft and aircraft-
to-obstacle separation. In addition, surveillance permits an
expansion of flight information services such as traffic information
and navigation assistance. There are four types of surveillance
systems currently used by ATC: primary surveillance radar (PSR),
secondary surveillance radar (SSR), automatic dependent
surveillance - broadcast (ADS-B) and multilateration (MLAT).
7.1 PRIMARY SURVEILLANCE
RADAR (PSR)
Primary surveillance radar (PSR) computes target positions by
determining the range and azimuth of transmitted and reflected
radio frequency energy. It is a passive surveillance system and
therefore does not rely on information transmitted from the
aircraft.
Primary radar is used in the following applications:
(a) Terminal surveillance radar (TSR) —In general, a short-
range PSR (80 NM) operating on 1 250 to 1 350 MHz
complements secondary surveillance radar (SSR) for terminal
operations.
(b) Precision approach radar (PAR)— A high-definition, short-
range PSR operating on 9 000 to 9 180 MHz and is used as
an approach aid. PAR provides the controller with altitude, azimuth and range information of high accuracy to assist
pilots in executing approaches. While PAR is mainly a
military system, it is available at some civilian airports and
may be used by civilian pilots. Civil aircraft approach limits
are published in the Canada Air Pilot (CAP) and the
Restricted Canada Air Pilot (RCAP).
(c) Airport surface detection equipment (ASDE)— Surveillance
of surface traffic is provided at airports where traffic warrants
it. ASDE is a high-definition PSR operating on 16 GHz.
Tower controllers use ASDE to monitor the position of
aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring areas of the airport
(runways and taxiways), particularly during conditions of reduced visibility.
(d) Weather radar— Weather radar is a PSR used by the
Meteorological Service of Canada to monitor for hazardous
weather conditions.
For a map of radar coverage in Canada, see AIP Canada ENR 1.6,
Figure 1.6.2, Secondary Surveillance Radar Coverage.7.2 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE
RADAR (SSR)
Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) determines aircraft range
by measuring the interval between transmitting an interrogation
to and receiving a reply from an airborne transponder.
SSR is a cooperative surveillance system and does not provide
a position for an aircraft without an operating transponder. SSR
offers significant operational advantages to air traffic
control (ATC), such as increased range, positive identification
and aircraft altitude, when the aircraft has an altitude-encoding
transponder.SSR is used in the following applications:
(a) En route control— SSR is a long-range radar with a range
of 200 NM or more. It transmits on 1 030 MHz and receives
the transponder reply on 1 090 MHz. SSR is the main source
of en route (airway/area navigation [RNAV] route)
surveillance and is not normally combined with primary
surveillance radar (PSR).
(b) Terminal control— Terminal surveillance radar (TSR) uses
long-range SSR equipment similar to en route control and
may be used in conjunction with a short-range PSR.
For a map of SSR coverage in Canada, see AIP Canada ENR 1.6,
Figure 1.6.2, Secondary Surveillance Radar Coverage.
7.2.1 Code Assignment
In the CFS and the CWAS, Section B, “Aerodrome/Facility
Directory”, the table for an aerodrome may have a subheading PRO,
which may contain information on special procedures for code assignment established at the aerodrome.
7.3 AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT
SURVEILLANCE - BROADCAST (ADS-B)
Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS-B) is a
surveillance technology that gives controllers the opportunity to provide radar-like services. It uses aircraft avionics, satellites
and/or ground infrastructure to relay a range of aircraft
parameters to air traffic control (ATC). The system is automatic
since no external stimulus is required for operation, and it’s
dependent because it relies on aircraft avionics to provide
surveillance services through broadcast messages.
Air navigation service providers build a track profile based
on the aircraft’s unique International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 24-bit identifier. This profile is
presented to ATC on a situation display to enable surveillance separation services.
Requirements and procedures for use of automatic
dependent surveillance - broadcast (ADS-B) OUT in Canada
can be found in the Designated Airspace Handbook (TP 1820E)
and in AIP Canada ENR 1.6.3, Automatic Dependent
Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B), both available here:
<https://www.navcanada.ca/en/ >.
As of August 10, 2023, Canada implemented an ADS-B OUT
Performance Requirement Mandate in all Canadian Domestic
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMClass A airspace. Effective May 16, 2024, Class B airspace will
also become ADS-B mandatory.
7.3.1 Aircraft Equipment
On-board aircraft equipment is responsible for gathering a range
of flight parameters and compiling them into the ADS-B message,
which is then transmitted through the Mode S transponder on
a 1090 MHz extended squitter (1090ES), allowing ATC to access
real-time aircraft position information.
To be compliant with the Canadian ADS-B mandate, aircraft
will be required to:
(a) be equipped with an appropriate transponder with
ADS-B Out capabilities and performance with the applicable
standard of RTCA DO-260B, “Minimum Operational
Performance Standards,” or newer; and
(b) have antenna capability for broadcast toward space-based
ADS-B receivers emitting 1090 MHz extended squitter. This
requirement can be met either through antenna diversity (the
use of a top and bottom antenna) or with a single antenna
that is capable of transmitting both towards the ground and
up towards satellites.
The standards of airworthiness for installation approval of
Transponder and Automatic Pressure Altitude Reporting
Equipment, including ADS-B Out capable equipment, as
required by CAR 605.35, can be found in section 551.103 of
the Airworthiness Manual Chapter 551 - Aircraft Equipment
and Installation, available here: < https://tc.canada.ca/en/
corporate-services/acts-regulations/list-regulations/
canadian-aviation-regulations-sor-96-433/standards/
airworthiness-chapter-551-aircraft-equipment-installation-
canadian-aviation-regulations-cars#551_103 >.7.3.2 International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Fli ght Plan Completion
In accordance with CAR 602.74, aircraft should enter the
appropriate ADS-B equipment codes in the ICAO flight plan as described in the CFS.
7.3.3 Entry of Flight Identification
ADS-B avionics transmit the Flight Identification (flight number
or aircraft registration) set in the avionics or in the FMS. ATS uses Flight Identification to correlate ADS-B position with the information contained in a filed flight plan.
When entering the Flight Identification (flight number), pilots
should ensure it exactly matches the Aircraft Identification in the ATS flight plan.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COM7.3.4 Surveillance Phraseology
Flight through ADS-B airspace is very similar to radar surveillance
airspace with regard to common radio communication
phraseology. However, pilots will not be advised when transitioning
between ADS-B surveillance airspace and a radar coverage area.
Common radar and surveillance phrases are listed below.
Table 7.1—Surveillance Phraseology
Radar Phraseology Surveillance Phraseology
RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED (non-radar routing if
required).SURVEILLANCE SERVICE TERMINATED (routing if required).
RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED DUE TO (reason). SURVEILLANCE SERVICE TERMINATED DUE TO (reason).
SECONDARY RADAR OUT OF SERVICE. ADS-B SURVEILLANCE OUT OF SERVICE DUE TO (reason).
MODE CHARLIE NOT VALIDATED. PRESSURE ALTITUDE NOT VALIDATED.
MODE CHARLIE IS INVALID. PRESSURE ALTITUDE IS INVALID.
RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED. RESUME POSITION REPORTS.SURVEILLANCE SERVICE TERMINATED.
RESUME POSITION REPORTS.
(aircraft ident) RADAR IDENTIFIED
(position if required).(aircraft ident) IDENTIFIED (position if required).
(aircraft ident) RADAR IDENTIFICATION LOST. (aircraft ident) IDENTIFICATION LOST.
IF ABLE, CHANGE YOUR FLIGHT ID TO (flight ID).
IF YOU READ (appropriate instructions),
then — (action)
OBSERVED. WILL CONTINUE RADAR CONTROL.IF YOU READ (appropriate instructions),then — (action) OBSERVED. WILL CONTINUE
SURVEILLANCE CONTROL.
(aircraft ident) READING YOU ON SEVEN SEVEN ZERO
ZERO.
CONFIRM THE NATURE OF YOUR EMERGENCY.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COM7.4 MULTILATERATION (MLAT)
Multilateration (MLAT) increases air traffic service (ATS)
situational awareness of aircraft and vehicles on the ground
allowing them to safely manage ground movements, including
in low visibility operations, by providing full surveillance coverage
of runways, taxiways and terminal apron areas. MLAT uses a
system of strategically placed ground stations to send interrogations
and receive replies from Mode A, C or S transponders. It functions
on a principle known as time difference of arrival (TDOA),
where the system calculates the difference in transponder
response time at multiple ground receivers and compares the
results to determine a position. Usually three receiving units are
required to obtain a horizontal position.
7.4.1 Code Assignment
In the CFS and the CWAS, Section B, “Aerodrome/Facility
Directory”, the table for an aerodrome may have a subheading
PRO, which may contain information on special procedures for code assignment established at the aerodrome.
Aircraft that have a technical limitation that might inhibit the
transmission of a transponder code (such as weight on wheels
switch deactivation) must report this condition to ATS and
obtain an APREQ before commencing ground operations.
8.0 TRANSPONDER OPERATION
8.1 GENERAL
Transponders substantially increase the capability of ATS
surveillance to detect aircraft. The use of automatic pressure
altitude reporting equipment (Mode C) enables controllers to
quickly determine where potential conflicts could occur. Proper
transponder operating procedures and techniques provide both
visual flight rules (VFR) and instrument flight rules (IFR) aircraft
with a higher degree of safety. In addition, proper use of transponders with Mode C capability results in reduced
communications and more efficient service.
When pilots receive air traffic control (ATC) instructions
concerning transponder operation, they shall operate transponders
as directed until they receive further instructions or until the
aircraft has landed, except in an emergency, communication
failure or act of unlawful interference.
ATC surveillance units are equipped with alarm systems that
respond when an aircraft is within ATS surveillance coverage
and the pilot selects the emergency, communication failure, or act of unlawful interference transponder code. It is possible to unintentionally select these codes momentarily when changing
the transponder code. To prevent unnecessary alarm activation,
pilots should avoid inadvertent selection of 7500, 7600 or 7700
when changing the code if either of the first two digits to be
selected is a seven. For example, when changing from Code 1700
to Code 7100, first change to Code 1100 (and NOT Code 7700) and then change to Code 7100. Do not select STANDBY while changing codes as this will cause the target to be lost on the ATS surveillance situation display. Pilots should adjust transponders to STANDBY while taxiing
for takeoff, to ON (or NORMAL) as late as practicable before
takeoff, and to STANDBY or OFF as soon as practicable after
landing. In practice, transponders should be turned on only
upon entering the active runway for departure and turned off
as soon as the aircraft exits the runway after landing. Some
airports have implemented surface surveillance services using multilateration (MLAT). MLAT relies on transponder returns; therefore, pilots of transponder-equipped aircraft should leave
their transponders in the transmit mode at all times when on
the manoeuvring area. Pilots should ensure that the transponder
code issued by ATC is selected before switching the transponder
out of STANDBY. In the event that no code has been issued by ATC, transponder Code 1000 should be selected.
In the event of a transponder or automatic pressure altitude
reporting equipment (Mode C) failure during a flight when its
use is mandatory, an aircraft may be operated to the next airport
of intended landing; it may, thereafter, complete an itinerary or go to a repair base, if authorized by ATC.
ATC may, upon receiving a written request, authorize an aircraft
not equipped with a functioning transponder or Mode C to
operate in airspace where its use is mandatory. The purpose of
this advanced request is to enable ATC to determine if the
operation of the aircraft can be handled in the airspace at the
time requested without compromising the safety of air traffic. Approval may be subject to conditions and limitations deemed necessary to preserve safety. Pilots must obtain approval before entering airspace where it is mandatory to be equipped with a
functioning transponder and automatic pressure altitude
reporting equipment. This includes aircraft proposing to take
off from an airport located within that airspace.
8.2 TRANSPONDER REQUIREMENTS
CAR 605.35 outlines the transponder operating rule, as well as
the circumstance in which operation with an unserviceable
transponder is permitted. It also outlines the procedures to
follow in order to operate an aircraft without a transponder and
automatic pressure altitude reporting equipment within transponder airspace. CAR 601.03 states that “transponder
airspace consists of:
(a) all Class A, B and C airspace as specified in the Designated Airspace Handbook ; and
(b) any Class D or E airspace specified as transponder airspace in the Designated Airspace Handbook .”
This includes all Class E airspace extending from 10 000 ft above
sea level (ASL) up to and including 12 500 ft ASL within radar coverage, as shown in Figure 8.1.
Pilots of instrument flight rules (IFR) aircraft operating within
controlled or uncontrolled high-level airspace should adjust
their transponder to reply on Mode A, Code 2000 and on Mode C,
unless otherwise instructed by air traffic control (ATC).NOTE :
Pilots instructed to squawk a discrete code should not adjust
their assigned transponder code when informed that ATS
surveillance is terminated. The termination of ATS surveillance
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMservice does not necessarily constitute direction to change to
Code 2000.
Figure 8.1—Transponder Airspace
TRANSPONDER AIRSPACE
MANDATORY IN CLASS E AIRSPACE
BETWEEN 10 000 AND 12 500 FT ASL
WITHIN RADAR COVERAGE
8.3 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
OPERATIONS IN OTHER LOW-LEVEL
AIRSPACE
During instrument flight rules (IFR) flight in controlled low-
level airspace other than that described earlier, adjust the
transponder to reply on Mode A, Code 1000, and on Mode C (if
available), unless otherwise instructed by air traffic control (ATC).
If an IFR flight plan is cancelled or changed to a visual flight
rules (VFR) flight plan, the transponder should be adjusted to
reply on the appropriate VFR code, as specified in the following paragraphs, unless otherwise instructed by ATC.
To enhance the safety of IFR flight in uncontrolled low-level
airspace, pilots are encouraged to adjust their transponders to reply on Mode A, Code 1000 and Mode C (if available), unless otherwise instructed by ATC.
8.4 VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)
OPERATIONS
During visual flight rules (VFR) flight in low-level airspace, the
pilot should adjust the transponder to reply on the following
unless otherwise assigned by an air traffic services (ATS) unit:
(a) Mode A, Code 1200 for operation at or below 12 500 ft above
sea level (ASL); or
(b) Mode A, Code 1400 for operation above 12 500 ft ASL.
Upon leaving the confines of an airspace for which a special
code assignment has been received, the pilot is responsible for
changing to the code shown in (a) or (b), unless they are assigned
a new code by an ATS unit. NOTE S:
1. When climbing above 12 500 ft ASL, a VFR pilot should
select Code 1200 until departure from 12 500 ft ASL at
which point Code 1400 should be selected. When descending
from above 12 500 ft ASL, a VFR pilot should select Code 1200
upon reaching 12 500 ft ASL. Pilots of aircraft equipped
with a transponder capable of Mode C automatic altitude
reporting should adjust their transponder to reply on Mode C
when operating in Canadian airspace unless otherwise
assigned by an ATS unit.
2. Pilots of gliders that are equipped with a transponder should
adjust the transponder to reply on Mode A, Code 1202 at
all times, unless otherwise directed by air traffic
control (ATC). If their transponder is capable, pilots should
use Mode C as well.
8.5 PHRASEOLOGY
Air traffic services (ATS) personnel will use the following
phraseology when referring to transponder operation.
SQUAWK (code)— Operate transponder on designated code
in Mode A.
SQUAWK IDENT— Engage the indentification (IDENT) feature
of the transponder.
NOTE :
A pilot should operate the IDENT feature only when requested
by an ATS unit.
SQUAWK MODE CHARLIE— Activate Mode C with automatic
altitude reporting.
STOP SQUAWK MODE CHARLIE— Turn off automatic
altitude reporting function.
RESET TRANSPONDER— Reset the transponder and
transmit the SQUAWK (code) currently assigned. This
phraseology may be used if the target or identity tag data is not being displayed as expected.
REPORT YOUR ALTITUDE— This phraseology may be used
when it is necessary to validate altitude readouts by comparing the readout value with the altitude reported by the aircraft. An altitude readout is considered valid if the readout value does not differ from the aircraft-reported altitude by more than 200 ft; it is considered invalid if the difference is 300 ft or more.
NOTE :
Readout values are displayed in 100 -ft increment s.
SQUAWK STANDBY – SQUAWK (code)— The present
position symbol (PPS) disappears or changes to a primary
surveillance radar (PSR) symbol after the aircraft is instructed
to change its transponder to STANDBY; the PPS reappears or
changes back to a secondary surveillance radar (SSR) symbol
after the aircraft is requested to return the transponder to normal
operation.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COM8.6 EMERGENCIES
In the event of an emergency and if unable to establish
communication immediately with an air traffic control (ATC)
unit, a pilot wishing to alert ATC to the emergency situation
should adjust the transponder to reply on Code 7700. Thereafter,
communication should be established with ATC as soon as
possible and the transponder should be operated as directed by
ATC.
8.7 COMMUNICATION FAILURE
In the event of a communication failure, the pilot should adjust
the transponder to reply on Code 7600 to alert air traffic
control (ATC) of the situation. This does not relieve the pilot of
the requirement to comply with the appropriate communications
failure procedures for instrument flight rules (IFR) flight.
8.8 UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE
Canada, along with other nations, has adopted a special secondary
surveillance radar (SSR) transponder code (7500) for use by
pilots of aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful interference.
Air traffic control (ATC) does not assign this code (7500) unless
the pilot informs ATC of an act of unlawful interference in
progress.
Selection of the code activates an alarm system and points out
the aircraft on situation displays. If the controller doubts that
an aircraft is the subject of an act of unlawful interference (as
could occur when a code change was requested and the act of
unlawful interference code appeared rather than the assigned
code), the controller will say, “CONFIRM SQUAWK SEVEN
FIVE ZERO ZERO”. If the pilot answers yes, the controller will
alert the ATC system. If the pilot replies no, the controller will
re-assign the proper code. If the pilot does not reply, the controller
will take this as confirmation that the use of Code 7500 is
intentional. If, after using Code 7500, an aircraft changes to
Code 7700 or transmits a message including the phrase
“TRANSPONDER SEVEN SEVEN ZERO ZERO”, this indicates
that the aircraft is threatened by grave and imminent danger
and requires immediate assistance.
9.0 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE
SYSTEM (TCAS) AND
AIRBORNE COLLISION
AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (ACAS)
9.1 GENERAL
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) uses the
term airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS). The term
traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) refers to the system developed in the United States by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA). These terms are generally interchangeable.
Care needs to be taken when comparing ICAO definitions of
ACAS II with the North American definition of TCAS II. Specifically, the ICAO definition of a fully compliant ACAS II
(see ICAO Annex 10, Volume 4, Chapter 4) is equivalent to
TCAS II software version 7.1. Additional guidance and information
on ACAS may be found in Transport Canada (TC) Advisory
Circular (AC) 700-004.
NOTE :
For the purposes of the Transport Canada Aero nautical
Information Manual (TC AIM), the term TCAS will be used
and, where necessary, a specific software version will be identified
for clarity.
TCAS equipment alerts flight crews when the path of the aircraft
is predicted to potentially collide with that of another aircraft.
A TCAS-equipped aircraft interrogates other aircraft in order
to determine their position. TCAS is designed to operate
independently of air traffic control (ATC) and, depending on
the type of TCAS, will display proximate traffic and provide
traffic advisories (TAs) and resolution advisories (RAs).
(a) TAs provide information on proximate traffic and indicate
the relative positions of intruding aircraft. TAs are intended
to assist flight crew in visual acquisition of conflicting traffic
and to prepare pilots for the possibility of an RA.
(b) RAs are divided into two categories: preventative advisories,
which instruct the pilot to maintain or avoid certain vertical
speeds; and corrective advisories, which instruct the pilot to deviate from the current flight path (e.g. “CLIMB” when the aircraft is in level flight).
There are two types of TCAS:
(a) TCAS I is a system, which includes a computer and pilot
display(s), that provides a warning of proximate traffic (TA)
to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft
and in the avoidance of potential collisions (it does not
provide RAs).
(b) TCAS II is a system, which includes a computer, pilot
display(s), and a Mode S transponder, that provides both
TAs and vertical plane RAs. RAs include recommended
escape manoeuvres, only in the vertical dimension, to either
increase or maintain existing vertical separation between aircraft.
NOTE :
There is currently no TCAS equipment capable of providing
RAs in the lateral direction.
The following paragraphs and table describe the TCAS levels of
protection versus aircraft equipage.
(a) Intruder aircraft without transponders are invisible to TCAS-
equipped aircraft and thus TAs or RAs are not provided.
(b) Intruder aircraft equipped with only a Mode A transponder
are not tracked or detected by TCAS II, because TCAS II
does not use Mode A interrogations. Mode A transponder aircraft are invisible to TCAS-equipped aircraft.
(c) Intruder aircraft equipped with a Mode C transponder
without altitude input will be tracked as a non-altitude
replying target. Neither a data tag nor a trend arrow will be
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMshown with the traffic symbol. These aircraft are deemed
to be at the same altitude as own aircraft.
(d) In an encounter between two TCAS II-equipped aircraft,
their computers will communicate using the Mode S
transponder data link, which has the capability to provide
complementary RAs (e.g. one climbing and one descending).
Table 9.1—TCAS Levels of Protection
Own Aircraft
Equipment
TCAS I TCAS II
Intruder
Aircraft
EquipmentNon-transponder-
equipped
or Mode A
transponder onlyNot tracked and not displayedNot tracked and not displayed
Mode C
or Mode S
transponderTA TA and vertical RA
TCAS I TA TA and vertical RA
TCAS II TA TA and coordinated
vertical RA
9.2 TRANSPORT CANADA (TC)
REGULATIONS ON TRAFFIC ALERT
AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE
SYSTEM (TCAS)/AIRBORNE COLLISION
AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (ACAS)
The Technical Standard Order (TSO) for TCAS I is TSO-C118
or CAN-TSO-C118.
The TSO for TCAS II/ACAS II is TSO-C119 or CAN-TSO-C119.
The original release of TSO-C119 was associated with software
version 6.0. Since then, the following updates to TSO-C119 have
been released:
(a)TSO-C119a (associated with software version 6.04a) —
Version 6.04a was released to address nuisance alerts which
were occurring at low altitudes and during low-level
manoeuvres, and to address a problem with the altitude
crossing logic.
NOTE :
This version is the minimum requirement for operations in
Canada when outside of reduced vertical separation
minimum (RVSM) airspace.
(b)TSO-C119b (associated with software version 7.0)—
Version 7.0 was released to address numerous enhancements
to collision avoidance algorithms, aural annunciation, and
resolution advisory (RA) displays as well as changes to reduce
repetitive nuisance traffic advisories (TAs) on RVSM routes
in slow closure situations.
NOTE :
Software version 7.0 is the minimum required for all CARs 702,
703, 704 and 705 aeroplanes when operating inside of RVSM
airspace.(c)TSO-C119c (associated with software version 7.1)—
Version 7.1 was released to address reversal logic issues and
flight crew misinterpretation of “ADJUST VERTICAL
SPEED, ADJUST” aural annunciation. In International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) terminology, this is
also referred to as ACAS II.
NOTE S:
1. In Amendment 85 to ICAO Annex 10, Volume IV, Chapter 4,
published in October 2010, ICAO has mandated that all
new ACAS installations after January 1, 2014 be compliant with version 7.1 and that all ACAS units shall be compliant
with version 7.1 after January 2017. Transport Canada (TC)
has not initiated any rulemaking based on these ICAO
requirements.
2. Be advised that if you operate in ICAO member countries
after the abovementioned dates you will have to be equipped
with software version 7.1.
Within some member states of the European Union and within
European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) airspace, equipage
with TCAS II software version 7.1 will be required earlier than the ICAO mandated dates.
The TSO for Mode S transponders is TSO-C112 or
CAN-TSO-C112. The following tab le and associated notes
summarize the TCAS/ACAS requirements for CAR Part VII
air operators.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMTable 9.2—TCAS/ACAS Requirements
for CAR Part VII Air Operators
CAR TCAS I* TCAS II**
702.46 Not required Required for turbine-
powered aeroplanes of MCTOW exceeding
15 000 kg (33 069 lb).
(See notes 1 and 2
below.)
703.70 Minimum required for aeroplanes of MCTOW exceeding
5 700 kg (12 566 lb)
outside of RVSM
airspace. (See note 1
below.)Not required but acceptable outside of RVSM airspace.
Required when operating in RVSM airspace.
(See note 1 below.)
704.70 Minimum required for aeroplanes of MCTOW exceeding
5 700 kg (12 566 lb)
outside of RVSM
airspace. (See note 1
below.)Required for turbine-powered aeroplanes of MCTOW exceeding
15 000 kg (33 069 lb).
(See note 1 below.)
705.83 Minimum required for non-turbine-powered aeroplanes outside of RVSM airspace.
(See note 1 below.)Required for turbine-powered aeroplanes.
(See note 1 below.)
* Equivalent to CAN-TSO-C118
** CAN-TSO-C119a (version 6.04a) outside of RVSM airspace or CAN-TSO-C119b
(version 7.0) inside of RVSM airspace and Mode S transponder CAN-TSO-C112
NOTES:
1. TCAS II (CAN-TSO-C119b [software version 7.0] or more recent) and Mode S
transponder (CAN-TSO-C112 or more recent) are required for operations in RVSM
airspace.
2. Not required when engaged in or configured for firefighting, aerial spray services,
or aerial survey and operated only in low-level airspace.
It is strongly recommended that foreign operators comply with
TCAS equipage requirements as outlined above when operating
within Canadian airspace.
There are currently no Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs)
requiring private operators (CAR 604) to be equipped with
TCAS. However, private operators are advised that ICAO Annex 6,
Part II, 3.6.9.2 requires that: “All turbine-engined aeroplanes of
a maximum certificated take-off mass in excess of 15 000 kg,
or authorized to carry more than 30 passengers, for which the
individual airworthiness certificate is first issued after 1 January
2007, shall be equipped with an airborne collision avoidance
system (ACAS II).” This means that affected private operators
flying into ICAO member countries must be equipped with
ACAS II.
9.3 USE OF THE TRAFFIC ALERT
AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE
SYSTEM (TCAS) OUTSIDE OF CANADA
Numerous countries have operational regulations which require
certain aircraft to be equipped with a traffic alert and collision
avoidance system (TCAS). If you are planning on operating your
aircraft in a foreign country, consult that country’s regulations
to determine TCAS equipage requirements. Canadian air operators must meet the following TCAS
requirements to operate in U.S. airspace (see Federal Aviation
Administration [FAA] Federal Aviation Regulations [FAR] 129.18):
(a) TCAS I: Turbine-powered aeroplane with a passenger-seat configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of 10–30 seats.
(b) TCAS II: Turbine-powered aeroplane of more than 33 000 lb
maximum certificated takeoff weight (MCTOW).
Canadian air operators planning operations in U.S. airspace are
also advised to review FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 120 -55C—
Air Carrier Operational Approval and Use of TCAS II
(as amended) .
For Canadian air operators planning operations in Europe,
details of European requirements are available at < https://www.
eurocontrol.int/system/acas >.
9.4 OPERATIONAL APPROVAL
For Canadian air operators, traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS) operational approval is accomplished through
Transport Canada (TC) approval of: pertinent training; checking
and currency programs; checklists; standard operating
procedure (SOP) operations or training manuals; maintenance
programs; minimum equipment lists (MELs); or other pertinent
documents.
When planning to equip with TCAS, Canadian air operators
should consult their TC principle operations inspector early in
their program to permit a timely response. Canadian air operators
may address training, checking and currency individually or as
part of an integrated program. For example, TCAS/ACAS
qualification may be based on a specific aircraft (e.g. during
A320 transition); may be addressed in conjunction with general
flight crew qualification (e.g. during initial new hire
indoctrination); or may be completed as dedicated TCAS/ACAS
training and checking (e.g. completion of a standardized TCAS/
ACAS curriculum in conjunction with a recurrent instrument flight test [IFT]/pilot proficiency check [PPC]).
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Advisory
Circular (AC) 120-55C— Air Carrier Operational Approval and
Use of TCAS II (as amended) provides information with respect
to training, checking and currency in the use of TCAS. The
material therein can be used by operators to assist in defining their implementation of TCAS.
EUROCONTROL has produced and published TCAS training
material and information that are available at < https://www.
eurocontrol.int/system/acas >.
9.5 AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATION APPROVAL
An acceptable means of demonstrating compliance with the
appropriate requirements in the Airworthiness Manual ,
Chapter 525 and of obtaining airworthiness approval is to follow
the method specified in the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA)
Advisory Circular (AC) 20-131A— Airworthiness Approval of
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS II) and
Mode S Transponders (as amended) for installation of Technical
Standard Order TSO-C119a TCAS/ACAS. FAA AC 20-151B—
Airworthiness Approval of Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
TC AIM March 20, 2025COMSystems (TCAS II), Versi ons 7.0 & 7.1 an d Associated Mode S
Transponders should be followed for installations using TSO-
C119b or TSO-C119c equipment.
9.6 OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Where required by regulations to be equipped with traffic alert
and collision avoidance system (TCAS), flight crews must operate
with their TCAS equipment on at all times, in so far as is consistent
with the aircraft flight manual (AFM) and standard operating
procedures (SOPs). This is true even when operating away from major, high traffic density airports. Although TCAS will never
be a complete substitute for a good lookout, good situational
awareness and proper radio procedures, it has proven to be a
valuable tool that provides information on potential collision
hazards. Hence, flight crews should not deprive themselves of
this important asset, especially in areas of mixed instrument
flight rules (IFR) and visual flight rules (VFR) traffic.
For a TCAS-equipped aircraft to provide a flight crew with
collision avoidance information, the TCAS unit and the
transponder must be turned on and the transponder cannot be selected to STANDBY mode (i.e. powered but not transmitting
data). If the transponder is not turned on and responding to
interrogations, the aircraft’s TCAS cannot display information about potentially conflicting aircraft nearby nor can it provide instructions to the crew to resolve impending collision threats.
Failure of the TCAS computer unit itself can also occur; however,
such a failure only affects the TCAS-equipped aircraft’s ability
to detect nearby aircraft. The aircraft containing the inoperative
TCAS unit remains visible to other aircraft as long as its
transponder remains operative. The consequences of a TCAS
unit failure are magnified when the transponder is inoperative
because not only is TCAS information lost to the affected aircraft,
but the aircraft will not be visible to other airborne collision
avoidance systems. Regardless of whether the transponder has
failed or the TCAS has become inoperative, a flight crew’s ability
to mitigate the risk of collision is significantly degraded if the collision avoidance system becomes inoperative and the failure is not quickly and reliably brought to the crew’s attention. Air
operators are encouraged to inform pilots who use transponders
or transponder/TCAS units that there may not be a conspicuous
warning to indicate loss of collision protection resulting from a compromised transponder/TCAS unit. Air operators should require all pilots who use transponders or transponder/TCAS
units to be familiar with the current annunciations used to
indicate that these components have failed or are compromised.
Flight crews are reminded to follow the resolution advisories (RAs)
promptly and accurately, even though the RAs may change in
strength and/or reverse. RA commands do not require large
load factors when being followed. Any delay in responding to
an RA could swiftly erode the ability to maintain or achieve
adequate separation without resorting to strengthening RAs.
For TCAS to provide safe vertical separation, initial vertical
speed response is required within five seconds of the RA.
Deviation from commands or second-guessing the commands
should not occur. An RA prevails over any air traffic control (ATC)
instruction or clearance.Flight crews may have to inhibit the RA function under certain circumstances per the AFM (e.g. during an engine failure).
The TCAS system may inhibit RAs during certain flight phases,
such as at low altitudes. Flight crews need to be aware of when TCAS will not provide a full range of RA commands.
Flight crews should not attempt to manoeuvre solely on the basis
of traffic advisory (TA) information. The TA should trigger a
visual search for traffic and a request to ATC for help in
determining whether a flight path change is required. In the
case of a TCAS II TA, the flight crew should prepare for a possible
RA, following the TA.
TAs and RAs should be treated as genuine unless the intruder
has been positively identified and assessed as constituting neither
a threat nor a hazard.
Flight crews should be aware that, in accordance with the
Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety
Board Act, an incident where a risk of collision or a loss of
separation occurs is considered a reportable aviation incident.
Responding to an RA is considered a reportable aviation incident.
For more information on this topic, visit the following links:
(a) AC 700-004: Airborne Collision Avoidance System Advisory
Material ; and
(b) <www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/aviation/operating-airports-
aerodromes/report-incident-airport-safety.html >
If a TCAS RA manoeuvre is contrary to other critical cockpit
warnings, then those other warnings are respected per TCAS
certification and training (i.e. responses to stall warning, wind
shear and terrain awareness and warning systems [TAWSs] take
precedence over a TCAS RA, especially when the aircraft is less
than 2 500 ft above ground level [AGL]).
Due to interference limiting algorithms, airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) II may not display all proximate
transponder-equipped aircraft in areas of high density traffic. Flight crews should not become complacent in their efforts to search the sky for other aircraft.
9.7 PILOT ACTION WHEN DEVIATING FROM
CLEARANCES—REGULATIONS AND INFORMATION
Safety studies have confirmed that the significant safety benefit
afforded by a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)
could be seriously degraded by a deficient response to resolution
advisories (RAs). It has also been shown that the safety benefit
of TCAS is eroded when pilots do not follow the flight path
guidance provided during an RA.
In view of this safety hazard and to optimize the safety benefits
of TCAS, the following regulatory provisions have been
established:CAR 602.31(3) states that:“The pilot-in-command of an aircraft may deviate from an air
traffic control clearance or an air traffic control instruction to
the extent necessary to carry out a collision avoidance manoeuvre,
if the manoeuvre is carried out
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COM(a) in accordance with a resolution advisory generated by an
ACAS; or
(b) in response to an alert from a TAWS or a Ground Proximity
Warning System (GPWS).”
CAR 602.31(4) states that:
“The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall
(a) as soon as possible after initiating the collision avoidance
manoeuvre referred to in subsection (3), inform the
appropriate air traffic control unit of the deviation; and
(b) immediately after completing the collision avoidance
manoeuvre referred to in subsection (3), comply with the
last air traffic control clearance received and accepted by,
or the last air traffic control instruction received and
acknowledged by, the pilot-in-command.”
NOTE :
By following the RA guidance precisely, the magnitude of the
altitude deviation can be minimized. Pilots must ensure that
the manoeuvre necessary to comply with the RA (climb or
descent) is not maintained after the RA is terminated.
There is information available which highlights the importance
of following RAs. EUROCONTROL has issued numerous
airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) II bulletins (see <https://www.eurocontrol.int/system/acas >). ACAS II
Bulletin Issue 1— Follow the RA, dated July 2002, describes
several RA events and the consequences of the flight crew actions
taken. The bulletin is informative and describes the advantages
of TCAS/ACAS for collision avoidance when followed correctly.
The bulletin also describes the limitations associated with the
visual acquisition of traffic and those of air traffic control (ATC)
situation displays.
Transport Canada (TC) recommends that operators disseminate
this information to pilots for awareness and, where appropriate,
establish suitable pilot training programs to ensure that flight
crews follow RAs promptly and accurately, even when presented
with conflicting avoidance instructions from ATC.
9.8 MODE S TRANSPONDER APPROVAL
AND UNIQUE CODES
Along with performing all the functions of Mode A and C
transponders, Mode S transponders also have a data link
capability. Mode S transponders are an integral component of all TCAS II/ACAS II installations.
For aircraft that are not required to be equipped with TCAS/
ACAS, there is no requirement to replace existing Mode A or C
transponders with Mode S transponders until it becomes impossible to maintain presently installed Mode A or C
transponders.
Airworthiness approval must be obtained by Canadian aircraft
operators who install Mode S transponders. Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) Advisory Circular (AC) 20-131A—
Airworthiness Approval of Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
Systems (TCAS II) and Mode S Transponders (as amended)
should be used for guidance to obtain airworthiness approval. Canadian operators should contact their regional
Transport Canada (TC) office for approval details.
At the time of registration, each Canadian aircraft with a Mode S
transponder will receive a unique 24-bit Mode S code assignment,
which must be uploaded to the transponder, usually by the
installer.
9.9 PILOT/CONTROLLER ACTIONS
In order to use a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)
in the most effective and safest manner, the following pilot and
controller actions are necessary:
(a) Pilots should not manoeuvre their aircraft in response to
traffic advisories (TAs) only.
(b) In the event of a resolution advisory (RA) to alter the flight path, the alteration of the flight path should be limited to
the minimum extent necessary to comply with the RA.
Aggressive manoeuvring should not be required since TCAS
RAs are predicted on ¼ G manoeuvre load factors.
(c) Pilots should notify, as soon as possible, the appropriate air traffic control (ATC) unit of the deviation and of when the deviation has ended.
(d) When a pilot reports a manoeuvre induced by an RA, the controller should not attempt to modify the aircraft flight
path until the pilot reports returning to the terms of the
existing ATC instruction or clearance. Instead, the controller
should provide traffic information as appropriate.
(e) Pilots who deviate from an ATC instruction or clearance
in response to an RA shall promptly return to the terms of that instruction or clearance when the conflict is resolved and advise ATC.
TC AIM March 20, 2025COM9.10 PILOT AND CONTROLLER
PHRASEOLOGY
The current International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) pilot/
controller phraseology is detailed below (see also ICAO Doc 4444,
12.3.1.2). It should be noted that, for the purpose of phonetic
clarity, the term TCAS is used.
Table 9.3—TCAS Pilot-Controller Phraseology
Circumstances Pilot Controller
After a flight starts to
deviate from the ATC clearance or instructions to comply with a TCAS RA.TCAS RA ROGER
After the response to a TCAS RA is completed and a return to the ATC clearance or instruction is initiated.CLEAR OF CONFLICT. RETURNING TO (assigned clearance).ROGER (or alternative instruction)
After the response to a TCAS RA is completed and the assigned ATC clearance or instruction has been resumed.CLEAR OF CONFLICT. (assigned clearance) RESUMED.ROGER (or alternative instruction)
After an ATC clearance or instruction contradictory to the TCAS RA is received, the flight crew will follow the RA and inform ATC directly.UNABLE, TCAS RAROGER
10.0 SATELLITE SYSTEMS
10.1 GENERAL
Satellite systems used for aviation are defined by different orbits:
low earth orbit (LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO) and
geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO). A special case of GEO is the
geostationary earth orbit (or geosynchronous equatorial orbit),
which is a circular geosynchronous orbit at zero inclination (that
is, directly above the equator). The altitude of the orbit determines
the surface area of the Earth that can be illuminated by the
satellite signal: the higher the orbit, the larger the signal footprint.
Propagation losses from satellites at higher orbits are offset by
the increased complexity of the antenna systems, along with
higher transmitter power. A LEO satellite’s footprint is smaller, which means that a higher number of satellites are required to provide seamless coverage, but the antennas are much simpler and have a reduced radio frequency power requirement on the user end.
10.2 SATELLITE SERVICE PROVIDERS
A number of providers offer telephone and data services to the
aeronautical market via satellite. Iridium offers a low earth
orbit (LEO) satellite system, while Inmarsat and the Japan
Meteorological Agency operate geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO)
satellite systems. These satellite systems use frequencies reserved
for aeronautical safety services.Iridium offers a constellation of 66 cross-linked satellites at an altitude of 780 km. Six orbital planes, with 11 satellites in each orbital plane, provide global coverage. Additionally, there are a
number of spare satellites to replace any in-orbit failures. At that
altitude, each satellite covers a circular area 4 500 km in diameter,
and is in view for approximately nine minutes to anyone located
on the ground.
The Inmarsat network uses geostationary earth satellites at an
altitude of 35 786 km. At that altitude above Earth, each satellite’s
footprint covers approximately 120° of longitude at the equator
and stretches to approximately 82° north and 82° south latitude.
The orbital period of each satellite is exactly the same as the
rotation period of the Earth, so each satellite appears to remain
in the same position.
Japan’s multifunctional transport satellite (MTSAT) functionality
is equivalent to that of Inmarsat, except that the MTSAT
constellation, centered over Japan, only provides a coverage
footprint to Asia and the Pacific Ocean.
11.0 EMERGENCY AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
11.1 AUTOMATED EMERGENCY DESCENT
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
From small general aviation aircraft to large air transport category
aircraft, several aircraft manufacturers offer automated
emergency descent management systems. While depressurization
events are extremely rare, these systems can activate when either
the cabin pressure drops below predetermined limits or when
pilot-interaction monitors get triggered, and they can automate
certain functions when a rapid descent might be required. After
attempting to alert the flight crew, who may be potentially non-
responsive and/or hypoxic, the systems are designed to
automatically engage and descend the aircraft to a safe altitude.
Once the automated emergency descent management system
has determined the appropriate minimum sector altitude (MSA)
or calculated an escape route for the aircraft based on underlying
terrain, the autopilot and autothrottle will engage and descend
the aircraft as appropriate. Depending on the configuration,
some aircraft automatically initiate a parallel offset when starting
the descent while others could turn to a new heading, such as 90° from the current aircraft heading. If the aircraft happens to be traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)/airborne
collision avoidance system (ACAS) equipped, and if the onboard
system can determine that another aircraft is in conflict, the
automated emergency descent management system may have
the additional capability of carrying out resolution advisories
during the emergency descent.
When beginning the descent, some automated emergency descent
management systems can adjust the transponder code to 7700,
select Emergency/Priority status in the automatic dependent
surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) subfield, and may even be capable
of broadcasting messages to air traffic control (ATC) using a
digitized voice. These voice broadcasts are typically transmitted
on the very high frequency (VHF) radio frequency last used by
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
COMthe pilot and/or over the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz. Highly
automated systems may also be able to send controller-pilot data
link communications (CPDLC) messages to ATC through
datalink.
11.2 EMERGENCY AUTOMATIC LANDING
SYSTEMS
Some light aircraft are equipped with an emergency automatic
landing system that can perform a completely autonomous
landing in an emergency situation. These systems could be
triggered by automated emergency descent management systems,
envelope protection systems, or they can even be engaged
manually by a passenger if the pilot has become incapacitated.
Upon activation, emergency automatic landing systems will
determine the optimal route to a suitable aerodrome, fly the
aircraft to a selected runway, and perform a survivable landing. Regardless if the aircraft was being operated under visual flight rules (VFR) or instrument flight rules (IFR), once a destination
runway has been determined, the onboard system generates a
path to the final approach fix which avoids terrain, obstacles
and, depending on aircraft options, even severe weather along the way.
Emergency automatic landing systems select the most suitable
runway based on several factors, although these systems normally
prefer airports with control towers since they offer better
coordination with other traffic as well as emergency services on
the ground. It should be noted that these systems can select
suitable runways without consideration of international
boundaries.Emergency automatic landing systems will normally maintain
straight and level flight for a brief period, allowing air traffic
control (ATC) to identify the activation and begin clearing nearby
traffic out of the way. In the event the aircraft is surrounded by
terrain upon activation, these systems may initiate a straight-line
climb or a climb in a present-position holding pattern and then
continue on to the selected runway once the aircraft is clear of the terrain.After an emergency automatic landing system has been activated,
the transponder code will automatically be changed to 7700 and
the Emergency/Priority status in the automatic dependent
surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) subfield will be selected. Using
a digitized voice, the system may broadcast messages such as
the following over the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz, over
the selected aerodrome tower/mandatory frequency (MF)/
universal communications (UNICOM) frequency, and sometimes
over the very high frequency (VHF) radio frequency last used by the pilot:
MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, AIRCRAFT <REGISTRATION> HAS ACTIVATED AN EMERGENCY AUTOMATIC LANDING SYSTEM. STAND BY FOR INFORMATION.
AIRCRAFT <REGISTRATION>, PILOT
INCAPACITATION, <DISTANCE FROM DESTINATION AIRPORT> MILES <DIRECTION FROM DESTINATION AIRPORT> OF <DESTINATION AIRPORT>, EMERGENCY AUTOLAND IN <ESTIMATED TIME REMAINING> ON <RUNWAY> AT <DESTINATION AIRPORT>.
NOTE :
Not all remote communication facilities (peripheral station [PAL],
remote aerodrome advisory service [RAAS], remote
communications outlet [RCO] and flight information service
en route [FISE] RCO) have 121.5 MHz capability. When an aircraft
has activated an emergency automatic landing system, other
aircraft operating in the vicinity who are able to hear transmissions
on 121.5 MHz should attempt to relay any emergency messages to an air traffic service (ATS) facility.
The autopilot and autothrottle fly the aircraft to the runway and
can initiate a holding pattern if necessary at the final approach
fix to slow the aircraft and prepare for landing, while the
emergency automatic landing systems lower the flaps and landing
gear at the appropriate time, perform the flare and touchdown, and apply the wheel brakes. Once the aircraft has come to a halt
on the runway, the aircraft should be met by emergency services.
NOTE :
Some emergency automatic landing systems may not automatically
shut down the engines of the aircraft.
After landing, these systems may continue broadcasting messages
such as the following until they are deactivated:
ATTENTION, <DESTINATION AIRPORT> TRAFFIC, AIRCRAFT <REGISTRATION> DISABLED ON RUNWAY <RUNWAY>.
The avionics in the aircraft will normally display appropriate
instructions for airport responders to disengage the brakes and deactivate the emergency automatic landing system so that the aircraft can be removed from the runway.
TC AIM March 20, 2025METMET—METEOROLOGY
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 GENERAL
The Minister of Transport is responsible for the development
and regulation of aeronautics and the supervision of all matters
connected with aeronautics.
The responsibility for the provision of aviation weather services
in Canadian airspace, and any other airspace in which Canada
accepts the responsibility for the provision of air traffic
control (ATC) services, has been designated to NAV CANADA by the Minister of Transport.
NAV CANADA is responsible for a range of aviation weather
services, some of which are provided to it under a contractual
agreement with Environment and Climate Change Canada
(ECCC). These services include most civilian aviation weather
forecasts. NAV CANADA is responsible for determining the
location and frequency of aviation weather observations and
forecasts, and for the dissemination of this information for
aviation purposes.
In addition to the aviation weather services provided by NAV CANADA, other aviation service providers may offer
weather services in support of operations at local aerodromes
that have light traffic, are private, and/or are used primarily in
support of private industry, such as mining or other
similar operations.
The Department of National Defence (DND) arranges for the
provision of aviation weather services at military aerodromes.
1.1.1 Meteorological Information
In accordance with Canadian Aviation Regulation (CAR) 804.01(1),
the majority of standards for aviation weather services are found
in International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annex 3,
the Manual of Standards and Procedures for Aviation Weather
Forecasts (MANAIR), and the Manual of Surface Weather
Observation Standards (MANOBS). The two manuals can be
obtained from ECCC’s Web site at < https://www.canada.ca/en/
environment-climate-change/services/weather-manuals-
documentation/manobs-surface-observations.html > for
MANOBS and at < https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.935394/
publication.html > for MANAIR, while Annex 3 can be obtained
from ICAO. Revisions to MANOBS took effect in February 2023.
Enquiries relating to the provision of aviation weather services should be addressed to:
NAV CANADA
Aviation Weather Services
151 Slater Street
Ottawa ON K1P 5H3
Tel. (toll-free in North America):
............... 1-800-876-4693
Fax: ...................................................................... 613-563-3426
Fax (toll-free in North America): ................ 1-877-663-6656
E-mail: ................................................. service@navcanada.caEnquiries relating to regulations and standards for aviation
weather services should be addressed to:
Flight Standards (AARTA)
Transport Canada
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: .................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-957-4208
E-mail: ...TC.Flights.Standards-Normesdevol.TC@tc.gc.ca
Enquiries related to operational issues, notification requirements,
and the regulatory compliance of aviation weather services can
be referred to the TC regional office or by e-mail to < TC.
ANSWeatherInfo-InfoMeteoSNA.TC@tc.gc.ca >.
1.1.2 Meteorological Services Available
Aviation weather information is available from
NAV CANADA FICs. Telephone numbers and hours of service
are listed in the CFS and in the CWAS.
Contact the aerodrome operator for information related to
services not provided by NAV CANADA.
1.1.3 Aviation Weather Services
Pilot briefing service— The pilot briefing service is provided by
NAV CANADA FICs to accommodate pilots at the pre-flight
planning stage and for information updates while en route. Flight
service specialists can access and display a full range of weather
charts, imagery (e.g. satellite, lightning and radar) and aeronautical
information (such as NOTAM, RSC and CRFI). They are qualified
to provide briefings, consultation and advice, and to interpret
meteorological information. (See RAC 3.2 for details).
Aviation weather web site (CFPS)— NAV CANADA’s
collaborative flight planning and aviation weather Web site
available at < https://plan.navcanada.ca/ >, offers aviation weather
products, NOTAM and the ability to file flight plans. For more information, visit < www.navcanada.ca >. Pilots operating near
the border should note that U.S. METAR, SPECI and TAF must be obtained through the Aviation Digital Data Service (ADDS), available at < www.aviationweather.gov/adds/ >.
Other pilot weather services—In accordance with an arrangement
with the U.S. National Weather Service, digital upper level wind
and temperature forecasts are available to operators in Canada
for planning international flights. Digital forecasts are also
available to the Gander OAC for planning transatlantic flights.
Aviation weather flight documentation is provided, subject to
prior notification, as determined by the local weather service
outlet in consultation with the operator’s local representative.
Operators are responsible for notifying NAV CANADA’s aviation
weather services of new requirements. (See MET 1.1.1 for the
address.) Where indicated in the CAP, altimeter settings in
weather reports from U.S. aerodromes may be used as a RASS.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET1.1.4 Weather Service Information
When planning a flight, pilots can obtain aviation weather and
aeronautical information and file a flight plan through a
NAV CANADA FIC. (See RAC 3.2 for details).
Radio communication should be established with a FIC on a
FISE frequency if in-flight information is required to assist in
making a decision or to terminate a flight, or to alter course
before adverse weather conditions are encountered.
Pilot requests for initial pilot briefings while airborne are not
encouraged because this practice leads to frequency congestion.
1.1.5 Weather Information from Air Traffic
Service (ATS)
All aerodromes with operational ATS will provide, on initial
contact or as soon as practicable, the current wind and altimeter
information unless it is known that the aircraft already has this
information. ATS procedures require that wind information be transmitted with landing and take-off clearance only when the
wind speed is 15 kt or greater. Wind velocity (direction and
speed) data is typically updated every five seconds using a running
2-min average. Variations to the wind speed (gusts) and/or wind
direction are based on wind data from the previous 10 min.
At aerodromes with an operational ATIS, the full details of the
most recent METAR or SPECI, except for RVR, will be included in the recorded message. In rare circumstances, such as during
rapidly changing weather conditions, this information will be
provided directly by ATS. Where ATIS is not operational, updated
current information about weather elements from METAR/
SPECI is available on request.
RVR observations are obtained by forward-scatter sensors.
Observations representative of the touchdown and, where
available, midpoint and roll-out visibility, averaged over 1 min
and, based on the light setting in use, are automatically
displayed in digital form in the local ATS unit. When RVR is less than 6 000 ft, the current RVR value for the runway will be given to departing and arriving aircraft and when landing
information is given to the aircraft on final approach. However,
at any time the pilot can request an RVR value during any
phase of the approach or landing.
RVR is included in METARs and SPECIs when it is 6 000 ft or
less for the runway in use and/or the visibility is 1 SM or less.
The RVR is presented in ICAO format and is based on a 10-min
average of the maximum runway light setting. Refer to the
METAR example in MET 8.3 for further details.
1.1.6 Pilot Reports
1.1.6.1 Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)
Pilots are urged to volunteer reports of cloud tops, upper cloud
layers, cruising level wind velocity, and other meteorological
information which may be significant to safe or comfortable
flight conditions. The information is also used by ECCC
meteorologists to confirm or amend aviation weather forecasts.
PIREPs less than one hour old that contain information about conditions considered to be a hazard to aviation are broadcast immediately to aircraft in the affected area and will be included
in subsequent scheduled weather broadcasts. PIREPs are also
transmitted under the headings “UACN10” for normal PIREPs
and “UACN01” or “UUA” for urgent PIREPs. A suggested format
for PIREPs can be found on the back covers of the CFS and the CWAS. More information on PIREPs can be found in MET 2.0.
1.1.7 Applicable International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) and World
Meteorological Organization (WMO)
Documents
Whereas ICAO determines the standards and recommended
practices with respect to meteorological service for international
air navigation, the WMO determines the internationally agreed
upon code formats for the reports and forecasts. ICAO and
WMO documents applicable to aviation meteorology are as
follows:
(a) ICAO Annex 3— Meteorological Service for International
Air Navigation
(b) WMO Doc 306— Manual on Codes
Most WMO documents can be downloaded, without cost, from
the Internet at: < https://library.wmo.int/ >. WMO documents
may also be ordered directly from the WMO Secretariat in
Geneva, Switzerland. ICAO documents may be purchased from
ICAO Headquarters in Montréal. The two relevant addresses
are listed below:
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
Sales and Distribution of Publications
7bis, avenue de la Paix
P.O. Box 2300
CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland
Tel.: ................................................................. +41-22-730-8111
Fax.: ................................................................ +41-22-730-8181
Web site: .............................................................. www.wmo.int
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Distribution Sales Unit
Suite 305
999 Robert-Bourassa Boulevard
Montréal QC H3C 5H7Tel.:
....................................................................... 514-954-8022
Web site: ............................................................... www.icao.int
Pilots flying outside of North America should consult the
differences filed by other member states as outlined in
WMO Doc 306 or in the AIP of each country.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET1.1.8 Differences from International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) Ann ex 3
CAR 804.01(1)(a) incorporates by reference standards contained
in ICAO Annex 3. Amendment 81 of Annex 3 is effective from
November 28, 2024. In accordance with CAR 800.01(2), the
incorporation by reference of Annex 3 as a standard “includes
the differences notified to ICAO by the Government of Canada
in respect of the standards specified in that annex.” The full
details of these State differences are included in the AIP Canada ,
as published, and disseminated by NAV CANADA and available
for free on the Internet.
1.1.9 Pilot Responsibility
Pilots must be aware of the requirements of CAR 602.72: “The
pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall, before commencing a
flight, be familiar with the available weather information that is appropriate to the intended flight.”
1.2 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATION
AND REPORTS
1.2.1 Type and Frequency of Observations
METARs are coded weather observations that are taken every
hour on the hour at over 200 aerodromes in Canada. In addition,
SPECIs are issued whenever weather conditions cross specified
criteria. For details on how to understand METARs, see MET 8.3.
For details on SPECI criteria, see MET 8.4.
The location of sensors used to determine RVR is specified on
CAP aerodrome charts.
1.2.2 Flight Weather Documentation
Pilots must use the most recent weather information available
when flight planning and be aware of scheduled weather information updates. Pilots must also remain vigilant for
pertinent unscheduled weather updates or amendments.
Flight weather documentation to review should include, as
appropriate: the relevant GFAs, AIRMETs, SIGMETs, TAFs,
METARs, SPECIs, PIREPs and upper wind and temperature
forecasts. As available, the latest weather satellite images,
weather radar and lightning detection information should also be considered.
There are two distinct methods of reporting cloud bases. It is
vital for the pilot to be able to distinguish and recognize which
method of reporting is in use. Heights in METARs and TAFs
are always stated as height above ground level. On the other
hand, heights in GFAs and PIREPs are normally stated as height
above sea level, since terrain heights are variable over the larger
area covered. If heights are not ASL in GFAs, this is always
highlighted by statements such as “CIGS 2-4 AGL.”1.2.3 Weather Services Definitions in Flight Publications
The terminology used in the CFS and the CAP to describe aviation
weather services is as follows:
(a) METAR— METAR and SPECI weather observations taken
by a qualified human observer.
(b) METAR AUTO— METAR and SPECI weather observations
taken by a AWOS that meets requirements for all weather
elements (see MET 8.4). AWOS located outside of the CLDN
coverage area do not receive lightning data and therefore
are unable to report thunderstorm or lightning activity.
Examples of METAR AUTO stations are the NAV CANADA
AWOS and DND AWOS.
(c) LWIS— An automated weather system which produces an
hourly LWIS report containing wind speed and direction; temperature; dew point; and altimeter setting only.
(d) AUTO— An automated weather system that does not meet
requirements to produce a METAR AUTO, SPECI AUTO
or LWIS report. These systems can report a variety of
observed weather elements. They are not available on the
main telecommunications network. Contact the aerodrome
operator for further information on the specifics of the
system and how to obtain its reports. Some of these systems
may have associated VHF transmissions of their reports,
as stated in the CAP or CFS. Dissemination of non-
conforming weather reports by the Internet, through dial-up
or by relays through dispatch may also occur. Pilots should
verify that they are obtaining the correct information as
indicated in the flight publications.
(e) WxCam— Indicates that a NAV CANADA aviation
weather camera is installed at the site. Still images are transmitted to the NAV CANADA CFPS at 10-min
intervals and are available via a link on the CFPS
login page: < https://plan.navcanada.ca/account/login/ >.
Most sites have four separate camera angles, and reference images are included. The locations of WxCam not sited at aerodromes are shown in the CFPS.
(f) Webcam— Indicates that one or more cameras not belonging
to NAV CANADA have been installed at this location.
Contact the aerodrome operator for further information
on the specifics of the camera system.
(g) ALTIMETER— Altimeter setting report observed from two
aircraft altimeters. The private altimeter setting report is a weather service provided in support of an AU. Contact the
aerodrome operator for further information on the service.
(h) WIND— Human assessment of wind speed and direction.
The private wind speed and direction report is a weather
service provided in support of an AU. Contact the aerodrome
operator for further information on the service.
(i) L AWO — A visual observation of prevailing tower visibility
and tower ceiling made by airport controllers from inside
the tower cab in order to provide limited weather information
to support local flight operations. These observations are
not intended for transmission, distribution, or use outside
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METthe control zone. This information is normally included in
the local ATIS recording and updated as required or passed
verbally to aircraft arriving at, and departing from, the
local airport.
Observed weather information, observations, and forecasts
originating from any non-NAV CANADA weather service, other
than DND, are considered a private meteorological service.
METAR AUTO and LWIS reports are available during published
hours through normal meteorological information systems. At
some sites an automated voice broadcast of the latest observation
is available via VHF transmitter. In these cases, the frequency
is displayed in the COMM entry of the CFS Aerodrome/Facility Directory (e.g. COMM AWOS 124.7, COMM AUTO 122.025).
The hours of coverage for METAR, METAR AUTO, and LWIS
reports are given (e.g. METAR 09-21Z). At sites where coverage
is 24 hr/day, the coverage is listed as H24 (e.g. METAR H24,
METAR AUTO H24, LWIS H24).
Sites that provide unspecified limited hours of coverage will be
listed as ltd hrs (e.g. ALTIMETER ltd hrs). Contact the aerodrome
operator for further information on the hours of operation.Weather services that are not included in the flight publications
exist. These are of an unknown performance and can be used
for VFR flights at the discretion of the pilot. However, unpublished
weather services cannot be used in support of instrument
flight procedures.
1.2.4 Automated Weather Observation
Systems (AWOS)
1.2.4.1 Overview
AWOS, LWIS and AUTO refer to automated equipment used as
a means to provide an aviation weather service. The services
that can be provided by these systems are either full METAR AUTO/
SPECI AUTO or some subset thereof. LWIS provides a basic
group of four elements and issues an hourly report. Operators
of automated weather stations that are used to support instrument
flight procedures are required to document the characteristics of their systems and to provide aircraft operators with suitable descriptions, upon request.
AWOS and LWIS operated by NAV CANADA have common
performance characteristics across the country. A description
of the performance characteristics of these systems can be found
in MET 8.4.
The subset of weather elements provided by AUTO may vary
from only one element to almost a full METAR AUTO/
SPECI AUTO. Any automated system that is not capable of
reporting all the elements required to generate METAR AUTO/SPECI AUTO reports and support any associated TAF should be referred to as AUTO or LWIS. Some local service providers may refer to their systems as AWOS, but if they do not support
METAR AUTO/SPECI AUTO, then they will be listed as AUTO
in the CFS.NOTE :
The United States uses the term “automated surface observation
system” (ASOS) as the equivalent to Canadian AWOS that provide
METAR AUTO reports. Typically, usage of the term AWOS in the United States is equivalent to the Canadian LWIS but with
several defined levels of observation capabilities. Further details
regarding performance characteristics and reporting practices can be found in the FAA’s Aeronautical Information Manual .
1.2.4.2 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Weather Stations
Some weather stations are intended exclusively for local use by VFR
operators. These stations do not meet the requirements of
a usable altimeter setting or of wind reports for IFR procedures.
These stations are not permitted at aerodromes that have IAPs,
and they are not published in the CFS. Pilots making use of these
stations do so at their discretion for VFR. If the reports from
such stations are being broadcast as an advisory, the frequency
will be mentioned in the Communications entry of the
CFS Aerodrome/Facility Directory along with an annotation
stating that the reports cannot be used for IFR. Some private
automated stations may disseminate weather information via
the Internet, and this information should be for VFR flight
advisory use only. Pilots should contact the aerodrome operator
if they require additional information. When in doubt, refer to the CFS; if the CFS does not list a METAR/SPECI service for an
aerodrome in the aerodrome Flight Planning section, then it
does not have one.
1.2.5 Automatic Aerodrome Routine
Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) and
Limited Weather Information System (LWIS)
Reports
1.2.5.1 Automatic Aerodrome Routine Meteorological
Reports (METAR AUTO)
METAR AUTO reports are based on NAV CANADA or DND AWOS systems, which are comprised of a set of meteorological sensors, a data processing system, a
communications system and an optional
VGSS and
VHF transmitter. In addition, NAV CANADA has installed
weather cameras at aerodromes, at which it has METAR AUTO,
and other select locations. METAR AUTO reports may be used
to support a TAF at the associated aerodrome.
METAR AUTO reports depend on either a NAV CANADA- or
DND-developed system or on a commercial system that complies
with TC requirements for aviation use. The applicable standards
are contained in MANOBS.
Observations are distributed in the form of METAR AUTO
reports and must be properly coded and supplemented by
SPECI AUTO reports when SPECI thresholds are crossed. At a
minimum, the following are observed and reported:
(a) wind (direction, speed and gusts);
(b) altimeter setting (these include multiple sensors as a fail-
safe);
(c) air temperature;
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET(d) dew point;
(e) visibility;
(f) cloud height;
(g) sky coverage (of detected cloud);
(h) precipitation occurrence and type, and intensity;
(i) fog, freezing fog, haze, blowing snow and mist;
(j) thunderstorm detection capability; and
(k) icing.
In addition, reports may include RVR when required.
For more information on METAR AUTO reports, refer to
MET 8.4.
1.2.5.2 Limited Weather Information System (LWIS)
Reports
A LWIS comprises automated meteorological sensors, a data
processing system, a communication system, and an optional
VGSS with a VHF transmitter. The LWIS collects limited
meteorological data, produces LWIS reports, and transmits data
to ATS facilities on the hour. The LWIS also transmits data
updated every minute to the affiliated VGSS and VHF
transmitter units.
These systems were developed to meet a defined level of service
requirement for NAV CANADA.
Any LWIS used for civil aviation purposes must comply with
TC requirements, including siting, maintenance, and quality
control, and be equipped with sensors to report, at a minimum, the following:
(a) wind (direction, speed, and gusts);
(b) altimeter setting (these include multiple sensors as a fail-
safe);
(c) air temperature; and
(d) dew point.
Wind direction is reported in degrees true except for the VGSS, which reports wind direction in degrees magnetic in SDA.
Except for the DND stations in the High Arctic that do not
provide dew point information, any automated system that
reports fewer elements than the standard four required for an
LWIS should be referred to as an AUTO. For more information on LWIS, please refer to MET 8.4.
1.2.6 Automatic (AUTO) Reports
The term AUTO is used to describe all other automated aviation
weather reports that have demonstrated compliance with TC
requirements and are usable for IFR flight. However, they have
a wide variety of performance characteristics and may be referred
to locally by different labels, most often as AWOS. Contact the airport operator for more information on the characteristics of local systems.1.2.7 Weather Services in Support of Approach
Unicom (AU)
Weather information is not usable for instrument procedures
unless it complies with the requirements of CAR 804, including MANOBS as incorporated by reference.
An approach UNICOM (AU) is an air-ground communications
service that can provide approach and landing information to
IFR pilots. The service provider is required to ensure that
requirements detailed in Appendix 4 of MANOBS are met for:
(a) meteorological instruments and observational methods
used; and
(b) personnel qualifications and training.
AU service may include the use of two aircraft altimeters to
observe and report the altimeter setting and the human estimation
of wind speed and direction for the selection of the most into-
wind runway. The estimated wind direction and speed are
considered current for a period not exceeding 10 min.
At a few AU locations, fully automated systems are used to measure atmospheric pressure. This data is used to determine the altimeter setting that is relayed to pilots. In these cases, the reported altimeter setting must comply with the same requirements applied to the altimeter component of METAR AUTO/SPECI AUTO.
Further details related to AU services are contained in Appendix 4
of MANOBS.
Any weather information provided by a UNICOM, as opposed
to an AU, is not usable for instrument procedures; alternative
uses are entirely at the pilot’s discretion.
Instrument flight rules (IFR) pilots must verify that the weather
reports they obtain, whether by voice from an AU, via the Internet,
phone dial-up, relayed through other parties or by any other
means, are from a valid source, as indicated in the CFS or CAP
for that aerodrome. Some Electronic Flight Bags may indicate
that some weather reports are METAR when they are not. If
there is no METAR indicated in the CFS for an aerodrome, then
it does not have a compliant METAR program.
1.2.8 Runway Visibility Assessment
At aerodromes where RVR is not provided, qualified persons
may, in accordance with the runway visibility assessment
standards referenced in CAR 804, provide an assessment of
runway visibility. Instrument-rated pilots may also provide such
assessments in accordance with CAR 602.131.
A runway visibility assessment is valid for only 20 min after it
has been established.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET1.3 METEOROLOGICAL FORECASTS AND
CHARTS
1.3.1 Flight Information Centre (FIC) Hours of
Service and Telephone Numbers
All FICs provide 24-hr service. FIC telephone numbers are
provided in the CFS. Pilots dialing the common toll-free number
1-866-WXBRIEF (992-7433) will automatically be routed to the
FIC serving the area from which the call is being made.
1.3.2 World Area Forecast System (WAFS)
Charts
WAFS aviation weather charts are disseminated as required.
These include prognostic significant weather charts for the North
Pacific, the Caribbean and northern South America, the North Atlantic, Canada and the United States.
1.3.3 Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)
TAFs are prepared for approximately 200 aerodromes across
Canada. TAFs are limited to aerodromes for which METAR and
SPECI reports are available. The forecasts are generally prepared
four times daily with periods of validity up to a maximum of
30 hr. See MET 7.0 for more information on TAFs, including
where and when they are issued, their periods of validity and
decoding instructions.
TAFs are issued in TAF code, with amendments as required.
1.3.4 Aerodrome Advisory Forecasts
Aerodrome advisories are forecasts that are issued in TAF format
except that ADVISORY is added immediately after the period
of validity group. They are issued in place of a TAF in the following
circumstances:
(a) Offsite—the forecast is based on observations that have
been taken off site, more than 1.6 NM from the aerodrome
centre, and are not considered to be representative of weather
conditions at the aerodrome;
(b) Observation incomplete —the forecast is based on observations
which have regularly missing or incomplete data; or
(c) No specials— the forecast is based on observations from a
station with a limited observing program that does not
issue SPECIs.
In each case, after the period of validity group, the advisory
forecast will be labelled with the word ADVISORY and the
appropriate qualifier (OFFSITE, OBS INCOMPLETE, or
NO SPECI). 1.3.5 Coastal Weather
Float plane operators can also obtain coastal marine weather on
HF and VHF FM frequencies from some Canadian Coast Guard
stations. Frequencies and time of broadcast are contained in two
Canadian Coast Guard Publications: Radio Aids to Marine
Navigation (Pacific and Arctic) and Radio Aids to Marine
Navigation (Atlantic, St. Lawrence, Great Lakes, Lake Winnipeg
and Arctic). These two publications are published annually and
are available on the Canadian Coast Guard Web site.
1.3.6 Graphic Area Forecasts (GFAs)
and AIRMET
GFAs are issued as a series of temporally adjusted weather charts
for CDA and distributed on a routine or on-request basis. These
forecasts are prepared four times daily for seven regions across the country with a validity period of 12 hr and an IFR outlook for a further 12 hr. See MET 4.0 for issue, periods of validity and
decoding instructions. Once issued, a SIGMET or AIRMET
message automatically amends the current and relevant GFA.
A full description of AIRMET can be found in MET 5.0.
1.3.7 Upper-Level Wind and
Temperature Forecasts (FD and FB)
Forecasts in digital form of the winds and the temperatures
aloft (FBCN) are prepared to meet aeronautical requirements
for flight planning and to complete documentation for flights
within Canada and between Canada and the United States,
Greenland, Mexico and the Caribbean. The FB wind and
temperature forecasts are a replacement of the FD forecasts.
However, FD forecasts will remain available for a transitional
period. The differences between the FD and FB forecasts include
four issues per day for the FB instead of two for the FD, changes to the period of use, and format changes to the headers.
Objective forecasts of upper wind and temperature are issued
by the Canadian Centre for Meteorological and Environmental Prediction
(CCMEP) for the locations listed in Appendix B of
MANAIR (see MET 1.1.1 and MET figure 9.1). The CCMEP
issues the FBCN31, FBCN33 and FBCN35 CWAO messages for
the 3 000-ft, 6 000-ft, 9 000-ft, 12 000-ft and 18 000-ft levels
above sea level (ASL). The 3 000-ft level is omitted when the
terrain elevation is greater than 1 500 ft.
Note that the FB forecasts are based on a Numerical Weather
Prediction (NWP) model. Because NWP models cannot fully
resolve all terrain features, there can be, in areas of highly variable
terrain (e.g., mountainous areas), instances of significant
difference between actual and model station elevation. There
are cases where the actual station elevation lies below 1 500 ft,
but the model elevation for that station lies close to or above
3 000 ft. In such cases, the 3 000-ft forecasts are omitted. These
cases are clearly noted in Appendix B. Temperatures are never
forecast for the 3 000-ft level.
The U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) issues objective
forecasts of upper winds and temperatures for the same locations
as the CCMEP, but for the 24 000-ft, 30 000-ft, 34 000-ft, 39 000-
ft, 45 000-ft and 53 000-ft levels. These forecasts are transmitted
under the headers FBCN31, FBCN33 and FBCN35 KWNO.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET1.3.8 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Weather
Assistance
ATC will issue information on significant weather and assist
pilots in avoiding weather areas when requested. However, for
reasons of safety, an IFR flight must not deviate from an assigned
course or altitude/flight level without a proper ATC clearance.
When weather conditions encountered are so severe that an
immediate deviation is determined to be necessary, and time
will not permit approval by ATC, the pilot’s emergency authority
may be exercised. However, when such action is taken, ATC
should be advised of the flight alteration as soon as practicable.
When a pilot requests clearance for a route deviation or for an
ATC vector and ATC operational boundaries have to be
crossed,the controller must evaluate the air traffic situation in
the affected area and coordinate with other controllers before
replying to the request. It should be remembered that the controller’s primary function
is to provide safe separation between aircraft. Any additional
service, such as weather avoidance assistance, can only be
provided to the extent that it does not detract from the primary
function. Also note that the separation workload for the controller
generally increases when weather disrupts the usual flow of
traffic. ATC surveillance limitations and frequency congestion
are also a factor in limiting the controller’s capability to provide additional services.
It is important, therefore, that the request for a deviation or
vector be forwarded to ATC as far in advance as possible. Delay
in submitting it may delay or even preclude ATC approval or
require that additional restrictions be placed on the clearance.
Pilots should respond to a weather advisory by requesting: a
deviation off course and stating the estimated number of miles
and the direction of the requested deviation; a new route to avoid
the affected area; a change of altitude; or vectors around the
affected areas.
The following information should be given to ATC as early as
possible when requesting clearance to detour around
weather activity:
(a) proposed route and extent of detour (direction and distance);
(b) flight conditions (IMC or VMC); and
(c) whether or not the aircraft is equipped with a functioning
cockpit weather radar.
The assistance that might be given by ATC will depend upon
the weather information available to controllers. Owing to the
often transitory nature of severe weather situations, the controller’s
weather information may be of only limited value if based on
weather observed on radar only. Frequent updates by pilots,
giving specific information as to the area affected, altitudes,
intensity and nature of the severe weather, are of considerable
value. Such PIREPs receive immediate and widespread
dissemination to aircrew, dispatchers and aviation forecasters.1.3.9 Supplementary Information
1.3.9.1 Weather Radar
Weather radars typically present a display of precipitation within
150 NM of the facility site; storms of considerable height and
intensity can be seen at greater ranges. However, it should be
noted that these radars cannot detect turbulence. The turbulence
associated with a very heavy rate of rainfall will generally be
significantly more severe than that associated with light rainfall.
ECCC and DND operate a series of weather radars across Canada
that provide frequent reports of precipitation echo tops and
precipitation reflectivity. Radar images are updated approximately
every 10 min for individual radars. A colour composite radar
product, which depicts either echo tops or precipitation reflectivity,
is also available at < https://plan.navcanada.ca >. Over the next
few years, the weather radar network will be improved to offer
better images and updates every 6 min. During the upgrades,
radars will be unavailable, and information from neighbouring radars will need to be used.
1.3.9.2 CLDN
Detailed and real time information from the CLDN is available
to the FICs and ACCs, which are both able to provide verbal
descriptions to pilots.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET1.3.9.3 ECCC/DND Weather Radar Network
Figure 1.1—ECCC/DND Weather Radar Network
TC AIM March 20, 2025METTable 1.1—NRP Official Site Names
NRP OFFICIAL
SITE NAMESTATION
IDPROVINCE
Carvel CASCV AB
Cold LakeCASCL AB
Fort McMurrayCASFM AB
Schuler CASSU AB
Spirit River CASSR AB
Strathmore CASSM AB
Aldergrove CASAG BC
Halfmoon PeakCASHP BC
Prince GeorgeCASPG BC
Silver Star MountainCASSS BC
Foxwarren CASFW MB
Woodlands CASWL MB
Chipman CASCM NB
Holyrood CASHR NF&L
Marble MountainCASMM NF&L
Gore CASGO NS
Marion Bridge CASMB NS
Britt CASBI ON
Dryden CASDR ON
Exeter CASET ON
Franktown CASFT ON
King City CASKR ON
Montreal River Harbour CASMR ON
ShuniahCASSN ON
Smooth Rock Falls CASRF ON
BlainvilleCASBV QC
Landrienne CASLA QC
Mont ApicaCASMA QC
Ste-FrançoiseCASSF QC
Val d'Irène CASVD QC
Bethune CASBE SK
Radisson CASRA SK1.4 IN-FLIGHT METEOROLOGICAL
INFORMATION (VOLMET)
In-flight meteorological information (VOLMET) is meteorological
information for aircraft in flight, particularly over the high seas.
VOLMET contains aerodrome routine meteorological
reports (METARs) and aerodrome forecasts (TAFs) for selected
aerodromes and may be provided either by data link (D-VOLMET)
or by voice broadcasts on designated frequencies, normally high
frequency (HF).
Information on the content, issue times and transmitter
frequencies for North Atlantic (NAT) VOLMET broadcasts is
given in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS), section D, Radio
Navigation and Communications. VOLMET is expected to be
phased out, so pilots requiring this service should verify its status
against current flight publication or be ready to obtain this
information from alternative sources.
2.0 PILOT WEATHER
REPORTS (PIREPS)
2.1 GENERAL
A pilot weather report (PIREP) is a report pertaining to current
weather conditions encountered by aircraft in flight. A PIREP is extremely useful to other pilots, forecasters, dispatchers and
weather briefers as it provides up-to-the-minute weather
information to supplement what is received from meteorological
observing stations. In addition, a PIREP is an invaluable data
source for aviation meteorologists because it either confirms an
existing forecast or highlights the requirement for an amendment.
A PIREP may also be the only information available regarding
areas between reporting stations, particularly those areas whose
topography may produce localized weather phenomena (e.g.
hills or expanses of water). Urgent PIREPs are issued for
atmospheric conditions that are an immediate hazard for all
aviation users.
Pilots are encouraged to file brief reports of weather conditions
when giving position reports, especially reports of any significant
atmospheric phenomena. They are also encouraged to report
conditions that differ significantly from those that were forecast.
PIREPs that contain critical information on low clouds, reduced
visibility, icing, and convective activities such as wind shear,
squall line, turbulence, thunderstorms and cumulonimbus clouds
are especially useful. PIREPs of hazardous conditions may trigger
the issuance of significant meteorological information (SIGMET).
For timely distribution, PIREPs should be filed with a flight
information centre (FIC) via an en route frequency or a toll-free
call to a FIC after landing. PIREPs received by flight service
personnel are immediately disseminated on meteorological
communications circuits and provided to other air traffic
service (ATS) units and the Canadian Meteorological Aviation
Centres (CMAC).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METControllers, flight service specialists and community aerodrome
radio station (CARS) observer/communicators (O/Cs) may
request reports from pilots regarding specific weather conditions
or weather conditions encountered during en route, climb-out
or approach phases.
The Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) contains the toll-free FIC
telephone numbers in the Flight Planning entry of each listed
aerodrome. The recommended contents of a PIREP are listed
in the Planning section and on the exterior back cover of the
CFS (hard copy).
2.1.1 Pilot Weather Report (PIREP) Example
Example:
UACN10 CYXU 032133 YZ UA /OV YXU 090010 /TM 2120
/FL080 /TP PA31 /SK 020BKN040 110OVC /TA ‑12 /WV
030045 /TB MOD BLO 040 /IC LGT RIME 020‑040 /RM NIL TURB CYYZ‑CYHMTable 2.1—PIREP Example
PIREP
EXAMPLE DECODED EXAMPLE
UACN10 Message Type : Regular PIREP. Urgent
PIREPs are encoded as UACN01 or UUA.
CYXUIssuing office : London FIC.
032133 Date/Time of Issue : 3rd day of the month,
at 2133Z.
YZ FIR: Toronto.
If the PIREP extends into an adjacent FIR,
both FIRs will be indicated.
UA /OV YXU 090010 Location
: London VOR 090˚ radial,
10 NM. PIREP location will be reported
with reference to a NAVAID, airport or geographic coordinates (latitude/ longitude).
/TM 2120 Time of PIREP : 2120Z
/FL080 Altitude
: 8 000 ft ASL. Altitude may also
be reported as “DURD” (during descent), “DURC” (during climb) or “UNKN” (unknown).
/TP PA31 Aircraft Type : Piper Navajo (PA31).
/SK 020BKN 040 110OVC Sky Cover : First layer of cloud based at
2 000 ft with tops at 4 000 ft ASL. Second
layer of cloud based at 11 000 ft ASL.
/TA -12 Air Temperature : -12ºC.
/WV 030045 Wind Velocity : Wind direction 030°
true, wind speed 45 kt. Wind direction
reported by pilots in degrees magnetic will subsequently be converted to degrees true for inclusion in PIREP.
/TB MOD
BLO 040 Turbulence : Moderate turbulence below
4 000 ft ASL.
/IC LGT RIME
020-040 Icing : Light rime icing (in cloud) between
2 000 ft ASL and 4 000 ft ASL.
/RM NIL
TURB CYYZ ‑
CYHM Remarks : No turbulence encountered
between Toronto and Hamilton.
NOTE :
Supplementary information for any of the PIREP fields may be
included in the remarks (RM) section of the PIREP.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET2.2 CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT)
2.2.1 General
CAT remains a problem for flight operations, particularly above
15 000 ft. The best information available on this phenomenon
is still obtained from PIREPs, since a CAT forecast is generalized
and covers large areas. All pilots encountering CAT conditions
are requested to urgently report the time, location, flight level
and intensity (light, moderate, severe, or extreme) of the
phenomena to the facility with which they are maintaining radio
contact. (See the Turbulence Reporting Criteria Table, MET 2.2.2)
A more complete description of CAT and recommended pilot actions can be found in AIR 2.10.
2.2.2 Turbulence Reporting Criteria
Table 2.2—Turbulence Reporting Criteria
INTENSITY AIRCRAFT REACTION REACTION INSIDE AIRCRAFT
LIGHT Turbulence that momentarily causes slight, erratic changes in
altitude and/or attitude (pitch, roll, yaw). Report as “light turbulence”.
ORTurbulence that causes slight, rapid and somewhat rhythmic
bumpiness without appreciable changes in altitude or attitude. Report as “light chop”. Occupants may feel a slight strain against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects may be displaced slightly. Food service may be conducted and little or no difficulty is encountered in walking.
MODERATE Turbulence that is similar to light turbulence but of greater intensity. Changes in altitude and/or attitude occur but the aircraft remains in positive control at all times. It usually causes variations in indicated airspeed. Report as “moderate turbulence”.
ORTurbulence that is similar to light chop but of greater intensity.
It causes rapid bumps or jolts without appreciable changes in aircraft altitude or attitude. Report as “moderate chop”. Occupants feel definite strains against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects are dislodged.
Food service and walking are difficult.
SEVERE Turbulence that causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude. It usually causes large variations in indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be momentarily out of control.
Report as “severe turbulence”. Occupants are forced violently against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects are tossed about. Food service and walking impossible.
The terms “occasional”, “intermittent” and “continuous” are
used to describe reported turbulence. Turbulence is considered
occasional when it occurs less than 1/3 of the time, intermittent
when it occurs 1/3 to 2/3 of the time and continuous when it
occurs more than 2/3 of the time.
Pilots should report location(s), time (UTC), intensity, whether
in or near clouds, altitude, type of aircraft and, when applicable,
the duration of turbulence. Duration may be based on time
between two locations or over a single location. All locations
should be readily identifiable.Examples:
1. Over REGINA 1232Z, moderate turbulence, in cloud FL310,
B737.
2. From 50 NM EAST of WINNIPEG to 30 NM WEST of
BRANDON 1210 to 1250Z occasional moderate chop, FL330,
AIRBUS 320.High-level turbulence (normally above 15 000 ft ASL) not
associated with cumuliform clouds, including thunderstorms,
should be reported as CAT preceded by the appropriate intensity
or chop type.
2.3 WIND SHEAR (WS)
Intense down drafts, typically associated with thunderstorms,
produce strong vertical and horizontal wind shear (WS)
components that are a hazard to aircraft in the approach, landing,
or take-off phase of flight (see AIR 2.8). Since ground-based
instruments that measure WS have not been installed at Canadian
aerodromes, the presence of such conditions can normally be
deduced only from pilot weather reports (PIREPs). Aircraft
equipped with Reactive Wind Shear Systems (RWSs) can provide
pilots with guidance to conduct a WS escape manoeuvre. Aircraft
with Predictive Wind Shear Systems (PWSs) may allow pilots
to avoid or minimize effects of WS (see RAC 6.1).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METAircrews capable of reporting the wind and altitude, both above
and below the shear layer, from flight management systems (FMSs)
are requested to do so. Pilots without this equipment should
report WS by stating the loss or gain of airspeed and the altitude
at which it was encountered. Pilots unable to report WS in terms
of this specific information should do so in terms of its general
effect on the aircraft.
2.4 AIRFRAME ICING
Report icing to air traffic service (ATS) and, if operating
instrument flight rules (IFR), request a new routing or altitude
if icing will be a hazard. Provide the aircraft identification, type,
location, time (Coordinated Universal Time [UTC]), intensity
of icing, type, altitude or flight level, and indicated airspeed. See
the suggested format on the back cover of the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS).
The following describes icing and how to report icing conditions:
Table 2.3—Icing Intensity
INTENSITY ICE ACCUMULATION
Trace Ice becomes perceptible. The rate of
accumulation is slightly greater than the rate of sublimation. It is not hazardous, even though de-icing or anti-icing equipment is not used, unless encountered
for an extended period of time (over 1 hr).
Light The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is prolonged in this
environment (over 1 hr).
Moderate The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous, and use of de-icing or anti-icing equipment or diversion is necessary.
Severe The rate of accumulation is such that de-icing or anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate diversion is necessary.
Table 2.4—Icing Types
ICING TYPES
Rime ice Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets.
Clear ice Glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of large supercooled water droplets.
Mixed ice Both rime and clear icing occurring at the same time. 2.5 VOLCANIC ASH
Flight operations in volcanic ash are hazardous (see AIR 2.6).
Pilots may be the first line of volcanic eruption detection in more
remote areas. Pilots may be able to provide valuable information
about the spread of volcanic ash from an eruption; ash can rapidly
rise to altitudes above 60 000 ft and exist at hazardous
concentrations up to 1 000 NM from the source. Volcanic ash
is not detectable on radar. If an eruption or ash cloud is detected,
an urgent pilot weather report (PIREP) should be filed with the
nearest air traffic service (ATS) unit.
A volcanic ash forecast chart is produced when required (see
MET 13.0).
2.6 PILOT ESTIMATION OF SURFACE WIND
Surface wind direction and speed is information critical to effective pilot decision-making for takeoff and landing.
Where neither wind measuring equipment nor a wind direction
indicator (see AGA 5.9) is available, the wind direction and speed
can be estimated by observing smoke, dust, flags or wind lines on bodies of water.
Pilots on the ground may estimate wind speed and direction by
using anything that is free to be moved by the influence of the
wind. The descriptions in the Beaufort Wind Scale found in
Table 2.5 have been found to be particularly useful and are widely
used.
Wind direction can also be estimated accurately by simply facing
the wind. Such estimates should only be provided to the nearest
eight points (i.e. north, northeast, east) of the compass. The best
estimate is obtained by standing in an open area clear of
obstructions. Should this not be possible, estimation errors may
be so significant that pilots using the information should exercise
caution. The direction and speed of low-lying clouds can be an indicator of surface winds but should also be used with caution because of the possibility of wind shear near the surface.
Pilots who relay reports of winds based on estimation should
ensure that the intended user of the information is aware that it
is based on estimation so that appropriate precautions can be taken.
TC AIM March 20, 2025METTable 2.5—Beaufort Wind Scale
Descriptive
Term Beaufort
Force Speed
Range
(kt) Average
(kt) Specification for estimating
wind over land Specification for estimating
wind over sea (probable wave height in
metres*)
Calm 0 Less than
1— Smoke rises vertically. Sea is like a mir ror (0).
Light Air 1 1–3 2 Direction of wind shown
by smoke. Ripples with the appearance of scales are
formed, but with out foam crest ( 0.1).
Light
Breeze 2 4–6 5 Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordinary vane moved by wind. Small wavelets, still short but more pro -
nounced; crests have a glassy appearance and do not break (0.2 to 0.3).
Gentle Breeze 3 7–10 9
Leaves and small twigs
in constant motion; wind extends light flag. Large wavelets; crests begin to break; foam of glassy appearance; perhaps scattered white horses (0.6 to 1).
Moderate
Breeze 4 11–16 14 Raises dust and loose
paper; small branches are
moved. Small waves becoming longer; fairly frequent
white horses (1 to 1.5).
Fresh
Breeze 5 17–21 19 Small trees in leaf begin to
sway; crested wavelets form on inland waters. Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced long form; many white horses are formed, chance of some spray (2 to 2.5).
Strong Breeze 6 22–27 25 Large branches in motion; whistling heard in telephone wires; umbrellas used with difficulty. Large waves begin to form; the white foam crests are more extensive everywhere, probably some spray (3 to 4).
Near Gale 7 28–33 31 Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt in walking against wind. Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking waves begins to be blown in streaks along the
direc tion of the wind (4 to 5.5).
Gale 8 34–40 37Breaks twigs off trees; generally impedes progress.Moderately high waves of greater length; edges of crests begin to break into the spindrift; the foam is blown in well-marked streaks along the direction of the wind (5.5 to 7.5).
Strong Gale9 41–47 44Slight structural damage occurs to roofing shingles, TV antennae, etc.High waves; dense streaks of foam along the direction of the wind; crests of waves begin to topple, tumble and roll over; spray may affect visibility (7 to 10).
Storm 10 48–55 52Seldom experienced inland; trees uprooted; considerable structural damage.Very high waves with long, overhanging crests; the resulting foam, in great patches, is blown in dense white streaks along the direction of the wind; on the whole, the surface of the sea takes on a white appearance; the tumbling of the sea becomes heavy and shock-like; visibility affected (9 to 12.5).
Violent Storm 11 56–63 60Very rarely experienced; accompanied by widespread damage.Exceptionally high waves (small- and medium- sized ships might be lost to the view behind the waves); the sea is completely covered with long white patches of foam lying along the direction of the wind; everywhere the edges of the wave crests are blown into froth; visibility affected (11.5 to 16).
Hurricane 12 Above 63 The air is filled with foam and spray; sea completely white with driving spray; visibility seriously affected (16+).
* Wave height is representative of conditions well away from shore and in deep water when winds of that strength have persisted for an extended period of time. The wave height
figure does not give the maximum wave height nor does it take into account the effects of swell, air temperature or currents.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET3.0 CANADIAN WEATHER
INFORMATION
3.1 AVIATION FORECASTS AND CHARTS
Table 3.1—Aviation Forecasts and Charts
ITEM AND
TYPE
DESIGNATOR TIME ISSUED VALIDITY PERIODS APPLICABLE
LEVEL REMARKS
GFA Approximately
30 min before the
beginning of the
forecast period 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, 1800Z. Each new set of GFA charts replaces the preceding one. At or below
24 000 ft Graphically depicts forecast weather elements affecting flight at a specific time over a particular area.
TAF Approximately
20 min before the
beginning of the validity period Forecasts are generally
issued every 6 hr with
validity periods up to
a maximum of 30 hr.
Issue and update periods may vary—check the CFS. Next issue time is stated at the end of each TAF.Surface (includes clouds at levels that can be seen from the surface) The TAF is the forecaster’s best judgment of the most probable weather conditions expected to occur at an aerodrome, together with their most probable time of occurrence. It is designed to meet the pre-flight and in-flight requirements of flight operations. TAFs are intended to relate to weather conditions for flight operations
within 5 NM of the centre of the runway
complex, depending on local terrain.
Amended ForecastForecasts will be amended when significant changes in ceiling or visibility occur, or when freezing precipitation begins, or is expected to occur, although it was not previously predicted. Amendments are also issued for significant changes in wind or present weather.
SIGMET (WSCN, WCCN, WVCN) A message issued by a MWO to advise pilots of the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified weather phenomena, which may affect the safety of aircraft operations, and the development of those phenomena in time and space.
Upper Level Wind and Temperature Forecast (FB) 0330Z
0330Z0330Z0920Z0930Z0930Z1520Z1530Z1530Z2120Z2130Z2130Z0200–0900Z0900–1800Z1800–0600Z0800–1500Z1500–0000Z0000–1200Z1400–2100Z2100–0600Z0600–1800Z2000–0300Z0300–1200Z1200–0000Z
3 000 ft
6 000 ft
9 000 ft
12 000 ft
18 000 ft Issued under headers FBCN31, FBCN33
and FBCN35 CWAO.
0200Z0200Z0200Z0800Z0800Z0800Z1400Z1400Z1400Z2000Z2000Z2000Z0200–0900Z0900–1800Z1800–0600Z0800–1500Z1500–0000Z0000–1200Z1400–2100Z2100–0600Z0600–1800Z2000–0300Z0300–1200Z1200–0000Z
24 000 ft
30 000 ft
34 000 ft
39 000 ft
45 000 ft
53 000 ft Issued under headers FBCN31, FBCN33
and FBCN35 KWNO.
Upper Level
Forecast Chart
—PROG 12 hr before valid
time 0000Z
0600Z
1200Z
1800Z FL240
FL340
FL390FL450Depicts forecast wind and temperatures for
the chart level.
TC AIM March 20, 2025METITEM AND
TYPE
DESIGNATOR TIME ISSUED VALIDITY PERIODS APPLICABLE
LEVEL REMARKS
Significant
Weather Forecast Chart
—PROG 12 hr before valid time 0000Z
0600Z
1200Z
1800ZFL100–FL240
FL250–FL630 Charts are for a specific flight level range. They indicate surface positions of lows and highs and any significant weather, such as thunderstorms, turbulence and mountain waves, applicable to the chart.
3.2 AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS
Table 3.2—Aviation Weather Reports
ITEM AND TYPE
DESIGNATOR TIME OBSERVED REMARKS
METAR Every hour on the hourDescribes actual weather at a specific location and at a specific time as observed from the ground.
SPECIs are issued when required. METARs are not available 24 hr
a day at all aerodromes; see CFS for observation program schedule.
PIREP/URGENT PIREP
(UA/UUA)As reported Observations of actual conditions reported by pilots during flight.
Volcanic Ash Report(FV)As required Describes in graphical format the current and expected ash cloud
dispersion and densities at various flight levels.
3.3 WEATHER CHARTS
The international practice is to label the levels in upper level
weather charts in hectopascals (hPa) rather than millibars (mb)
and this will be increasingly adopted in Canada. Note, however, that 1 mb equals 1 hPa.
Table 3.3—Weather Charts
ITEM AND TYPE
DESIGNATOR TIME
OBSERVED TIME ISSUED REMARKS
Surface Weather Chart 0000Z
0600Z
1200Z
1800Z 2 or 3 hr after
observation Analysis of mean sea level pressure pattern, surface location of fronts, surface precipitation and obstructions to vision based on reports. Surface pressure patterns can be considered as representative of the atmosphere up to 3 000 ft. Weather visible from the surface at any level is included.
Upper Level Chart— ANAL 0000Z
1200Z Over 3 hr after observation Charts prepared for following levels: 850 hPa (1 500 m / 5 000 ft) 700 hPa (3 000 m / 10 000 ft) 500 hPa (5 500 m / 18 000 ft) 250 hPa (10 400 m / 34 000 ft) Charts show reported atmospheric conditions at the pressure levels, such as wind speed and direction, temperatures, and moisture content.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET4.0 GRAPHIC AREA
FORECASTS (GFA)
4.1 GENERAL
The graphic area forecast (GFA) consists of a series of temporally
adjusted weather charts, each depicting the most probable
meteorological conditions expected to occur at or below 24 000 ft
over a given area at a specified time. The GFA is primarily
designed to meet general aviation and regional airline requirements
for pre-flight planning in Canada.
4.2 ISSUE AND VALID TIMES
Graphic area forecast (GFA) charts are issued four times daily,
approximately 30 min before the beginning of the forecast period.
The GFA is issued at approximately 2330, 0530, 1130 and 1730
UTC and is valid at 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 UTC respectively.
Each issue of the GFA consists of six charts: two charts valid at
the beginning of the forecast period; two charts valid six hours into the forecast period; and the final two charts valid 12 hours into the forecast period. Of the two charts valid at each of the
three forecast periods, one chart depicts clouds and weather
while the other chart depicts icing, turbulence and freezing level.
An instrument flight rules (IFR) outlook for an additional 12-hr
period is also included in the comments box of the final clouds and weather chart.
When the GFA is used for times between the chart valid periods,
it is necessary to move the synoptic features and to interpolate
their position for intermediate times. Use the estimated positions
to determine the future position of associated organized weather
systems. Each 5 kt of motion indicates a change in position of
30 NM over six hours and the scale in the legend of the chart
can be used as a tool. Each panel is a snapshot of a specific future
time and does not highlight temporal changes unless specifically
stated in the GFA. The existence of convective clouds or morning
fog and stratus, and other diurnal phenomenon, often depends
on the time span. Always check for the latest nearby observations,
which may indicate if features are moving faster or slower than
expected, and check for any special comments mentioned in the
GFA or for any valid AIRMET that may have amended the GFA.
When in doubt, obtain a pre-flight weather briefing in order to use the GFA effectively.4.3 COVERAGE AREA
There are seven distinct graphic area forecast (GFA) areas,
covering the entire Canadian domestic airspace (CDA), over
which Canada is responsible for the provision of air traffic
control (ATC) services. The following map illustrates the GFA coverage areas.
Figure 4.1—GFA Coverage Areas
4.4 UNITS OF MEASURE
Speeds in the graphic area forecast (GFA) are expressed in knots
and heights in hundreds of feet. Horizontal visibility is measured
in statute miles and all times are stated in Coordinated Universal
Time. A nautical mile scale bar is included to assist in determining
approximate distances on the chart. All heights are measured
ASL unless otherwise noted.
4.5 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Only standard meteorological abbreviations are used in the
graphic area forecast (GFA). Symbols used in the GFA are
consistent with those found on similar meteorological products
described in this document such as significant weather prognostic
charts (MET 12.0).
4.6 LAYOUT
Each graphic area forecast (GFA) chart is divided into four parts:
title box; legend box; comments box; and weather
information section.
Table 4.1—GFA Layout
Weather
Information
Section Title Box
Legend Box
Comments Box
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET4.7 TITLE BOX
The title box includes the chart name; the issuing office four-
letter identification; the name of the graphic area forecast (GFA)
region; the chart type; the date and time of issue; and the valid
date and time of the chart. The title box is found in the upper right corner of the GFA.
In the following example, the title box indicates the GFA name
(GFACN33) and that it is issued by Canadian Meteorological
Centre Network Operations in Montréal (CWAO). The GFA
region for the sample chart is ONTARIO–QUÉBEC and the
type of chart is clouds and weather. The next section indicates
the date and time the GFA chart was issued, which was September
17, 2014, at 1130Z. The last section states the valid date and time
for the GFA chart which, in this example, was September 18,
2014, at 0000Z.
Table 4.2—GFA Title Box
GFACN33 CWAO REGION
ONTARIO–QUÉBEC
CLOUDS AND WEATHER NUAGES
ET TEMPS
ISSUED AT
ÉMIS A 17/09/2014 1130Z
VLD 18/09/2014 0000Z
4.8 LEGEND BOX
The legend box includes weather symbols that may be used in
the weather information part of the graphic area forecast (GFA) chart. It also includes a nautical mile scale bar to facilitate the
determination of distances. Symbols used in the GFA are
consistent with those used in a significant weather prognostic
chart. In the following example, symbols for thunderstorm (TS),
ice pellets (PL), freezing rain (FZRA) and freezing drizzle (FZDZ)
are indicated in the legend box. These symbols are depicted in red when shown in colour.
Figure 4.2—GFA Legend Box4.9 COMMENTS BOX
The comments box provides information that the weather
forecaster considers important (e.g., formation or dissipation of
fog, increasing or decreasing visibility). It is also used to describe
elements that are difficult to render pictorially or, if added to
the depiction, would cause the chart to become cluttered (e.g.,
light icing). The standard phrases “HGT ASL UNLESS NOTED”
and “CB TCU AND ACC IMPLY SIG TURB AND ICE.” “CB IMPLIES L
LVL WS” are also included in the comments box.
Figure 4.3—GFA Comments Box
In this example, the forecaster has added one general and
4 specific comments. The general comment indicates that local
visibility is of one half statute mile in smoke and is forecast
downwind from wildfires. Within area “A” which corresponds
to an area labelled on the main clouds and weather chart depiction
there are scattered cloud based at 8 000 ft and topped at 10 000 ft
with visibility greater than 6 statute miles. Within area “B” there
is overcast cloud based at 5 000 to 7 000 ft and topped at 14 000 ft
given intermittent visibilities of 5 to greater than 6 statute miles
in light rain and mist with patchy ceilings of 800 to 1 500 ft
above ground level. Within area “C” broken clouds based at
3 000 to 5 000 and topped at 8 000 are giving intermittent light rain and mist with visibilities of 5 to greater than 6 statute miles and ceilings of 800 to 1 500 ft above ground level and occasional
towering cumulus topped at 12 000 ft giving visibilities of 3 statute
miles in light rain showers and mist. Within area “D” over higher
terrain there is light snow and mixed light snow and rain with
mist giving visibilities of 1 to 3 statute miles. All altitudes are
above sea level unless indicated otherwise.
The comments box of the 12-hr clouds and weather graphic area
forecast (GFA) chart also includes an instrument flight rules (IFR)
outlook for an additional 12-hr period in the lower section of
the box. The IFR outlook is always general in nature, indicating the main areas where IFR weather is expected, the cause for the
IFR weather and any associated weather hazards. In the example
given, IFR conditions caused by low ceilings (CIG), and low
visibility (VIS) in rain (RA) and mist (BR) are forecast over
southeastern British Columbia.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METFor meteorological purposes, the IFR outlook is based on the
following.
Table 4.3—IFR Outlook Criteria
CATEGORY CEILING VISIBILITY
IFR less than 1 000 ft AGL and/or less than 3 SM
MVFRbetween 1 000 ft and
3 000 ft AGLand/orbetween
3 and 5 SM
VFR more than 3 000 ft
AGLandmore than
5 SM
In the event that no organized IFR conditions are expected in
the outlook period, NIL SIG WX is written in the comment box.
Only IFR conditions are included in the IFR outlook of the GFA.
Marginal visual flight rules (MVFR) conditions are defined in
the table for reference only.
4.10 WEATHER INFORMATION
The weather information part of the chart depicts either a forecast
of the clouds and weather conditions or a forecast of the icing, turbulence and freezing level conditions for a specified time.
4.11 CLOUDS AND WEATHER CHART
Figure 4.4(a)—Example of a GFA Clouds and Weather Chart
TC AIM March 20, 2025METThe graphic area forecast (GFA) clouds and weather chart provides
a forecast of cloud layers and/or surface-based phenomena,
visibility, weather and obstructions to vision at the valid time
indicated. Lines joining points of equal surface pressure (isobars)
are depicted at 4 -hPa intervals . In addition, relevant synoptic
features that are responsible for the portrayed weather are also
depicted, with an indication of their speed and direction of
movement at the valid time.
Synoptic features— The motion of synoptic features when the
speed of movement is forecast to be 5 kt or more will be indicated
by an arrow and a speed value. For speeds less than 5 kt, the
letters STNR (stationary) are used. A low -pressure cent re moving
eastward at 15 kt with an associated cold front moving southeast
at 10 kt would be indicated as follows:
Figure 4.4(b)—Synoptic Features
Clouds— The bases and tops of forecast clouds between the
surface and 24 000 ft ASL will be indicated on the GFA clouds
and weather chart. The tops of convective clouds (i.e. TCU, ACC,
CB) are indicated, even if they extend above 24 000 ft ASL. Cirrus
clouds are not depicted on the chart. The cloud type will be
indicated if considered significant; however, convective clouds,
such as CU, TCU, ACC and CB, will always be stated if forecast
to be present. A scalloped bo rder, depicted in brown when shown
in colour, encloses organized areas of clouds where the sky
condition is either broken (BKN) or overcast (OVC). An organized
area of broken cumulus clouds based at 2 000 ft ASL with tops at 8 000 ft ASL would be indicated as follows:
Figure 4.4(c)—Organized Area of Clouds
(scalloped border) Where organized areas of clouds are not forecast and visibility
is expected to be greater than 6 SM, a scalloped border is not
used. In these areas, the sky condition is stated using the terms
SKC, FEW or SCT. In the following example, unorganized
scattered clouds are forecast based at 3 000 ft ASL with tops at 5 000 ft ASL:
Figure 4.4(d)—Unorganized Area of
Clouds (no scalloped border)
SCT50
When a forecasted cloud deck contains more than one significant
cloud layer, the cloud amount description depends on the space
between the layers. When the separation is less than 2 000 ft,
the descriptor represents the summation amount across all the
layers, and the term LYRS is included immediately after it. When
the separation is 2 000 ft or great er, each layer is stated, with its
own descriptor that applies only to that layer. The bases and tops
of each layer are indicated. For instance, a scattered layer of
cumulus cloud based at 3 000 ft ASL with tops at 5 000 ft ASL
and a higher overcast layer of cloud based at 10 000 ft ASL with tops at 13 000 ft ASL would be indicated as follows:
Figure 4.4(e)—Multiple Cloud Layers
P6SMSCT CUOVC
All heights are indicated in hundreds of feet above sea level (2
means 200 ft, 45 means 4 500 ft, etc.) unless otherwise specified.
Above ground level heights are indicated by the abbreviations
CIG and AGL (e.g. CIGS 5–10 AGL). A note to this effect is
included in the comments box in the lower right hand corner
of the chart.
Surface -based layers— The vertical visibility into surface -based
layers is measured in hundreds of feet AGL. Local obscured
ceilings with a vertical visibility of between 300 and 500 ft AGL
would be indicated as follows:
LCA CIGS 3–5 AGL
Visibility— The forecast visibility is in statute miles. When the
visibility is expected to be greater than 6 SM, it is indicated as
P6SM. A forecast visibility that is expected to vary between 2
and 4 SM with light snow showers would be indicated as:
2–4SM -SHSN
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METWeather and obstructions to vision— Forecast weather is always
included immediately after visibility. Obstructions to vision are
only mentioned when visibility is forecast to be 6 SM or less (e.g.
2–4SM –RA BR). Only standard abbreviations are used to describe
weather and obstructions to vision. Areas of showery or
intermittent precipitation are shown as hatched areas enclosed
by a dashed green line when colour is used. Areas of continuous
precipitation are shown as stippled areas enclosed by a solid
green line when colour is used. Areas of obstruction to vision
not associated with precipitation, where visibility is 6 SM or less,
are enclosed by a dashed orange line when colour is used. Areas of freezing precipitation are depicted in red and enclosed by a solid red line when colour is used.
Figure 4.4(f)—Weather and Obstructions to Vision
Weather and obstructions to vision in the GFA may include
spatial qualifiers, which describe the coverage of the depicted
meteorological phenomena.
Convective clouds and showers:
Table 4.4—Convective Clouds and Showers
Abbreviation Description Spatial Coverage
ISOL Isolated 25% or less
OCNL Occasional 26–50%
FRQ Frequent Greater than 50% Non-convective clouds and precipitation, low
stratus ceilings, precipitation ceilings, icing,
turbulence, and restrictions to visibility:
Table 4.5—Non-convective Clouds and Precipitation
Abbreviation Description Spatial Coverage
LCA Local 25% or less
PTCHY Patchy 26–50%
XTNSV /
INTMTExtensive /
IntermittentGreater than 50%
Isobars— These lines joining points of equal mean sea level
pressure are depicted on the GFA clouds and weather chart.
Isobars are drawn at 4 -hPa intervals f rom a reference value of
1 000 hPa.
Figure 4.4(g)—Isobars
Surface winds— The speed and direction of forecast surface
winds with a sustained speed of at least 20 kt are indicated by
wind barbs and an associated wind-speed value. When
accompanied by strong gusts, mean sustained winds of less than
20 kt may also be included, at the forecaster’s discretion, if
moderate mechanical turbulence is expected to occur as a result
of the wind gusts. Wind gusts are indicated by the letter “G,”
followed by the peak gust speed in knots. In the following example,
the surface wind is forecast to be from the west (270˚ true) with a speed of 25 kt and a peak gust speed of 35 kt.
Figure 4.4(h)—Surface Winds
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET4.12 ICING, TURBULENCE AND FREEZING LEVEL CHART
Figure 4.5(a)—Example of a GFA Icing Turbulence and Freezing Level Chart
The graphic area forecast (GFA) icing, turbulence and freezing
level chart depicts forecast areas of icing and turbulence as well
as the expected freezing level at a specific time. Included on the
chart are the type, intensity, bases and tops of each icing and
turbulence area. Surface synoptic features such as fronts and
pressure centres are also shown. This chart is to be used in
conjunction with the associated GFA clouds and weather chart issued for the same period of validity. Icing— Depicted in blue when shown in colour and indicated
whenever moderate or severe icing is forecast for the coverage
area. The bases and tops of each icing layer, measured in hundreds
of feet above mean sea level, as well as the type of icing (e.g.
“RIME,” “MX” [mixed], “CLR” [clear]) will be indicated. Areas
of light icing are described in the comments box. An area of
moderate mixed icing based at 2 000 ft ASL with a top of 13 000 ft
ASL would be indicated as follows:
Figure 4.5(b)—Icing
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METIf icing is expected to be present during only part of the forecast
period covered by the chart, the time of occurrence of the icing is indicated in the comments box.
Areas of severe icing are indicated with a denser stippling. The
following is an example of an area of severe icing contained
within an area of moderate icing:
Figure 4.5(c)—Severe Icing
RIME
RIME140
FZLVL
FZLVL
Turbulence— Depicted in red when shown in colour and indicated
whenever moderate or severe turbulence is forecast for the
coverage area. The base and top of each turbulence layer are
measured in hundreds of feet above sea level except for surface-
based turbulence, which is measured in feet above ground level. An abbreviation indicating the cause of the turbulence will be
included: mechanical turbulence, low-level wind shear, lee/
mountain waves, a significant low-level jet, or clear air turbulence
will be indicated as MECH, L LVL WS, LEE WV, L LVL JET or
CAT, respectively. The following example indicates an area of
moderate clear air turbulence (CAT) based at 18 000 ft ASL with
a top at 26 000 ft ASL.
Figure 4.5(d)—Turbulence
Severe turbulence is depicted with a higher density of hatching.
The following example shows an area of severe turbulence
surrounded by a larger area of moderate turbulence:
Figure 4.5(e)—Severe and Moderate Turbulence
30 AGL
SFC
MECH
MECH40 AGL
SFCWhen separate areas of turbulence are occurring at different
altitudes, the lower level is shown with hatching that slants
upward to the right, while the higher level is depicted with
hatching that slants downward to the right, as indicated below:
Figure 4.5(f)—Areas of Turbulence at
Different Altitudes
CAT
30 AGL
SFC
MECH
Freezing level— Freezing level contours are indicated on a GFA
by dashed lines. The height of the freezing level is indicated to
the nearest multiple of 2 500 ft using the standard heights in
hundreds of feet above sea level (e.g. SFC, 25, 50, 75, 100, meaning
surface, 2 500, 5 000, 7 500, 10 000). When more than one freezing
level is forecast, only the lowest level needs to be indicated, unless
meteorological conditions are expected to be relevant to aviation
safety (e.g. freezing precipitation aloft). An above freezing layer (AFL) is indicated by a closed area as shown below:
Figure 4.5(g)—Freezing Level
5030AFL
SFC
Temporal changes in the freezing level, when significant, are
indicated in the comments box of the chart, as in the following example:
FZLVL 20 LOWERING T O SFC AFT 03Z
Low-level jet (L LVL JET)— Included on the GFA icing,
turbulence, and freezing level chart when it is expected to have a peak core speed of 50 kt or more. It may be included at speeds between 35 and 45 kt when significant associated turbulence or shear is expected. A L LVL JET is depicted as follows, with the wind being in the direction of the arrow and the speed shown being the maximum expected wind speed:
Figure 4.5(h)—L LVL JET
L LVL JET
60 KT
TC AIM March 20, 2025METIn general, L LVL JETs are not included if they are above
6 000 ft ASL, except as required over higher terrain. The height
of the jet is not indicated. In many cases, there may be associated
turbulence, as shown in the example below:
Figure 4.5(i)—Low-level jet and Turbulence
40 AGL
SFC
L LVL JETL LVL JET
45 KT
4.13 GRAPHIC AREA FORECAST (GFA)
AMENDMENTS
Once issued, a significant meteorological information (SIGMET)
or AIRMET message automatically amends the current and
relevant graphic area forecast (GFA). The remark (RMK) found
in the national version of those messages indicates the GFA
region(s) to which the SIGMET or AIRMET applies.
4.14 GRAPHIC AREA FORECAST (GFA) CORRECTIONS
A correction to a graphic area forecast (GFA) is issued for the
following events:
(a) The occurrence of any unforecast weather phenomena that
do not require an AIRMET (i.e. they are below the AIRMET
criteria threshold) or any other unforecast weather
phenomena that, according to the forecaster, should be
depicted in the GFA.
(b) Forecast weather phenomena in the GFA fail to occur, in
which case the weather phenomena that are no longer
occurring or no longer expected to occur are removed.
(c) A significant error was made in a GFA chart. A significant
error is one which, if uncorrected, would result in an
erroneous interpretation of the GFA and create a potential
hazard to aviation.
For detailed guidance on GFA correction, refer to Appendix C
of the Manual of Standards and Procedures for Aviation Weather
Forecasts (MANAIR). Information about the nature of the
correction made to the chart is included in the comments box.When reissued, the correction code “CCA” is added to the first
line of the title box to indicate the first correction, “CCB” for
the second, “CCC” for the third, etc.
Table 4.6—Example of Corrected GFA
GFACN33 CWAO CCA
REGION
ONTARIO-QUÉBEC
CLOUDS AND WEATHER
NUAGES ET TEMPS
ISSUED AT
ÉMIS A 17/09/2014 1211Z
VLD 17/09/2014 1200Z
5.0 AIRMETS
5.1 DEFINITION
An information message issued by a meteorological watch
office (MWO) to advise pilots of the occurrence or expected
occurrence of weather phenomena, which may affect the safety
of aircraft operations and which were not already included in
the graphic area forecast (GFA). The message shall describe
potentially hazardous weather conditions up to and including 24 000 ft (FL 240).
5.2 ISSUANCE CRITERIA
AIRMETs are issued when the following criteria occur or
are expected to occur and were not forecast in the graphic
area forecast (GFA) and a significant meteorological information (SIGMET) message is not warranted. The
abbreviations shown in all capitals will be used as described
below.
(a) Surface wind speed: Widespread mean surface wind speed
above 30 kt is indicated by SFC WSPD (along with details of the wind speed or wind speed range and units).
(b) Surface visibility and/or cloud:
(i) Widespread areas affected by reduced visibility of
less than 3 SM (5 000 m), including weather
phenomena causing reduced visibility indicated by
SFC VIS (along with details of the visibility or visibility range and the weather phenomena or
combinations thereof);
(ii) Widespread areas of broken or overcast cloud with
height of base less than 1 000 ft (300 m) AGL indicated
by BKN CLD or OVC CLD (along with details of
the height or height range of the base, top and units).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET(c) Thunderstorms and/or towering cumulus:
(i) Isolated thunderstorms (ISOL TS);
(ii) Occasional thunderstorms (OCNL TS);
(iii) Isolated thunderstorm with hail (ISOL TSGR);
(iv) Occasional thunderstorms with hail (OCNL TSGR);
(v) Isolated towering cumulus (ISOL TCU);
(vi) Occasional towering cumulus (OCNL TCU);
(vii) Frequent towering cumulus (FRQ TCU);
(viii) Occasional towering cumulus and isolated
thunderstorms (OCNL TCU ISOL TS);
(ix) Frequent towering cumulus and isolated
thunderstorms (FRQ TCU ISOL TS);
(x) Occasional towering cumulus and isolated
thunderstorms with hail (OCNL TCU ISOL TS GR);
(xi) Frequent towering cumulus and isolated
thunderstorms with hail (FRQ TCU ISOL TSGR).
(d) Turbulence— moderate turbulence (except for turbulence
in convective clouds) (MOD TURB).
(e) Icing— moderate icing (except for icing in convective clouds)
(MOD ICE).
(f) Mountain wave— moderate mountain wave (MOD MTW).
An AIRMET will be issued for only one of these criteria at any
time. If more than one criterion occurs, then more than one
AIRMET will be issued.
An isolated (ISOL) phenomenon consists of individual features
which affect, or are forecast to affect, an area with a maximum spatial coverage of 25% or less of the area concerned (at a fixed time or during the period of validity).
An occasional (OCNL) phenomenon consists of well-separated
features which affect, or are forecast to affect, an area with a
maximum spatial coverage of 26% to 50% of the area concerned
(at a fixed time or during the period of validity).
Frequent (FRQ) coverage indicates an area of towering
cumulus (TCU) within which there is little or no separation
between adjacent clouds and with a maximum spatial coverage greater than 50% of the area affected, or forecast to be affected,
by the phenomenon (at a fixed time or during the period of
validity).
5.3 COORDINATE POINTS
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) AIRMET
message describes a coordinate point using only latitude and
longitude.
The national AIRMET message describes a coordinate point
using latitude and longitude. In addition, an equivalent description
is given in terms of direction and distance from an aviation
reference site. There are two exceptions to this rule for the national AIRMET:
(a) Any coordinate point located within Gander Oceanic flight
information region (FIR) will be described in latitude and longitude only.
(b) Any coordinate point north of N72°00’ will be described
with respect to an aviation reference site only if it is within
a 90-NM radius of that site. Otherwise, the coordinate point
will be represented in latitude and longitude only. This is
due to the sparse number of aviation reference sites in
northern Canada.
The usable reference points are a subset of aerodromes listed in
the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS). A complete list is included
in the Manual of Standards and Procedures for Aviation Weather
Forecasts (MANAIR).
5.4 RULES FOR THE USE OF LETTERS
All eight flight information regions (FIRs) share 25 letters of the
alphabet (T is used only for tests).
The letter used cannot currently be in service in any other FIR
and has to have been retired for a minimum of 24 hr. Otherwise
the next letter is used. In addition, the same letter cannot be
used for widely separated occurrences of the same phenomenon,
even within a single FIR.
The letter Z will wrap back to A if necessary.If all letters are unavailable, the letter that has had the longest
retirement will be re-used.
The letter attributed to a bulletin will not change during its
lifespan (updates and cancellation).
AIRMET messages do not share the same alphabet with WS
(SIGMET). The letter A may be used simultaneously in both a WS (or WC or WV) and a WA.
5.5 RULES FOR THE USE OF NUMBERS
Numbering of an event (as defined by the unique use of a letter in a flight information region (FIR) begins at 1 (i.e. B1).
The number is incremented by 1 when updating a message,
including cancellation.
The sequence number shall correspond with the number of
messages issued for an event within a FIR since 0000Z on the
day concerned.
The numbering is thus reset at 0000Z (messages are not updated
at 0000Z for the sole purpose of resetting the number).
5.6 VALIDITY
The period of validity of an AIRMET is 4 hr and it may be issued
up to 4 hr prior to the start of the validity period (i.e. expected time of occurrence of the phenomenon).
In the case of an AIRMET for an ongoing phenomenon, the
date/time group indicating the start of the AIRMET period will be rounded back to 5 min from the filing time (date/time group in the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) heading).
TC AIM March 20, 2025METIn the case of an AIRMET for an expected phenomenon (forecast
event), the beginning of the validity period will be the time of the expected commencement (occurrence) of the phenomenon.
An AIRMET for an expected phenomenon (forecast event) is
issued only for the first appearance of that event in Canadian
airspace (e.g. moving in from the USA or onset inside a Canadian
flight information region (FIR). A phenomenon moving from
one Canadian FIR to another is treated as an ongoing phenomenon.
No forecast event AIRMET messages would be sent for the
second FIR.
5.7 LOCATION OF THE PHENOMENON
The location of the phenomenon is depicted as an area using
coordinate points. The description always begins with the
abbreviation WI (within) and the area can be described as a
circle, a line, or a polygon. Distances are in nautical miles and direction is to one of the eight points of compass (octants). The
following examples below show the international format
(International Civil Aviation Organization [ICAO]), followed
by the national format.
5.7.1 Circle
Example:
ICAO
WI 45 NM OF N4643 W07345
National
WI 45 NM OF /N4643 W07345/75 N CYUL
Plain language explanation of the national format: Within
45 NM of a point, with specified latitude and longitude, that is 75 NM north of Montréal/Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport.
5.7.2 Line
Example:
ICAO
WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN N4459 W07304 – N4855
W07253 – N5256 W06904
National
WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN /N4459 W07304/45 SE
CYUL – /N4855 W07253/30 NW CYRJ – /N5256 W06904/75 W CYWK
Plain language explanation of the national format : Within
90 NM wide line from a point 45 NM southeast of Montréal/
Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport to a point 30 NM northwest of Roberval Airport, followed by a point 75 NM west
of Wabush Airport with the latitude and longitude of each point
being specified. 5.7.3 Polygon
Example:
ICAO
WI N4502 W07345 – N4907
W07331 – N5345 W06943 – N5256W06758 – N4848 W07149 – N4508W07206 – N4502 W07345
National
WI /N4502 W07345/25 SW CYUL –/N4907
W07331/60 SE CYMT – /N5345
W06943/150 E CYAH – /N5256 W06758/45 W
CYWK – /N4848 W07149/25 NE CYRJ – /N4508 W07206/25 SW CYSC – /N4502 W07345/25 SW CYUL
Plain language explanation of the national format: Within an
area bounded by points that are 25 NM southwest of Montréal/Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport; 60 NM southeast
of Chibougamau/Chapais Airport; 150 NM east of La Grande-4
Airport; 45 NM west of Wabush Airport; 25 NM northeast of
Roberval Airport and 25 NM southwest of Sherbrooke, then
back to a point 25 NM southwest of Montréal/Pierre Elliott
Trudeau International Airport. The latitude and longitude of
each point being specified.
NOTE :
The polygon must be closed. The last coordinate is a repeat of
the first one.
5.8 FLIGHT LEVEL AND EXTENT
The location and extent of the phenomenon in the vertical is
given by one or more of the following:
(a) Reporting a layer (FL<nnn/nnn>), where the lower level is
reported first; this is used particularly in reporting turbulence
and icing.
(b) Reporting a layer with reference to one FL and the
surface (SFC).
(c) Reporting the level of the tops of the thunderstorm (TS)
and/or towering cumulus (TCU) clouds using the abbreviation
TOP.
5.9 MOVEMENT OR EXPECTED MOVEMENT
Direction of movement is given with reference to one of the
16 points of compass (radials). Speed is given in knots. The
abbreviation STNR (stationary) is used if no significant movement
is expected.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET5.10 CHANGE IN INTENSITY
The expected evolution of a phenomenon’s intensity is indicated
by one of the following abbreviations:
(a) INTSF —intensifying;
(b) WKN—weakening;
(c) NC—no change.
5.11 REMARK
The remark (RMK) is found only in the national AIRMET
message. It begins on a new line. The purpose is to allow additional
information of national interest to be conveyed in the AIRMET
message. Items listed in the remark line will be separated by a
forward slash (/).The remark always includes the graphic area
forecast (GFA) region(s) to which the AIRMET applies (see
Example 1 in MET 5.16). The remark may also include:
(a) Cross-references to AIRMET messages when a phenomenon
straddles one or several flight information region (FIR)
boundaries (see Example 1 in MET 5.16).
(b) For a phenomenon that has moved out of a flight information
region (FIR), the cancelled AIRMET message will refer to the continuing AIRMET message in neighbouring FIR(s) within Canada’s area of responsibility.
5.12 UPDATED AIRMET
An updated AIRMET, when issued, automatically replaces the
previous AIRMET in the same series (i.e. the previous AIRMET
with the same letter). An AIRMET must be updated every 4 hr
(from date/time group in the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) heading).
However, a forecaster may update an AIRMET at any time if it
is considered necessary.5.13 CANCELLATION
An AIRMET must be cancelled when, during its validity period:
(a) the phenomenon for which the AIRMET had been issued
is no longer occurring or no longer expected to occur (forecast
AIRMET);
(b) the phenomenon for which the AIRMET had been issued
strengthens such that significant meteorological information
(SIGMET) is now required; or
(c) the new issue of the graphic area forecast (GFA) has been transmitted and now includes the phenomenon.
An AIRMET does not cancel itself automatically at the end of
its validity period. A cancellation AIRMET with the abbreviation
CNL must be issued.
5.14 TEST AIRMET
There may be occasions when test AIRMET messages are
transmitted by the meteorological watch office (MWO). The
test AIRMET messages will be identifiable by the letter T in the
alphanumeric sequence (see MET 5.4). Additionally, the statement
“THIS IS A TEST ” will be added at the beginning and end of
the message.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET5.15 AIRMET IDENTIFIERS
Table 5.1—AIRMET Identifiers
INDICATOR FIR NAME ICAO NATIONAL
CZVR VANCOUVER WACN01 CWAO WACN21 CWAO
CZEG EDMONTON WACN02 CWAO WACN22 CWAO
CZWG WINNIPEG WACN03 CWAO WACN23 CWAO
CZYZ TORONTO WACN04 CWAO WACN24 CWAO
CZUL MONTRÉAL WACN05 CWAO WACN25 CWAO
CZQM MONCTON WACN06 CWAO WACN26 CWAO
CZQX GANDER DOMESTIC WACN07 CWAO WACN27 CWAO
CZQX GANDER OCEANIC WANT01 CWAO WANT21 CWAO
5.16 AIRMET EXAMPLES
Example 1:
At 1305Z a pilot weather report (PIREP) from a Beechcraft 1900
(B190) indicated moderate turbulence. This was not forecast in
GFACN32, leading the forecaster to issue the following AIRMET
messages.
ICAO
WACN02 CWAO 251315
CZEG AIRMET H1 VALID 251315/251715 CWEG ‑
CZEG EDMONTON FIR MOD TURB OBS AT 1305Z
WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN
N6228 W11427 – N6441 W10840 – N6453 W09605
FL190/340 MOV NE 10KT NC=
National
WACN22 CWAO 251315
CZEG AIRMET H1 VALID 251315/251715 CWEG ‑
CZEG EDMONTON FIR MOD TURB OBS AT 1305Z
WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN
/N6228 W11427/CYZF – /N6441 W10840/45 W CYOA – /N6453 W09605/30 W CYBK
FL190/340 MOV NE 10KT NC RMK GFACN32=Example 2:
Freezing drizzle (FZDZ) was observed at 0700Z at Churchill
(CYYQ), Man. Icing was not forecast in GFACN32, leading the
forecaster to issue the following AIRMET messages.
ICAO
WACN03 CWAO 250725
CZWG AIRMET A1 VALID 250725/251125 CWEG ‑
CZWG WINNIPEG FIR MOD ICE OBS AT 0700Z WI
90 NM WID LINE BTN
N5955 W09403 – N5845 W09404 – N5646 W08903 SFC/FL020 STNR NC=
National
WACN23 CWAO 250725
CZWG AIRMET A1 VALID 250725/251125 CWEG ‑
CZWG WINNIPEG FIR MOD ICE OBS AT 0700Z WI
90 NM WID LINE BTN
/N5955 W09403/75 S CYEK – /N5845 W09404/CYYQ – /N5646 W08903/60 NW CYER
SFC/FL020 STNR NC RMK GFACN32=
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METExample 3:
Unforecast convective activity (CB) in the GFACN31 area required
the issuance of the following AIRMET messages.
ICAO
WACN01 CWAO 301925
CZVR AIRMET U1 VALID 301925/302325 CWEG ‑
CZVR VANCOUVER FIR ISOL TS OBS WI N5138
W12321 – N4903 W11759 – N4900 W11546 – N5000 W11546 – N5123 W11811 – N5138 W12321 TOP FL240 STNR WKN=
National
WACN21 CWAO 301925
CZVR AIRMET U1 VALID 301925/302325 CWEG ‑
CZVR VANCOUVER FIR ISOL TS OBS WI /N5138 W12321/45 SE CYPU – /N4903
W11759/20 SW CYCG – /N4900 W11546/30 S
CYXC – /N5000 W11546/25 N CYXC –
/N5123 W11811/25 N CYRV – /N5138 W12321/45 SE
CYPU TOP FL240 STNR WKN
RMK GFACN31=
Example 4:
Satellite pictures and surface observations indicate an area of
stratus and fog along the Quebec Lower North Shore was not
well represented in GFACN34 and required the issuance of
AIRMET messages.
ICAO
WACN05 CWAO 301925
CZUL AIRMET J1 VALID 301925/302325 CWEG ‑
CZUL MONTREAL FIR SFC VIS 1/4 ‑1SM FG/BR –
OVC CLD 100 ‑500/1200FT
OBS WI N5013 W06536 – N5011 W06046 – N4906
W06148 – N4932 W06444 –N5013 W06536 STNR NC=
National
WACN25 CWAO 301925
CZUL AIRMET J1 VALID 301925/302325 CWEG ‑
CZUL MONTREAL FIR SFC VIS 1/4 ‑1SM FG/BR –
OVC CLD 100 ‑500/1200FT
OBS WI /N5013 W06536/25 E CYZV – /N5011 W06046/45 E CYNA – /N4906
W06148/60 SE CYNA – /N4932 W06444/25 SW
CYPN – /N5013 W06536/25 E CYZV STNR NC
RMK GFACN34=6.0 SIGNIFICANT
METEOROLOGICAL
INFORMATION (SIGMET)
6.1 DEFINITION
Information message issued by a meteorological watch
office (MWO) to advise pilots of the occurrence or expected
occurrence of specified weather phenomena, which may affect the safety of aircraft operations, and the development of those phenomena in time and space.
6.2 ISSUANCE CRITERIA
Significant meteorological information (SIGMET) is issued in response to the following criteria (the abbreviations are shown in all capital letters):
(a) Thunderstorms:
(i) Frequent (FRQ TS);
(ii) Frequent with hail (FRQ TSGR);
(iii) Frequent with hail and possible tornado/waterspout
(FRQ TSGR POSS +FC);
(iv) Frequent with hail and tornado/waterspout (FRQ
TSGR +FC);
(v) Squall line (SQLN TS);
(vi) Squall line with hail (SQLN TSGR);
(vii) Squall line with possible tornado/waterspout (SQLN
TSGR POSS +FC);
(viii) Squall line with tornado/waterspout (SQLN TSGR +FC);
(b) Severe turbulence (SEV TURB);
(c) Severe icing (SEV ICE);
(d) Severe icing due to freezing rain (SEV ICE [FZRA]);
(e) Severe mountain wave (SEV MTW);
(f) Low-level wind shear (L LVL WS);
(g) Heavy dust storm (HVY DS);
(h) Heavy sandstorm (HVY SS);
(i) Radioactive cloud (RDOACT CLD);
(j) Volcanic ash (VA);
(k) Tropical cyclone (TC).
NOTE S:
1. A squall line is defined as thunderstorms along a line with little or no space between the individual clouds.
2. Severe (SEV) turbulence (TURB) refers only to:
(a) low-level turbulence associated with strong surface
winds;
(b) rotor streaming;
(c) turbulence whether in cloud or not in cloud (i.e. CAT) near jet streams.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET3. TS implies severe icing and turbulence; therefore separate
SIGMET for these phenomenon are not issued in connection
with convective clouds.
4. SIGMET will only be issued for one of these criteria at any
time. If more than one criterion occurs then more than one SIGMET will be issued.
5. Frequent (FRQ) coverage indicates an area of thunderstorms
within which there is little or no separation between adjacent
thunderstorms and with a maximum spatial coverage greater
than 50% of the area affected or forecast to be affected by
the phenomenon (at a fixed time or during the period of
validity).
6. For radioactive cloud SIGMET bulletins, only a circle shape
is to be used for element 5 “location.” A radius of up to
15 NM from the source and a vertical extent from
surface (SFC) to the upper limit of the flight information
region (FIR) is to be applied. Only stationary (STNR) is to be used for expected movement.
6.3 COORDINATE POINTS
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) significant
meteorological information (SIGMET) message describes a
coordinate point using latitude and longitude only.
The national SIGMET message describes a coordinate point
using latitude and longitude. However, in addition, an equivalent
description is also given in terms of direction and distance from
an aviation reference site.
There are two exceptions to the rule for the national SIGMET:
(a) Any coordinate point located within Gander Oceanic flight
information region (FIR) will be described in latitude and
longitude only.
(b) Any coordinate point north of N72°00’ will be described
with respect to an aviation reference site only if it is within
a 90-NM radius of that site. Otherwise, the coordinate point
will be represented in latitude and longitude only. This is
due to the sparse number of aviation reference sites in
northern Canada.
The usable reference sites are a subset of aerodromes listed in
the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) and the closest aerodrome(s)
to the area of the phenomenon are used. A complete list is included
in the Manual of Standards and Procedures for Aviation Weather
Forecasts (MANAIR).
6.4 RULES FOR THE USE OF LETTERS
All 8 flight information regions (FIRs) share 25 letters of the
alphabet (T is used only for tests).
The letter used cannot currently be in service in any other FIR
and has to have been retired for a minimum of 24 hr. Otherwise
the next letter is used. In addition, the same letter cannot be
used for widely separated occurrences of the same phenomenon,
even within a single FIR. This applies for all SIGMET inclusive
of those issued under the normal WS header or for tropical
cyclone under the WC header, or volcanic ash under the WV
header. The letter Z will wrap back to A if necessary. If all letters are unavailable, the letter that has had the longest retirement
will be re-used.
The letter attributed to a bulletin will not change during its
lifespan (updates and cancellation).
SIGMET and AIRMET messages use the alphabet independently
of each other. The same letter may be in use for both a SIGMET (inclusive of all types) and an AIRMET at the same time but never for 2 SIGMET at the same time.
6.5 RULES FOR THE USE OF NUMBERS
Numbering of an event (as defined by the unique use of a letter in a flight information region [FIR]) begins at 1 (i.e. B1).
Number incremented by 1 when updating a message, including
cancellation.
The sequence number shall correspond with the number of
messages issued for an event within a FIR since 0000Z on the
day concerned.
The numbering is thus reset at 0000Z (messages are not updated
at 0000Z for the sole purpose of resetting the number).
6.6 VALIDITY
The period of validity of a SIGMET is 4 hr and it may be issued
up to 4 hr prior to the commencement of the phenomenon in
the corresponding flight information region (FIR). There is an exception for volcanic ash and tropical storm SIGMETs which are valid for 6 hr and may be issued up to 12 hr before they enter the corresponding FIR.
In the case of a SIGMET for an ongoing phenomenon, the
date/time group indicating the start of the SIGMET period
will be rounded back to 5 min from the filing time (date/
time group in the World Meteorological Organization [WMO]
heading).
In the case of a SIGMET for an expected phenomenon (forecast
event), the beginning of the validity period will be the time of the expected commencement (occurrence) of the phenomenon.
Any SIGMET for an expected phenomenon (forecast event) is
issued only for the first appearance of an event in Canadian
airspace (e.g. moving in from the U.S. or onset inside a Canadian
FIR). A phenomenon moving from one Canadian FIR to another
is treated as an ongoing phenomenon. No forecast event SIGMET
messages would be sent for the second FIR.
6.7 LOCATION OF THE PHENOMENON
The location of the phenomenon is depicted as an area using
coordinate points. The description always begins with the
abbreviation WI (within) and the area can be described as a
circle, a line, or a polygon. Distances are in nautical miles and direction is to one of the eight points of compass (octants). The
following examples below show the international format
(International Civil Aviation Organization [ICAO]), followed
by the national format. For plain language explanations of circle,
line, and polygon descriptions in the national format, see MET 5.7.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET6.7.1 Circle
Example:
ICAO
WI 45 NM OF N4643 W07345
National
WI 45 NM OF /N4643 W07345/75 N CYUL
6.7.2 Line
Example:
ICAO
WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN N4459 W07304– N4855
W07253 – N5256 W06904
National
WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN /N4459 W07304/45 SE
CYUL – /N4855 W07253/30 NW CYRJ –/N5256
W06904/75 W CYWK
6.7.3 Polygon
Example:
ICAO
WI N4502 W07345 – N4907
W07331 – N5345 W06943 – N5256W06758 – N4848 W07149 – N4508
W07206 ‑ N4502 W07345
National
WI /N4502 W07345/25 SW CYUL –/N4907
W07331/60 SE CYMT – /N5345
W06943/150 E CYAH – /N5256 W06758/45 W
CYWK – /N4848 W07149/25 NE CYRJ – /N4508
W07206/25 SW CYSC – /N4502 W07345/25 SW
CYUL
NOTE :
Tropical cyclone and volcanic ash SIGMETs also describe the
affected location at the end of the forecast period.
6.8 FLIGHT LEVEL AND EXTENT
The location and extent of the phenomenon in the vertical is
given by one or more of the following:
(a) Reporting a layer—FL<nnn/nnn>—where the lower level
is reported first; this is used particularly in reporting
turbulence and icing.
(b) Reporting a layer with reference to one FL and the
surface (SFC).
(c) Reporting the level of the tops of the thunderstorms (TS)
using the abbreviation TOP.6.9 MOVEMENT OR EXPECTED MOVEMENT
Direction of movement is given with reference to one of the 16
points of compass (radials). Speed is given in knots. The
abbreviation STNR (stationary) is used if no significant movement
is expected.
6.10 CHANGE IN INTENSITY
The expected evolution of a phenomenon’s intensity is indicated
by one of the following abbreviations:
(a) INTSF —intensifying;
(b) WKN—weakening;
(c) NC—no change.
6.11 REMARK
The remark (RMK) is found only in the national significant
meteorological information (SIGMET) message. It begins on a
new line. The purpose is to allow additional information of
national interest to be conveyed in the SIGMET message. Items listed in the remark line will be separated by a forward slash (/).
The remark always includes the graphic area forecast (GFA)
region(s) to which the SIGMET message applies (see Example 1a
and 1b in MET 6.16). The remark may also include:
(a) Cross-references to SIGMET messages when a phenomenon
straddles one or several flight information region (FIR)
boundaries (see Example 1a and 1b in MET 6.16).
(b) For a phenomenon that has moved out of a FIR, the cancelled
SIGMET message will refer to the continuing SIGMET
message in neighbouring FIR(s) within Canada’s area of
responsibility (see Example 2 in MET 6.16).
6.12 UPDATED SIGNIFICANT
METEOROLOGICAL
INFORMATION (SIGMET)
An updated significant meteorological information (SIGMET)
message, when issued, automatically replaces the previous
SIGMET in the same series (i.e. the previous SIGMET with the
same letter).
A WS SIGMET must be updated every 4 hr (from date/time
group in the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
heading).
A WV and a WC SIGMET must be updated every 6 hr (from
date/time group in the WMO heading).
However, a forecaster may update a SIGMET at any time if it is
considered necessary.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET6.13 CANCELLATION
If, during the validity period of a significant meteorological
information (SIGMET) message, the phenomenon for which
the SIGMET had been issued is no longer occurring or no longer
expected to occur, this SIGMET should be cancelled by the
issuing meteorological watch office (MWO). A cancellation
SIGMET will be issued and will include the abbreviation CNCL.
6.14 TEST SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL
INFORMATION (SIGMET) MESSAGE
There may be occasions when test significant meteorological
information (SIGMET) messages are transmitted by the
meteorological watch office (MWO). The test SIGMET messages
will be identifiable by the letter T in the alphanumeric sequence.
Additionally, the statement “ THIS IS A TEST ” will be added at
the beginning and end of the message.
6.15 SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL
INFORMATION (SIGMET) MESSAGE
IDENTIFIERS
Table 6.1—SIGMET Message Identifiers
INDICATOR FIR NAME TYPE ICAO NATIONAL
CZVR VANCOUVER SIGMET
SIGMET (TC)SIGMET(VA)WSCN01 CWAO
WCCN01 CWAO
WVCN01 CWAOWSCN21 CWAO
WCCN21 CWAO WVCN21 CWAO
CZEG EDMONTON SIGMET
SIGMET (TC)SIGMET(VA)WSCN02 CWAO
WCCN02 CWAO
WVCN02 CWAOWSCN22 CWAO
WCCN22 CWAO WVCN22 CWAO
CZWG WINNIPEG SIGMET
SIGMET (TC)SIGMET(VA)WSCN03 CWAO
WCCN03 CWAO
WVCN03 CWAWSCN23 CWAO
WCCN23 CWAO WVCN23 CWAO
CZYZ TORONTO SIGMET
SIGMET (TC)SIGMET(VA)WSCN04 CWAO
WCCN04 CWAO
WVCN04 CWAOWSCN24 CWAO
WCCN24 CWAO WVCN24 CWAO
CZUL MONTRÉAL SIGMET
SIGMET (TC)SIGMET(VA)WSCN05 CWAO
WCCN05 CWAO
WVCN05 CWAOWSCN25 CWAO
WCCN25 CWAO WVCN25 CWAO
CZQM MONCTON SIGMET
SIGMET (TC)SIGMET(VA)WSCN06 CWAO
WCCN06 CWAO
WVCN06 CWAOWSCN26 CWAO
WCCN26 CWAO WVCN26 CWAO
CZQX GANDER DOMESTIC SIGMET
SIGMET (TC)SIGMET(VA)WSCN07 CWAO
WCCN07 CWAO
WVCN07 CWAOWSCN27 CWAO
WCCN27 CWAO WVCN27 CWAO
CZQX GANDER OCEANIC SIGMET
SIGMET (TC)SIGMET(VA)WSNT01 CWAO
WCNT01 CWAO
WVNT01 CWAOWSNT21 CWAO
WCNT21 CWAO WVNT21 CWAO
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET6.16 SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL
INFORMATION (SIGMET) MESSAGE
EXAMPLES
Example 1a:
An observed line of thunderstorms is over northwestern Ontario
late in the day. This is the fourth significant meteorological
information (SIGMET) message issued for this event.
ICAO
WSCN03 CWAO 162225
CZWG SIGMET A4 VALID 162225/170225 CWEG ‑
CZWG WINNIPEG FIR SQL TS OBS WI 40 NM WID
LINE BTN N4929 W09449 –
N5104 W09348 – N5209 W09120 TOP FL340 MOV
E 15KT NC=
National
WSCN23 CWAO 162225
CZWG SIGMET A4 VALID 162225/170225 CWEG ‑
CZWG WINNIPEG FIR SQL TS OBS WI 40 NM WID
LINE BTN /N4929 W09449/25 SW
CYQK – /N5104 W09348/CYRL – /N5209
W09120/60 NW CYPL TOP FL340 MOV E
15KT NCRMK GFACN33=
Example 1b:
This SIGMET was updated after 000Z on the 17th, so the SIGMET
number was reset while the letter remains the same.
ICAO
WSCN03 CWAO 170205
CZWG SIGMET A1 VALID 170205/170605 CWEG ‑
CZWG WINNIPEG FIR SQL TS OBS WI 40 NM WID
LINE BTN N4915 W09332 – N5103W09212 – N5144 W08943 TOP FL310 MOV E 15KT
WKN=
National
WSCN23 CWAO 170205
CZWG SIGMET A1 VALID 170205/170605 CWEG ‑
CZWG WINNIPEG FIR SQL TS OBS WI 40 NM WID
LINE BTN /N4915 W09332/45 SE
CYQK – /N5103 W09212/60 E CYRL – /N5144
W08943/25 NE CYPL TOP FL310 MOV E 15KT WKN
RMK GFACN33=Example 2:
Severe mountain waves (lee waves) along the eastern side of the
Rockies. The line falls entirely within the Edmonton flight
information region (FIR) but covers two graphic area
forecast (GFA) regions. The remark line in the national SIGMET
message will mention the affected GFACNs.
ICAO
WSCN02 CWAO 161220
CZEG SIGMET L1 VALID 161220/161620 CWEG ‑
CZEG EDMONTON FIR SEV MTW FCST WI 60 NM
WID LINE BTN N5614 W12155 – N5105 W11440 FL070/140 STNR INTSF=
National
WSCN22 CWAO 161220
CZEG SIGMET L1 VALID 161220/161220 CWEG ‑
CZEG EDMONTON FIR SEV MTW FCST WI 60 NM
WID LINE BTN /N5614 W12155/45 W CYXJ – /
N5105 W11440/25 W CYYC FL070/140 STNR INTSF
RMK GFACN31/GFACN32=
Example 3:
Following an air report (AIREP) for severe turbulence encountered
over the North Atlantic (NAT), the following SIGMET messages
are issued. This event spans over Gander Domestic and Gander
Oceanic FIRs as well as GFACN34.
ICAO
CZQX WSCN07 CWAO 161220
CZQX SIGMET E1 VALID 161220/161620 CWUL ‑
CZQX GANDER DOMESTIC FIR SEV TURB OBS
AT 1155Z WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN
N5319 W06025 – N5615 W05245 – N5930 W04715 FL280/350 MOV NE 20KT NC=
CZQX (Oceanic)
WSNT01 CWAO 161220
CZQX SIGMET U1 VALID 161220/161620 CWUL ‑
CZQX GANDER OCEANIC FIR SEV TURB OBS AT
1155Z WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN N5319
W06025 – N5615 W05245 – N5930 W04715 FL280/350 MOV NE 20KT NC=
TC AIM March 20, 2025METNational
CZQX WSCN27 CWAO 161220
CZQX SIGMET E1 VALID162225/170225 CWUL ‑
CZQX GANDER DOMESTIC FIR SEV TURB OBS
AT 1155Z WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN
/N5319 W06025/CYYR – /N5615 W05245/ – /N5930
W04715/ FL280/350 MOV NE 20KT NC
RMK GFACN34/CZQX GANDER OCEANIC FIR
SIGMET U1=
CZQX (Oceanic)
WSNT21 CWAO 162225
CZQX SIGMET U1 VALID 162225/170225 CWUL ‑
CZQX GANDER OCEANIC FIR SEV TURB OBS AT
1155Z WI 90 NM WID LINE BTN /N5319
W06025/CYYR – /N5615 W05245/ – /N5930 W04715/ FL280/350 MOV NE 20KT NC
RMK GFACN34/CZQX GANDER DOMESTIC FIR
SIGMET E1=
NOTE :
Since this event spans over two FIRs, the remark line includes
cross-references to the SIGMET messages. Note that only the
first coordinate point relates to an aviation reference site. The
other two coordinate points are in Gander Oceanic FIR and are defined only in latitudes and longitudes.
Example 4:
The centre of hurricane Maria is about to move across the Avalon
Peninsula. The tropical cyclone SIGMET (WCCN) is updated
and only covers the Gander Domestic FIR and GFACN34, since the CB activity is confined within a radius of 150 NM from the centre of the hurricane.
ICAO
WCCN07 CWAO 161220
CZQX SIGMET G3 VALID 1601800/170000 CWUL ‑
CZQX GANDER DOMESTIC FIR TC MARIA OBS AT 1800Z N4720 W05430/ CB TOP
FL360 WI 150NM OF CENTRE MOV NE 40KT
WKNG FCST 0000Z TC CENTRE N5110 W05030 =
National
WCCN27 CWAO 161220
CZQX SIGMET G3 VALID 161800/170000 CWUL ‑
CZQX GANDER DOMESTIC FIR TC MARIA OBS AT 1800Z N4720 W05430/75 SW
CYYT CB TOP FL360 WI 150NM OF CENTRE MOV
NE 40KT WKNG FCST 0000Z
TC CENTRE N5110 W05030/180 NE CYYTRMK GFACN34=
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET7.0 AERODROME
FORECASTS (TAFS)
7.1 AERODROME FORECAST (TAF) LOCATIONS
Figure 7.1—TAF Locations
Arctic
OceanArctic
Ocean
Atlantic
OceanAtlantic
Ocean
Hudson
BayHudson
Bay
Provincial Boundary
International Boundary
24-hr forecast service is only mandatory
at international airports.AERODROME FORECAST
INDICATES ADVISORY
INDICATES 24-HR FORECAST
INDICATES 30-HR FORECASTINDICATES SEASONAL 24-HR FORECAST
NOTE :
The above chart is incomplete and may be out of date. Pilots
should consult the current flight publications and NOTAM to
confirm TAF availability.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET7.2 GENERAL
TAF is the international meteorological code for an aerodrome
forecast, which is a description of the most probable weather
conditions expected to occur at an aerodrome, together with
their most probable time of occurrence. It is designed to meet
the pre-flight and in-flight requirements of flight operations.
The abbreviations of expected weather conditions follow the
same form and order as those found in an aerodrome routine
meteorological report (METAR) (see MET 8.0); they also have
the same meaning.
In normal situations, an observation is considered representative
of the specific weather conditions at the aerodrome if it is taken
within 1.6 NM (3 km) of the geometric centre of the runway
complex. TAFs are intended to relate to weather conditions for
flight operations within 5 NM of the centre of the runway complex, depending on local terrain. Significant weather
conditions, such as thunderstorms, within 5 to 10 NM of the
aerodrome are also included. A regular and complete observation
program that meets Transport Canada (TC) standards for
METARs and aerodrome special meteorological reports (SPECI)
is a prerequisite for the production of a TAF.
TAFs are also increasingly available in the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) meteorological information
exchange model (IWXXM) geography markup language (GML)
form. The technical specifications for IWXXM are contained
in the Manual on Codes (WMO [World Meteorological
Organization]-No. 306), Volume I.3, Part D. Guidance on the
implementation of IWXXM is provided in the Manual on the
ICAO Meteorological Information Exchange Model (Doc 10003).
The IWXXM version includes all the content of a traditional
TAF but may include additional information and metadata.
Aerodrome advisories may be issued when this observation
program prerequisite cannot be completely satisfied. Aerodrome
advisories are identified by the word “ADVISORY” appearing
after the date/time group, followed by one of the qualifying
reasons listed below. Advisories are formatted in the same manner
as TAFs.
OFFSITE— The advisory is based on an observation that is not
taken at or near the airport. “OFFSITE” is added after the word
“ADVISORY,” followed by one space, if an observation is not
considered representative. It is intended to indicate to the users
that the observations do not necessarily reflect the actual
conditions at the aerodrome.OBS INCOMPLETE or NO SPECI— The advisory is based on
incomplete data, either because the observations could not be
completed, or because the aerodrome does not have an on-going
weather watch in order to produce SPECIs. “OBS INCOMPLETE”
or “NO SPECI” shall be added after the word “ADVISORY,”
followed by one space.7.3 NATIONAL VARIATIONS
As with the aerodrome routine meteorological report (METAR)
code, even though aerodrome forecast (TAF) is an international
code, there are national variations. For example, “CAVOK” is
not authorized for use in Canadian TAFs, while “RMK” is used,
but is not part of the international code. See MET 1.1.8 for more
information on differences from the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Annex 3.
Sample Message
TAF CYXE 281139Z 2812/2912 24010G25KT WS011/ 27050KT 3SM –SN BKN010 OVC040 TEMPO
2818/2901 1 1/2SM –SN BL SN BKN008 PROB30
2820/2822 1/2SM SN VV005 FM290 130Z 28010KT
5SM –SN BKN020 BECMG 2906/2908 000000KT
P6SM SKC RMK NXT FCST BY 281800Z
Sample message decoded— Aerodrome Forecast; Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan; issued on the 28th day of the month at 1139Z;
covers the period from the 28th day of the month at 1200Z to
the 29th day of the month at 1200Z; surface wind 240° true at 10 kt, gusting to 25 kt; wind shear is forecast to exist in the layer
from the surface to 1 100 ft AGL, with the wind at the shear
height of 270° true at 50 kt; forecast prevailing visibility is 3 SM
in light snow; forecast cloud layers are broken at 1 000 ft and
overcast at 4 000 ft; between 1800Z on the 28th day and 0100Z
on the 29th day there will be a temporary change to the prevailing
visibility to 1 1/2 SM in light snow and blowing snow with a
broken cloud layer at 800 ft; there is a 30% probability between 2000Z and 2200Z on the 28th day that the prevailing visibility
will be 1/2 SM in moderate snow and create an obscuring
phenomena, resulting in a vertical visibility of 500 ft; at 0130Z on the 29th day there will be a permanent change, the wind is
forecast to be 280° true at 10 kt with a prevailing visibility of
5 SM in light snow and a broken cloud layer at 2 000 ft; between 0600Z and 0800Z on the 29th day there will be a gradual change
in the weather to calm winds and a forecast visibility greater
than 6 SM, and the sky will be clear of clouds;
Remarks: the next routine aerodrome forecast for this site will
be issued by 1800Z on the 28th day.
Report type— The code name “TAF” is given in the first line of
text. It may be followed by “AMD” for amended or corrected
forecasts.
Location indicator— A four-letter International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) location indicator is used, as in aerodrome
routine meteorological reports (METARs). See MET 8.3.Date and time of origin— As with the METAR format, the date
(day of the month) and time (Coordinated Universal Time [UTC])
of origin are included in all forecasts. TAFs are issued
approximately 20 min before the validity period. Some forecasts
have update cycles as frequent as every three hours; however,
the next issue time will always be indicated in the remarks section.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METPeriod of validity— The period of validity for the TAF is indicated
by two four-digit date/time groups; the first four-digit group
indicates the start date and time of the TAF, and the second
four-digit group indicates the end date and time of the TAF. A
TAF is considered to be valid from the moment it is issued (e.g. a TAF with an indicated period of validity from 1100Z to 2300Z that was issued at 1040Z is considered to be valid from 1040Z) until it is amended; until the next scheduled TAF for the same aerodrome is issued; or until the period of validity ends and no new TAF has been issued. The maximum period of validity for a TAF is 30 hr; however, some TAFs have staggered issue times and more frequent update cycles, which affects their periods of validity.
Wind— This group forecasts the 2-min mean wind direction
and speed to the nearest 10° true, and speed to the nearest whole
knot. “KT” is used to indicate the speed units. If the maximum
gust speed is forecast to exceed the mean speed by 10 kt or more,
the letter G and the value of the gust speed, in knots, is added between the mean wind and the unit indicator (KT). “VRB” is normally coded for variable direction only if the wind speed is
3 kt or less; however, it may also be coded with higher speeds
when it is impossible to forecast a single direction (e.g. when a thunderstorm passes). A north wind of 20 kt would be coded as 36020KT, while calm wind is coded as 00000KT.
Low-level wind shear— This group is used if the forecaster has
strong evidence to expect significant, non-convective wind shear
that could adversely affect aircraft operation within 1 500 ft AGL
over the aerodrome. The height of the top of the shear layer (in
hundreds of feet above ground level) is given, followed by the
forecast wind speed and direction at that height.While the main effect of turbulence is related to erratic changes
in altitude or attitude of the aircraft, or both, the main effect of wind shear is the rapid gain or, more critical, loss of airspeed.
Therefore, for forecasting purposes, any cases of strong, non-
convective low-level wind shear within 1 500 ft AGL will be
labelled as “WS.”
To a great extent, wind shear is an element that, for the time
being, cannot be satisfactorily observed from the ground. As a
result, aircraft observations and radiosonde reports represent
the only available evidence.
However, the following guidelines are used to establish whether
significant non-convective wind shear hazardous to aircraft
exists:
(a) vector magnitude exceeding 25 kt within 500 ft AGL;
(b) vector magnitude exceeding 40 kt within 1 000 ft AGL;
(c) vector magnitude exceeding 50 kt within 1 500 ft AGL;
(d) a pilot report of loss or gain of IAS of 20 kt or more within 1 500 ft AGL.
Prevailing visibility —The horizontal prevailing visibility is
indicated in statute miles and fractions up to 3 SM, then in whole
miles up to 6 SM. Visibilities greater than 6 SM are indicated as
P6SM. The letters “SM” are added, without a space, to each forecast
visibility, to identify the unit.Significant weather —Forecast significant weather may be decoded
using the list of significant weather given in the WMO Code
Table 4678 (Table 8.1) in MET 8.2. Intensity and proximity qualifiers, descriptors, precipitation, obscuration and other phenomena are included as required. A maximum of three
significant weather groups is allowed per forecast period. If more than one group is used, they are considered one entity. When one
of the significant weather groups is forecast to change, all the
significant weather groups that will apply after the change are
indicated following the change group. Details on the specific
effects of change groups on significant weather will be addressed under the change group headings.
NOTE :
The meaning of the proximity qualifier, vicinity (VC), in the TAF
code differs slightly from that in the METAR. In the METAR
code, “VC” means elements observed within 5 SM., but not at the
station. In the TAF code, “VC” means between 5 and 10 NM from
the centre of the runway complex.
Sky condition— Sky condition is decoded as in a METAR. Heights
are AGL. Possible codes for sky cover amounts are SKC, FEW,
SCT, BKN, OVC and VV. In case of a significant change in a
cloud layer, as forecast using “BECMG” or “TEMPO”, the entire
cloud group, including those cloud layers that are not expected
to change, shall be repeated.
CB layers are the only forecast layers to have cloud type identified,
e.g. “BKN040CB.”
Change groups —For forecast purposes, all components of the
following elements are grouped together:
(a) sky condition,
(b) visibility, present weather and obstruction to vision.
Conditions listed after the change group represent new conditions.
In the following example, since wind is considered a group on
its own and is not mentioned in the section after the “BECMG” change group, it is unchanged and will remain variable at 3 kt.
However, changes have occurred to the sky condition and
visibility, present weather and obstruction to vision. For the sky
condition, the broken layer at 300 ft will no longer exist after
1400Z.
Example:
TAF CYVP 301213Z 3012/3024 VRB03KT 1/4SM
‑RA FG BKN003 OVC007
BECMG 3012/3014 4SM ‑DZ BR OVC00 7
Plain language explanation of the forecast : TAF for Kuujjuaq, Que.,
issued on the 30th day of the month at 1213Z, valid from the
30th day of the month at 1200Z until the 30th day of the month
at 2359Z. Wind variable at 3 kt, visibility 1/4 SM with light rain and fog; forecast cloud layers are broken at 300 ft and overcast
at 700 ft. From 1200Z until 1400Z, conditions will become
visibility 4 SM with light drizzle and mist; overcast cloud layer at 700 ft.
TC AIM March 20, 2025METPermanent change group (rapid)(FM)— FM is the abbreviation
for “from.” It is used for a permanent change to the forecast that
will occur rapidly. All forecast conditions given before this group
are superseded by the conditions indicated after the group. In
other words, a complete forecast will follow and all elements
must be indicated, including those for which no change is forecast.
The time group represents hours and minutes in UTC.
Example:
“FM280930 would decode as the beginning of a new part period
forecast from the 28th day of the month at 0930Z.
NOTE :
Where the permanent change group indicator (FM) indicates a
change after the beginning of a whole hour, as in the example above, any subsequent use of a gradual change group (BECMG)
or transitory change group (TEMPO) shall indicate changes
after the time indicated in hours and minutes in the “from” (FM)
indicator. Using the above example, if there was a subsequent
use of “TEMP0 2809/2811,” the temporary change would be
between 0930Z and 1100Z on the 28th day of the m onth.
Permanent change group (gradual) (BECMG)— If a permanent
change in a few weather elements is forecast to occur gradually, with conditions evolving over a period of time (normally one to two hours, but not more than four hours), the new conditions
that differ from those immediately prior are indicated following
“BECMG.” Normally only those elements for which a change is
forecast to occur will follow “BECMG.” Any forecast weather
element not indicated as part of the “BECMG” group remains the same as in the period prior to the onset of the change.
If a significant change in weather or visibility is forecast, all
weather groups, as well as the visibility, are indicated following
“BECMG,” including those that are unchanged. When the ending
of significant weather is forecast, the abbreviation “NSW” (no significant weather) is used.
The start and stop time of the change period is indicated by two
four-digit date/time groups following “BECMG.” The first two digits of each group indicate the date, while the last two digits of each group indicate the time in whole UTC hours.
As a general rule, to keep the forecast clear and unambiguous,
the use of the “BECMG” change group is kept to a minimum,
and confined to those cases where only one, or at most two,
weather groups are expected to change while all the others stay
the same. In those cases where more than two groups are expected
to change, the permanent change group “FM” will be used to
start a new self-contained part period. For the purposes of flight
planning, and specifically for the selection of IFR alternate
aerodromes, if forecast conditions are improving, the new
conditions will apply when the change period is complete, and
if the conditions are deteriorating, the new conditions will apply
at the beginning of the period.Example:
“BECMG 2808/2809 OVC030” would decode as a change towards
overcast sky conditions at 3 000 ft AGL occurring gradually
between 0800Z and 0900Z on the 28th day of the month; and
(a) if the previous sky condition forecast was for better than
overcast conditions at 3 000 ft AGL, then the change would apply as of 0800Z; or
(b) if the previous sky condition forecast was for worse than
overcast conditions at 3 000 ft AGL, then the change would apply as of 0900Z.
Transitory change group (TEMPO)— If a temporary fluctuation
in some or all of the weather elements is forecast to occur during
a specified period, the new conditions that differ from those
immediately prior are indicated following “TEMPO.” In other
words, when an element is not indicated after “TEMPO,” it shall
be considered to be the same as that for the prior period. The
time period, as with “BECMG,” is indicated by two four-digit
date/time groups following “TEMPO.” The first two digits of
each group indicate the date, while the last two digits of each
group indicate the time in whole UTC hours.
Example:
FM281100 VRB03KT 3SM RA BR OVC020 TEMPO
2812/2815 1SM RA BR FM28150...
In this example, the cloud group “OVC020” is not repeated after
“TEMPO” because it is forecast to remain unchanged. On the
other hand, the weather group “RA BR” is repeated after
“TEMPO” because a significant change in visibility is forecast.
When a significant change in weather or visibility is forecast, all
weather groups are indicated following “TEMPO,” including those
that are unchanged, and any weather element not indicated is forecast
to remain the same as in the period prior to the temporary fluctuation.
When the ending of significant weather is forecast, the abbreviation
“NSW” (no significant weather) is used.
“TEMPO” is only used when the modified forecast condition is
expected to last less than one hour in each instance, and if expected
to recur, the total period of the modified condition will not cover
more than half of the total forecast period. The total period of
the modified condition is the time period during which the
actual modified weather condition is expected to occur, and not
the total time stated for the “TEMPO” time period. When the
modified forecast condition is expected to last more than one
hour, either “FM” or “BECMG” must be used.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METProbability group (PROB)— In order to indicate the probability
of occurrence of alternative values of forecast groups, PROB30
(a 30% probability) or PROB40 (a 40% probability) is placed
directly before the change group’s validity period and alternative
value(s) to indicate that different conditions will occur within
the specified time period. The time period is given in whole
UTC hour values. For example, “PROB30 2817/2821” would
indicate that between 1700Z and 2100Z on the 28th day of the
month there is a 30% probability that the indicated weather will
occur. The weather elements used in the PROB group are
restricted to hazards to aviation, which include, but are not
limited to, the following:
(a) thunderstorms;
(b) freezing precipitation;
(c) low-level wind shear at or below 1 500 ft AGL; or
(d) ceiling and visibility values important to aircraft operations
(e.g. threshold such as alternate limits, lowest approach limits).
A probability of less than 30% of actual values deviating from
those forecasts is not considered to justify the use of the PROB
group. When the possibility of an alternative value is 50% or
more, this shall be indicated by the use of BECMG, TEMPO or FM, as appropriate.
A PROB can be used with a TEMPO and with a BECMG; however:
(a) A PROB must fall entirely within or entirely outside of the hours of a TEMPO and be written after the TEMPO.
(b) A combination of all three (TEMPO, PROB and BECMG) is not permitted.
(c) A PROB can be followed by a BECMG but must not share any common hours.
Remarks— Remarks will appear in TAF from Canada, prefaced
by “RMK.” Currently, the following remarks are allowed:
(a) FCST BASED ON AUTO OBS— This remark indicates
that the TAF is based on METAR AUTO observations.
(b) NXT FCST BY 290000Z— This remark indicates the date
and time (UTC) the next regular TAF will be issued, which
will correspond to the beginning of its new period of validity.
This remark will normally mark the end of the TAF.
(c) PARTIAL PROGRAM NOTICES— For aerodromes with
a partial observing program (e.g. no night-time observations
are taken), a remark is included in the last regular TAF
issued for the day to indicate when forecast coverage will
resume, e.g. “NXT FCST WILL BE ISSUED AT 291045Z”.
For military aerodromes, remarks may also be used and
will take the form of either, “NO FCST COVERAGE 2820–
2911Z,” or “NO FCST ISSUED UNTIL FURTHER NOTICE”.
(d) POSSIBLE DISCREPANCIES— Forecasters will use remarks
to explain possible discrepancies between an AWOS and a TAF
if the forecasters have reason to believe that the AWOS observations
are not representative of the actual weather at the aerodrome.
For example, the remarks could be “RMK AUTO OBS REPG
NON -REPRESENTATIVE WND SPD” or “RMK AUTO OBS
REPG NON-REPRESENTATIVE VIS.”7.4 AERODROME FORECASTS (TAF) FROM
AUTOMATIC AERODROME ROUTINE
METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS (METAR AUTO)
At some sites equipped with automated weather observation
system (AWOS), forecasters will issue an aerodrome forecast (TAF)
based in part on the METAR AUTO observations made by the
AWOS at the aerodrome. The only visible distinction between this forecast and a TAF that is based on human observations is the comment at the end of the TAF “FCST BASED ON AUTO OBS”. The TAF based on automated observations, like the TAF
based on human observations, provides a description of the
most probable weather conditions expected to occur at an
aerodrome, together with the most probable time of occurrence.
The abbreviated comment “FCST BASED ON AUTO OBS” at
the end of the TAF is meant to inform pilots that the forecast
has been developed from an automated weather observation.
The pilot using this forecast should be familiar with the
characteristics of METAR AUTO weather observations, and the
comparison of automated and human observations contained
in MET 8.4, e.g., the automated weather observation
system (AWOS) cloud height sensor tends to under-read during precipitation events. The forecaster is also familiar with AWOS
characteristics and has taken time to analyze not only AWOS
data, but also additional information such as satellite and radar
imagery, lightning data, remote video imagery, pilot reports,
and observations from surrounding stations. Based on integration
of this data, the forecaster may have inferred actual weather
conditions that differ slightly from the METAR AUTO report.
On those few occasions when there are differences between a
METAR AUTO report and a TAF, it may not imply that the TAF
is inaccurate, or that an amendment is required. In the event
that an AWOS sensor is missing, inoperative, or functioning
below standards, the forecaster will attempt to infer the value
of the missing weather element from other available data and
may include a remark in the TAF. If the forecaster is unable to infer the weather conditions, a decision may be made to cancel
the TAF, pending correction of the problem. The decision to
cancel will depend on the weather conditions prevailing at the
time, and how critical the missing information is to the issuance
of a credible TAF based on the automated data that is available.
7.5 AMENDED AERODROME
FORECAST (TAF)
An aerodrome forecast (TAF) is amended when the forecast
conditions are no longer representative of the current or expected
conditions. An amendment is issued in response to a aerodrome
routine meteorological report (METAR), aerodrome special
meteorological report (SPECI) or pilot weather report (PIREP)
indicating a significant change in weather relative to the
conditions forecast in the TAF or whenever, in the forecaster’s judgment, the TAF is not representative of existing or expected weather conditions.
TC AIM March 20, 2025METThe amendment criteria include thresholds defined by changes
in ceiling, visibility, present weather, wind speed and direction or the existence of low-level wind shear. TAF amendments are issued for weather that is better than previously forecast as well as for weather that is worse than previously forecast.
An amendment will also be issued to correct a TAF when
typographical errors and/or forecast text omissions are such
that the information content of the TAF is unclear.
An amended forecast covers the remaining period of the original
forecast and is identified by TAF AMD in place of TAF prior to
the aerodrome identifier in the first line of the forecast. In all
cases, the issue time added to the body of the TAF will always indicate which TAF is the latest.
A TAF does not have to be amended for changes in ceiling
and/or visibility when both the forecast and observed values
are below the normal visual flight rules (VFR) minima or
the lowest published instrument landing minima for an
aerodrome (whichever is lower).
The VFR minima criteria for TAF amendment purposes are a
ceiling of less than 1 000 ft and/or ground visibility of less than 3 SM.
8.0 AERODROME ROUTINE
METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS (METARS)
8.1 THE AERODROME ROUTINE
METEOROLOGICAL REPORT (METAR)
CODE
An aerodrome routine meteorological report (METAR) describes
the actual weather conditions at a specified location and at a
specified time as observed from the ground. METAR is the name
of the international meteorological code for an aerodrome routine
meteorological report. METAR observations are normally taken
and disseminated on the hour. An aerodrome special
meteorological report (SPECI), the name of the code for an
aerodrome special meteorological report, will be reported when
weather changes of significance to aviation are observed (see
MET 8.3).
In Canada, METARs and SPECIs are not encoded by the observer,
but are generated by computer software, based on hourly or
special observations taken at either staffed or automatic sites.
The code is composed of several groups which are always in the
same relative position to one another. When a weather element
or phenomenon does not occur, the corresponding group (or
extension) is omitted. Certain groups may be repeated.
METARs and SPECIs are also disseminated in ICAO meteorological information exchange model (IWXXM) geography markup language (GML) form. The technical
specifications for IWXXM are contained in the Manual on
Codes (WMO [World Meteorological Organization]-No. 306),
Volume I.3, Part D. Guidance on the implementation of IWXXM
is provided in the Manual on the ICAO Meteorological Information
Exchange Model (Doc 10003).The large majority of METARs and SPECIs are provided by
NAV CANADA; however, at Department of National Defence (DND) aerodromes they are provided by DND. If
METARs and SPECIs are being provided by another source,
they will be indicated as being “private” in the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS). For these sites, the aerodrome operator is the
primary contact for further information.
8.2 NATIONAL VARIATIONS
Despite the fact that an aerodrome routine meteorological
report (METAR) is an international code, there are some national
variations. For example, wind speed may be reported in different
units; however, the units are always appended to the values to
avoid any misunderstanding. See MET 1.1.8 for more information
on differences from the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) Annex 3.
Sample Message
METAR CYXE 292000Z CCA 09015G25KT 3/4SM R09/4000FT/D –RA BR BKN008 0VC040 21/19 A2992 WS RWY 09 RMK SF5NS3 VIS NW 3/8 SLP134 DENSITY ALTITUDE 2500FT
Decoding of example— Aerodrome routine meteorological
report; Saskatoon, Sask., issued on the 29th day of the month
at 2000 UTC; first correction to the original observation;
wind 090° true, 15 kt with gusts to 25 kt; visibility 3/4 SM; RVR for Runway 09 is 4 000 ft and has had a downward tendency;
present weather is light rain and mist; broken clouds at
800 ft AGL, and combined with the lower layer, overcast clouds
at 4 000 ft; temperature 21°C; dew point 19°C; altimeter setting
29.92 in Hg; wind shear Runway 09; remarks: stratus fractus 5/8,
nimbostratus 3/8, visibility to the northwest 3/8 SM, sea level pressure 1013.4 hPa, density altitude 2 500 ft.
Report type— The code name METAR (or SPECI) is given in
the first line of text. An aerodrome special meteorological
report (SPECI) is issued only when significant changes in weather
conditions occur off the hour.
Location indicator— Canadian aviation weather reporting
stations are assigned four-character International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) indicators commencing with C and
followed by W, Y or Z. These stations are normally located within
1.6 NM (3 km) of the geometric centre of the runway complex. Aviation weather reporting sites are listed in the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS).
Date/time of observation— The date (day of the month) and
time (Coordinated Universal Time [UTC]) of the observation
are included in all reports. The official time of the observation (on the hour) is used for all aerodrome routine meteorological reports (METARs) that do not deviate from the official time by
more than 10 min. In SPECIs, the time refers to the time of
occurrence (hours and minutes) of the change(s) which required
the issue of the report.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METReport modifier— This field may contain two possible codes:
“AUTO” or “CCA”. Both codes may appear simultaneously, i.e.,
“AUTO CCA”. “AUTO” is used when data for the primary report
is gathered by an automated weather observation system (AWOS).
See MET 8.4 for more information about AWOS reports. “CCA”
is used to indicate corrected reports. The first correction is
indicated as CCA, the second as CCB, etc.
Wind— This group reports the 2 -min mean wind d irection and
speed, along with gusts. Wind direction is always three digits,
given in degrees (true) but rounded off to the nearest 10º (the
third digit is always a “0”). Wind speeds are two digits (or three
digits, if required) and in knots. Calm is encoded as “00000KT”.
In Canada, the unit for wind speed is knots (nautical miles per
hour) and is indicated by including “KT” at the end of the wind group. Other countries may use kilometres per hour (KMH), or metres per second (MPS).
(a) Wind gusts— Gust information will be included if gust
speeds, averaged over a 5-second period, exceed the average
wind speed by 5 kt or more in the 10 -min period pre ceding
the observation and the peak gust reaches a maximum speed
of 15 kt or more. “G” indicates gusts and the peak gust is
reported, using two or three digits as required.
(b) Variations in wind direction— This group reports variations
in wind direction. It is only included if, during the 10 -min
period preceding the observation, the direction varies by
60° or more and less than 180°, and the mean speed exceeds
3 kt. The two extreme directions are encoded in clockwise order. In the example below, the wind is varying from 260° true to 340° true.
Example:
METAR CYWG 172000Z 30015G25KT 260V340
In the case of variable wind direction, wind direction in tens of degrees (ddd) shall be coded as VRB when the wind speed is less
than 3 kt. A variable wind at higher speeds shall be reported
only when the variation in wind direction is 180° or more or
when it is impossible to determine a single wind direction.
Example:
METAR CYQB 041500Z VRB02KT
When wind sensors are not functioning at a human METAR
site, the wind speed and direction will be estimated, and a remark
will be added to the report (“WND EST”).
Prevailing visibility— The prevailing visibility is reported in
statute miles and fractions. There is no maximum visibility value
reported. Lower sector visibilities which are half or less of the
prevailing visibility are reported as remarks at the end of the
report. RVR— The runway visual range (RVR) for the touchdown
zone of up to four available landing runways is reported as
a 10 -min average, based on the maximum runway light
settings at the time of the report. It is included if the prevailing
visibility is 1 SM or less, and/or the RVR is 6 000 ft or less.
“R”, the group indicator, is followed by the runway designator
(e.g. 06), to which may be appended the letters “L”, “C”, or
“R” (left, centre, or right) if there are two or more parallel
runways. The RVR value is then reported in hundreds of
feet, using three or four digits. FT indicates the units for
RVR are feet. “M” preceding the lowest measurable value (or
“P” preceding the highest) indicates the value is beyond the
instrument range. The RVR trend is then indicated if there is a distinct upward or downward trend from the first to the
second 5 -min part -period such th at the RVR changes by
300 ft or more (encoded “/U” or “/D” for upward or downward)
or if no distinct change is observed, the trend “/N” is encoded.
If it is not possible to determine the trend, the field will be left blank.
Variations in RVR— Two RVR values may be reported, the
minimum and maximum 1 -min mean RVR va lues during the
10-min period preceding the observation, if they vary from the
10-min mean by at least 20% (and by 150 ft).
Example:
“R06L/1000V2400FT/U” decodes as the minimum RVR for
Runway 06 Left is 1 000 ft; the maximum RVR is 2 400 ft; and the trend is upward.
Present weather— The present weather is coded in accordance
with the WMO Code Table 4678, which follows. As many groups
as necessary are included, with each group containing from two
to nine characters.
Present weather is comprised of weather phenomena, which may
be one or more forms of precipitation, obscuration, or other
phenomena. Weather phenomena are preceded by one or two
qualifiers; one of which describes either the intensity or proximity
to the station of the phenomena, the other of which describes
the phenomena in some other manner.
TC AIM March 20, 2025METTable 8.1—Significant Present Weather Codes
(WMO Code Table 4678, incorporating Canadian differences)
QUALIFIER WEATHER PHENOMENA
INTENSITY or
PROXIMITYDESCRIPTOR PRECIPITATION OBSCURATION OTHER
NOTE:
Precipitation
intensity refers to all forms combined.MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist
(Vis ≥ 5/8 SM) PO Dust/sand
Whirls (Dust Devils) BC Patches RA Rain
PR Partial SN Snow FG Fog
(Vis < 5/8 SM)SQ Squalls
DR Drifting SG Snow Grains FU Smoke (Vis
≤ 6 SM) +FC Tornado or Waterspout
– Light BL Blowing IC Ice Crystals (Vis
≤ 6 SM) DU Dust (Vis
≤ 6 SM) FC Funnel Cloud
SH Shower(s)
Moderate (no qualifier)TS Thunderstorm PL Ice Pellets SA Sand (Vis
≤ 6 SM) SS Sandstorm
(Vis < 5/8 SM)
(+SS Vis < 5/16 SM) GR Hail
+Heavy FZ Freezing GS Snow Pellets HZ Haze (Vis
≤ 6 SM) DS Dust storm
(Vis < 5/8 SM)
(+DS Vis < 5/16 SM) VC
In the vicinity— — UP Unknown precipitation (AWOS only) VA Volcanic Ash
(with any
visibility)
Qualifiers
(a) Intensity: (–) light (no sign) moderate (+) heavy
If the intensity of the phenomena being reported in a group
is either light or heavy, this is indicated by the appropriate
sign. No sign is included if the intensity is moderate, or
when intensity is not relevant. If more than one type of
precipitation is reported together in a group, the predominant
type is given first; however, the reported intensity represents
the overall intensity of the combined types of precipitation.
(b) Proximity: The proximity, qualifier “VC”, is used in
conjunction with the following phenomena:
SH (showers)
FG (fog)
FC (funnel clo ud)
+FC (tornado or waterspout)
TS (thunderstorm)
BLSN (blowing snow )
BLDU (blowing dus t)
BLSA (blowing san d)
PO (dust/sand whirls)
DS (dust storm )
SS (sandstorm )
VC is used if these phenomena are observed within 5 SM, but not at the station. When VC is associated with SH, the
type and intensity of precipitation are not specified because
they cannot be determined.
(c) Descriptor: No present weather group has more than one
descriptor. The descriptors MI (shallow), BC (patches) and
PR (partial) are used only in combination with the
abbreviation FG (fog), e.g. MIFG.
The descriptors DR (drifting) and BL (blowing) are used
only in combination with SN (snow), DU (dust) and SA
(sand). Drifting is used if the snow, dust or sand is raised less than 2 m above ground; if 2 m or more, blowing is used.
If blowing snow (BLSN) and snow (SN) are occurring
together, both are reported but in separate present weather groups, e.g. “SN BLSN”.
SH (shower) is used only in combination with precipitation
types RA (rain), SN (snow), GR (hail) and GS (snow pellets)
if occurring at the time of observation (e.g. “–SHRAGR”).
SHGS refers to either snow pellet showers or small hail (less
than 5 mm in diameter). When it is used for small hail, the
diameter of the hail is included in remarks and CB are
usually present.
TS (thunderstorm) is either reported alone or in combination
with one or more of the precipitation types. The end of a
thunderstorm is the time at which the last thunder was
heard, followed by a 15 -min period with n o further thunder.
TS and SH are not used together, since present weather
groups can have only one descriptor.
FZ (freezing) is used only in combination with the weather
types DZ (drizzle), RA (rain) and FG (fog).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METWeather phenomena— Different forms of precipitation are
combined in one group, the predominant form being reported
first. The intensity qualifier selected represents the overall
intensity of the entire group, not just one component of the
group. The one exception is freezing precipitation (FZRA or
FZDZ), which is always reported in a separate present weather
group. Obstructions to vision are generally reported if the
prevailing visibility is 6 SM or less, with some exceptions. Any
obscuration occurring simultaneously with one or more forms of precipitation is reported in a separate present weather group.
Other phenomena are also reported in separate groups, and,
when funnel clouds, tornados or waterspouts are observed, they
will be coded in the present weather section, as well as being
written out in their entirety in remarks.
Sky conditions— This group reports the sky condition for layers
aloft. A vertical visibility (VV) is reported in hundreds of feet
when the sky is obscured. All cloud layers are reported based
on the summation of the layer amounts as observed from the
surface up, reported as a height above the station elevation in
increments of 100 ft to a height of 10 000 ft, and thereafter in
increments of 1 000 ft. The layer amounts are reported in eighths
(oktas) of sky coverage as follows:
Table 8.2—Sky Conditions for METARs
SKC “sky clear” no cloud present
FEW “few” less than 1/8 to 2/8
summation amount
SCT “scattered” 3/8 to 4/8 summation amount
BKN “broken” 5/8 to less than 8/8
summation amount
OVC “overcast” 8/8 summation amount
CLR “clear” clear below 25 000 ft as
interpreted by an AWOS
Significant convective clouds (cumulonimbus or towering
cumulus only), if observed, are identified by the abbreviations
CB (cumulonimbus) or TCU (towering cumulus), which are
appended to the cloud group without a space, e.g. “SCT025TCU”.
When observed, CB and TCU of any amount are always reported
in the remarks of the aerodrome routine meteorological
report (METAR) or aerodrome special meteorological
report (SPECI), even if they are only embedded or distant.
When either CB or TCU is the predominant cloud type in a layer
reported in the cloud group of the METAR/SPECI, the applicable
cloud type (CB or TCU) is included within the cloud group.
When an individual layer of cloud is composed of CB and TCU
with a common cloud base, the type shall be reported as CB
only.
The automated weather observation system (AWOS) cannot
report cloud types. AWOS cloud layers are limited to four, and
it will report clear (CLR) when no layers are detected below a
base of 25 000 ft (some private AWOS are limited to cloud bases of 10 000 ft).
A ceiling is the lesser of the following: the height above ground
or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud covering more than half of the sky, or the vertical visibility in a surface-based layer which completely obscures the whole sky. Therefore, a
ceiling exists at the height of the first layer for which a coverage symbol of BKN or OVC is reported. The existence of a vertical visibility constitutes an obscured ceiling.
Temperature and dew point— This group reports the air
temperature and the dew point temperature, rounded to the
nearest whole Celsius degree (e.g. +2.5˚C would be rounded to +3˚C). Negative values are preceded by the letter M, and values
with a tenths digit equal to precisely 5 are rounded to the warmer
whole degree. For example, 2.5, –0.5, –1.5, and –12.5 would be reported as 03, M00, M01 and M12, respectively.
Altimeter setting— This group reports the altimeter setting. A
is the group indicator, followed by the altimeter setting indicated
by a group of four figures representing tens, units, tenths and
hundredths of inches of mercury. To decode, place a decimal
point after the second digit (e.g. A3006 becomes 30.06).
Wind shear— This group contains reports of low-level wind
shear (within 1 500 ft AGL) along the takeoff or approach path
of the designated runway. The two-digit runway identifier is
used, to which the letters “L,” “C” or “R” may be appended. If
the existence of wind shear applies to all runways, “WS ALL RWY”
is used.
Remarks— Remarks will appear in reports from Canada, prefaced
by RMK. Remarks will include, where observed, layer type and
cloud or obscuring phenomena (in eighths of sky covered or
oktas), general weather remarks and sea level pressure, as required.
Directions in remarks are to be applied in a clockwise order. For
example, “PRFG SE-N” means that fog partially covers the
aerodrome from the southeast to the north. When observed to
have occurred since the previous report, frost will be reported
as FROIN. The sea level pressure, prefixed by “SLP” and indicated
in hectopascals, will be the last mandatory field in the METAR.
SLP does not directly relate to altimeter setting, as the SLP is
based upon actual temperatures, while the altimeter setting is
based upon the ICAO standard atmosphere. Density altitude
will be indicated after sea level pressure when the density altitude
is 200 ft or more than the aerodrome elevation. The remarks
“PRESFR” and “PRESRR” indicate rapid changes in pressure,
and pilots should be extra vigilant to ensure that they have the most recent altimeter setting when these remarks are included.
The equal sign (“=”) is often used as an end-of-message indicator
and has no other meaning.
Abbreviations for cloud types:
CI = cirrus NS = nimbost ratus
CS = cirrostratus ST = stratus
CC = cirrocumulus SF = stratus fractus
AS = altostratus SC = stratoc umulus
AC = altocumulus ACC = altocumu lus castellanus
CU = cumulus CF = cumulus fractus
TCU = towering cumulus CB = cumulon imbus
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET8.3 AERODROME SPECIAL
METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS (SPECI)
8.3.1 Criteria for Taking Aerodrome Special
Meteorological Reports (SPECI)
Special observations will be taken promptly to report changes
that occur between scheduled transmission times whenever one
or more of the following elements have changed in the amount
specified. The amount of change is measured with reference to the preceding routine or special observation.
(a) Ceiling— The ceiling decreases to less than the following
values, or it increases to equal to or greater than these values:
(i) 1 500 ft
(ii) 1 000 ft
(iii) 500 ft
(iv) 400 ft*
(v) 300 ft
(vi) 200 ft*
(vii) 100 ft*
(viii) the lowest published minimum
Criteria marked with an asterisk (*) are applicable only at aerodromes with precision approaches, and only down to
and including the lowest published minima for those
aerodromes.
(b) Sky condition— A layer aloft is observed below:
(i) 1 000 ft and no layer aloft was reported below this height in the report immediately previous; or
(ii) the highest minimum for IFR straight-in landing
or takeoff, and no layer was reported below this
height in the report immediately previous.
(c) Visibility —Prevailing visibility decreases to less than, or
increases to equal to or greater than:
(i) 3 SM
(ii) 1 1/2 SM
(iii) 1 SM
(iv) 3/4 SM*
(v) 1/2 SM
(vi) 1/4 SM*
(vii) the lowest published minimum
Criteria marked with an asterisk (*) are applicable only at aerodromes with precision approaches, and only down to
and including the lowest published minima for these
aerodromes.
(d) Tornado, waterspout or funnel cloud— If one or more of
these phenomena:
(i) is observed;
(ii) disappears from sight; or
(iii) is reported by the public (from reliable sources). (e) Thunderstorm— When storm activity:
(i) begins;
(ii) increases in intensity to become “heavy”; or
(iii) ends (a SPECI shall be issued when 15 min have
elapsed without the occurrence of thunderstorm
activity).
(f) Precipitation— When any of the following begins, ends or
changes intensity:
(i) freezing rain
(ii) freezing drizzle
(iii) ice pellets
(iv) rain
(v) rain showers
(vi) drizzle
(vii) snow
(viii) snow showers
(ix) snow grains
(x) hail
(xi) snow pellets
(xii) ice crystals begin or end
SPECIs shall be taken as required to report the beginning and end of each individual type of precipitation, regardless of simultaneous occurrences of other types. A leeway of up to 15 min is allowed after the ending of precipitation before a SPECI is mandatory.
Example: –RA to –SHRA; SPECI not required.
(g) Obstruction to vision —A SPECI shall be taken to report
the beginning or end of freezing fog.
(h) Wind— A SPECI shall be taken to report when the wind:
(i) speed (2 min mean) increases suddenly to at least
double the previously reported value and exceeds
30 kt;
(ii) direction changes sufficiently to fulfill criteria
required for a “wind shift.”
(i) Temperature— A SPECI shall be taken to report when the
temperature
(i) increases by 5°C or more from the previous reported
value and the previous reported value was 20°C or
higher; or
(ii) decreases to a reported value of 2°C or lower.
The following airports have been identified for SPECI criteria
for significant temperature changes between hourly reports:
(i) Calgary Intl, Alta.
(ii) Edmonton Intl, Alta.
(iii) Gander Intl, N.L.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET(iv) Moncton/Greater Moncton Intl, N.B.
(v) Montréal/Pierre Elliott Trudeau Intl, Que.
(vi) Montréal/Mirabel Intl, Que.
(vii) Ottawa/Macdonald-Cartier Intl, Ont.
(viii) St. John’s Intl, N.L.
(ix) Toronto/Lester B. Pearson Intl, Ont.
(x) Vancouver Intl, B.C.
(xi) Victoria Intl, B.C.
(xii) Halifax Intl, N.S.
(xiii) London, Ont.
(xiv) Québec/Jean Lesage Intl, Que.
(xv) Whitehorse Intl, Y.T.
(xvi) Winnipeg Intl, Man.
(xvii) Yellowknife, N.W.T.
(xviii) Charlottetown, P.E.I.
(xix) Fredericton, N.B.
(xx) Prince George, B.C.
(xxi) Regina Intl, Sask.
(xxii) Saint John, N.B.
(xxiii) Saskatoon/John G. Diefenbaker Intl, Sask.
(xxiv) Thunder Bay, Ont.
(j) Volcanic eruption —A SPECI shall be issued when a volcano
erupts.
8.3.2 Local Criteria
Additional criteria may be established to meet local requirements.
8.3.2.1 Observer’s Initiative
The criteria specified in the preceding paragraphs shall be
regarded as the minimum requirements for taking special
observations. In addition, any weather condition that, in the
opinion of the observer, is important for the safety and efficiency
of aircraft operations, or otherwise significant, shall be reported
by a special observation.
8.3.2.2 Check Observations
Check observations are taken between regular hourly observations
to ensure that significant changes in weather do not remain
unreported. If such an observation does not reveal a significant change, it is designated as a “check observation.” If a significant
change has occurred, the report is treated as a “special observation.”
Observers are encouraged to exercise initiative by taking
additional observations when any weather condition exists that may impact the safety and efficiency of aircraft operations or is
considered to be otherwise significant. This is to ensure that
significant changes in weather are reported. Additional
observations shall be reported as a SPECI:
(a) on request of a forecast centre; (b) on request of Air Traffic Services (ATS);
(c) based upon an observer’s initiative;
(d) upon notification of an aircraft accident;
(e) based on local criteria as defined by service providers.
8.4 AUTOMATIC AERODROME
ROUTINE METEOROLOGICAL
REPORTS (METAR AUTO) AND
LIMITED WEATHER INFORMATION
SYSTEM (LWIS) REPORTS
8.4.1 Automatic Aerodrome Routine
Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO)
Automated aviation weather observations are an integral
component of the aviation weather reporting system in Canada,
and there are currently more than 80 in operation in all regions
of the country. They were developed to provide an alternative
method of collecting and disseminating weather observations
from sites where human observation programs could not be
supported. Automation provides accurate and reliable data, but
it does have limitations and characteristics that are important to understand when using the information.
NAV CANADA AWOS that produces METAR AUTO reports
incorporates sensors capable of measuring cloud base height (up
to 25 000 ft AGL); sky cover; visibility; temperature; dew point;
wind velocity; altimeter setting; precipitation occurrence, type,
amount and intensity; and the occurrence of icing. METARs
and SPECIs based on automated weather observations include
the word “AUTO”. METAR AUTO observations are reported
on the hour and SPECI AUTO observations are issued to report
significant changes in cloud ceiling, visibility and wind velocity,
as well as the onset and cessation of thunderstorms, precipitation
or icing. AWOS operated by NAV CANADA and DND issue
METAR AUTO reports and, when appropriate, SPECI AUTO reports.
AWOS is based on sensors that sample the atmosphere and
prepare a data message every minute. If the observed weather
conditions have changed significantly enough to meet the SPECI
criteria, subject to the various processing algorithms, a SPECI
AUTO will be issued. Human observers view the entire celestial
dome and horizon; this results in a naturally smoothed and more
representative value for ceiling and visibility. Because of the
precise measurement, continuous sampling and unidirectional
views of the sensors, NAV CANADA AWOS normally produces
more SPECI observations than human observation sites (five to
six percent of the time SPECI AUTO counts exceed six per hour).
In cases where there are several reports issued over a short period
of time, it is important to summarize the observations to gain
an appreciation of the weather trend. One report in a series
should not be expected to represent the prevailing condition.
For more information about METAR AUTO reports, please refer
to MET 1.2.5.1.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET8.4.2 Limited Weather Information System (LWIS)
Reports
LWIS is an automated weather system which produces an hourly
report containing wind speed and direction; temperature; dew
point; and altimeter setting. LWIS is designed for use at
aerodromes where provision of METAR AUTO and SPECI
AUTO reports is not justified, but support for a CAP approach
is required. For more information about LWIS reports, see
MET 1.2.5.2.
Example:
LWIS CYXP 221700Z AUTO 25010G15KT 03/M02
A3017=
8.4.3 Automated Weather Observation
System (AWOS) and Limited Weather
Information System (LWIS) Performance
Characteristics
All AWOS and LWIS systems operated by NAV CANADA have the following performance characteristics.
(a) Thunderstorm reporting (AWOS) at sites within the
domain of the CLDN. Thunderstorm activity, based on the
proximity of the lightning strike(s) to the site, will be
reported as:
(i) TS—Thunderstorm (at site), if lightning detected at 6 SM or less;
(ii) VCTS—Thunderstorm in vicinity, if lightning
detected from > 6 to 10 SM;
(iii) LTNG DIST (direction)—If lightning detected from
> 10 to 30 SM, lightning distant with octant compass
cardinal direction shall be reported in remarks, e.g. LTNG DIST NE, S, SW; and
(iv) LTNG DIST ALL QUADS—Lightning distant all
quadrants will be reported in remarks if lightning is detected in four or more octants.
(b) Ice-resistant anemometer (AWOS and LWIS)—
New ice-resistant technology essentially eliminates anemometer performance degradation due to freezing
precipitation, freezing fog or snow contamination.
(c) Freezing drizzle and drizzle are not reported. When drizzle
is occurring, the AWOS will usually report either rain or
unknown precipitation. When freezing drizzle is occurring,
the AWOS will usually report either freezing rain or freezing
precipitation of an unknown type. (d) Density altitude reporting capability (AWOS and LWIS)—
Density altitude is the altitude in ISA at which the air density
would be equal to the air density at field elevation at the
current temperature. This remark is only added when the density altitude, rounded to the nearest 100 ft, is 200 ft or
higher than the aerodrome elevation. A rough value of
density altitude can be approximated by adding 118.8 ft to
the aerodrome pressure altitude for every degree Celsius
the temperature is above ISA. Density altitude can also be
less than aerodrome elevation and can be estimated by
subtracting 118.8 ft from the aerodrome pressure altitude
for every degree Celsius colder than ISA, but it is not reported.
(e) Visibility (AWOS)— Visibility will be reported in daytime
and at night in a manner similar to human assessment.
(f) Ceilometer— AWOS is capable of reporting cloud bases up
to 25 000 ft. Some AWOS, including those at DND sites,
may report NCD for No Cloud Detected.
(g) “Obstructions to vision” reporting capability— AWOS is
able to report haze (HZ); mist (BR); fog (FG); freezing fog (FZFG); and blowing snow (BLSN).
(h) VGSS— Text-to-voice technology at many sites for local
VHF transmission of weather report to pilots.
(i) Icing— The occurrence of icing at the time of observation
or during the past hour will be noted in remarks.
(j) RVR reporting (AWOS) at sites where RVR sensors are
installed.
(k) Digital aviation weather cameras (WxCam) are installed
at stand-alone locations as well as at many AWOS and LWIS
sites. NAV CANADA WxCam include reference images,
date and time indications and are updated every 10 min.
In most cases, WxCam includes four cameras pointing in
different directions. Some other operators may install weather cameras at aerodromes for a variety of
purposes (referred to as “webcam” in the CFS, but these
may have a variety of performance capabilities).
All regulated observations of wind speed, direction, and character,
as well as temperature, dew point, and altimeter setting must
meet the same performance specifications regardless of the
means of assessment (either human or automated). Among these
requirements is one that stipulates that all reports of altimeter setting must be based upon a fail-safe design that utilizes two
or more independently operating pressure sensors that must
agree within established tolerances before they can be included in a report.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET8.4.4 Automatic Aerodrome Routine
Meteorological Reports (METAR AUTO) and
Human Observation Comparison
METAR AUTO provided by NAV CANADA AWOS and METAR
issued by human are compared in the following table.
Table 8.3—METAR Observation Comparison
WX Report
Parameter Human Observation NAV CANADA METAR AUTO
Report type METAR or SPECI METAR or SPECI
Location
indicator Four-letter indicator (e.g. CYQM, CYVR). No difference.
At stations where the observer is not at the
aerodrome, (beyond 1.6 NM [3 km] of the
geometric centre of the runway complex) the Wx report indicator differs from the aerodrome indicator, e.g. Cartwright aerodrome is CYCA; the Wx report is identified as CWCA. No difference.
Report time
Date and time in UTC, followed by a “Z”,
e.g. 091200Z. No difference.
Type indicator AUTO
Corrections indicator Corrections can be issued, e.g. “CCA”, the “A” indicates the first correction. Not applicable.
Wind A 2-min average direction in degrees
true; speed in kt; “G” represents a gust,
e.g. 12015G25KT. No difference.
Human observers shall provide an estimate of wind speed and direction in the event of wind sensor failure. No difference.
NOTE : When a VGSS is installed, the wind direction will be
broadcast in degrees magnetic if the AWOS is located in
SDA; elsewhere, it will be broadcast in degrees true. If wind information is missing, five forward slashes (/) are placed in the wind field, e.g. /////.
Variable wind group
Wind direction variation of 60˚ or greater. No difference.
Visibility Reported in SM up to 15 mi. After 15 mi., it
is reported as 15+, e.g. 10 SM.Reported in SM up to 9 mi.
Fractional visibilities are reported. No difference.
Visibility is prevailing visibility, i.e. common to at least half the horizon circle.Visibility is measured using fixed, unidirectional, forward scatter techniques.
Reported visibilities tend to be comparable to (especially
with visibility less than 1 SM) or higher than human
observations in precipitation. Reported visibilities at night are the same as the day
and tend to be comparable to or higher than human observations.
RVR Runway direction, followed by the visual range in feet, followed by a trend. RVR will be reported where equipment is available. No difference.
TC AIM March 20, 2025METWX Report
Parameter Human Observation NAV CANADA METAR AUTO
Weather group See the WMO Code Table 4678 (Table 8.1)
in MET 8.3 for the symbols used for obstructions to visibility (e.g. smoke, haze). AWOS are capable of reporting FG, FZFG, BR, BLSN and HZ.
See the table WMO Code Table 4678 (Table 8.1) in MET 8.3 for the symbols used for the description of weather. AWOS will report weather phenomena using the following symbols:
RA—rain,
FZRA—freezing rain, SN—snow, UP—unknown precipitation type.
AWOS reports thunderstorms (TS) and includes remarks
on location of lightning. Drizzle (DZ) or freezing drizzle (FZDZ) are not reported and will usually be reported as rain (RA or FZRA) or unknown precipitation type (UP or FZUP).
“+” or “–” is used to indicate weather intensity. No difference. Squalls are not reported.
AWOS does not report “in the
vicinity” phenomena other than TS and lightning.
AWOS may sporadically report freezing precipitation at
temperatures above 0°C and below +3°C, during periods of wet snow, rain, drizzle or fog.
Cloud amount and sky conditions Observer views entire celestial dome and determines cloud-base height, layer amounts and opacity, and cumulative amount and opacity.Laser ceilometer views one point directly over the station.
It measures the cloud-base height and then uses time
integration to determine layer amounts.
SKC or height of cloud base plus FEW, SCT, BKN, OVC.Height of cloud base plus FEW, SCT, BKN, OVC. “CLR” is reported if no cloud below 25 000 ft AGL is detected.
Surface-based layers are prefaced by “VV” and a three-figure vertical visibility. No difference.
The cloud layer amounts are cumulative. No difference.
Multiple overcast layers can be detected and reported. Ceilometer may occasionally detect ice crystals, smoke
aloft or strong temperature inversion aloft and report them as cloud layers.
Reported cloud layers in precipitation are comparable to or
lower than human observations.
Check GFA and TAF for further information.
Temperature
and dew pointTemperature then dew point expressed as a two-digit number in degrees Celsius, separated by a forward slash (/) and preceded by an “M” for below freezing temperatures, e.g. 03/M05.No difference.
Altimeter setting An “A” followed by a four-digit number in
inches of mercury. e.g. A2997. No difference.
Wind shear Existence in the lower layers shall be reported when known to the observer.Not reported.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METWX Report
Parameter Human Observation NAV CANADA METAR AUTO
Supplementary
information (Remarks)See the WMO Code Table 4678 (Table 8.1) in MET 8.3 for the symbols used to describe clouds and obscuring phenomena.Clouds and obscuring phenomena are not described in METAR AUTO or SPECI AUTO reports.
Significant weather or variation not reported elsewhere in the report. See the description of “remarks” in MET 8.2 for details.Currently, remarks are limited. When visibility is variable, the remark VIS VRB followed by the limits will appear:
e.g., VIS VRB 1-2. When icing is detected, ICE, ICE INTMT
or ICE PAST HR will appear. Remarks on precipitation amount, rapid changes in pressure and the location of lightning may also appear.
Barometric pressureThe last remark in the METAR or SPECI is the mean sea level pressure in
hectopascals: e.g., SLP127
(1012.7 hPa).No difference.
Density altitude Density altitude for heights 200 ft above
aerodrome elevation. The dry air density altitude will be included in the remarks.No difference.
Example of METAR issued by human observation:
METAR CYEG 151200Z CCA 12012G23KT 3/4SM
R12/4000FT/D –RA BR FEW008 SCT014 BKN022 OVC035 10/09 A2984 RMK SF1SC2SC4SC1 VIS W2 SLP012=
Example of METAR AUTO issued by NAV CANADA’s AWOS system:
METAR CZVL 151200Z AUTO 12012G23KT 3/4SM –RA FEW008 SCT014 BKN022 OVC035 10/09 A2984 RMK SLP012=
NOTE :
If an AWOS sensor is malfunctioning or has shut down, that
parameter will be missing from the report.
8.5 VOICE GENERATION SYSTEMS
Where a voice generator sub-system (VGSS), very high
frequency (VHF) radio and/or telephone are connected to the
automated weather observation system (AWOS) or limited
weather information system (LWIS), the most recent data gathered
once each minute will be broadcast to pilots on the VHF frequency
and/or via the telephone number published in the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS). A pilot with a VHF receiver should be able
to receive the VGSS transmission at a range of 75 NM from the
site at an altitude of 10 000 ft AGL. Weather data will be broadcast
in the same sequence as that used for aerodrome routine meteorological reports (METARs) and aerodrome special
meteorological reports (SPECIs).
A human observed METAR/SPECI or a METAR AUTO/SPECI
AUTO shall take priority over an automated voice generated
report (minutely reports). During the hours when a human
observation program is operating and there is no direct VHF
communication between the pilot and the weather observer, the
VGSS VHF transmitter will normally be off. This eliminates
the risk of a pilot possibly receiving two contradictory and
confusing weather reports.In variable weather conditions, there may be significant
differences between broadcasts only a few minutes apart. It is
very important during these conditions to obtain several
broadcasts of the minutely data for comparison to develop an
accurate picture of the actual conditions to be expected at the
location.
Below is the typical format of an NAV CANADA AWOS voice
message:
“(site name) AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVATION SYSTEM—OBSERVATION TAKEN AT (time) — WIND (direction) (MAGNETIC/TRUE) AT (speed) KNOTS — VISIBILITY (visibility data) — (present weather data) — (sky condition/cloud data) — TEMPERATURE (temperature data)— DEW POINT (dew point data)— ALTIMETER (altimeter data)”
Below is an example of the LWIS voice message:
“(site name) LIMITED WEATHER INFORMATION SYSTEM—CURRENT OBSERVATION TAKEN AT (time) — WIND (direction) (MAGNETIC/TRUE) (speed) KNOTS — TEMPERATURE (temperature data) — DEW POINT (dew point data) — ALTIMETER (altimeter data)”
NOTE :
Missing data or data that has been suppressed is transmitted as “MISSING”.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET9.0 UPPER LEVEL WINDS AND
TEMPERATURES
9.1 CANADIAN FORECAST WINDS AND
TEMPERATURES ALOFT NETWORK
Figure 9.1—Canadian Forecast Winds and Temperatures Aloft Network
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET9.2 UPPER-LEVEL WIND AND
TEMPERATURE FORECASTS (FBS)
Upper-level wind and temperature forecasts (FBs) are upper-level
forecasts of wind velocity, expressed in knots and to the nearest
10˚ true, and temperature, expressed in degrees Celsius.
Temperatures are not forecast for 3 000 ft; in addition, this level
is omitted if the terrain elevation is greater than 1 500 ft. All
forecast temperatures for altitudes over 24 000 ft are negative.
These forecasts are derived from a variety of atmospheric data
sources, including upper air sounding measurements of pressure,
temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity, taken at 32 sites
twice daily (at 0000Z and 1200Z). Following the computer run
of a subsequent numeric weather model, forecasts are available at the valid times indicated in MET 3.1.
Table 9.1—FB Example 1
FBCN31 CWAO 071530
FCST BASED ON 071200 DATA VALID 080000 FOR USE
Airport /
site3 000 6 000 9 000 12 000 18 000
YVR 9900 2415 -07 2430 -10 2434 -10 2542 -26
YYF 2523 2432 -04 2338 -08 2342 -13 2448 -24
YXC — 2431 -02 2330 -06 2344 -11 2352 -22
YYC — 2426 -03 2435 -06 2430 -12 2342 -22
YQL — 2527 -01 2437 -05 2442 -10 2450 -21
Table 9.2—FB Example 2
FBCN31 KWBC 080440DATA
BASED ON 080000Z VALID 091200Z FOR USE
0900 -1800Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24 000
Airport / site 24 000 30 000 34 000 39 000
YVR 2973 -24 293040 283450 273763
YYF 3031 -24 314041 304551 204763
YXC 3040 -27 315143 316754 306761
YYC 3058 -29 317246 317855 306358
YQL 2955 -28 306845 307455 791159
When the forecast speed is less than 5 kt, the code group is
“9900,” which reads “light and variable.” This may also be
displayed as “calm” in some systems.
Encoded wind speeds from 100 to 199 kt have 50 added to the
direction code and 100 subtracted from the speed. Wind speeds that have had 50 added to the direction can be recognized when
figures from 51 to 86 appear in the code. Since no such directions
exist (i.e., 510˚ to 860˚), obviously they represent directions from
010˚ to 360˚.
Should the forecast wind speed be 200 kt or greater, the wind
group is coded as 199 kt; that is, 7799 is decoded as 270˚ at 199 kt
or greater.
Examples of decoding FB winds and temperatures are as follows
(the third and fourth examples are both for altitudes above
24 000 ft):Table 9.3—Example of Code Used in FBs
EXAMPLE DECODED
9900 + 00 Wind light and variable, temperature 0˚C
2523 250˚ true at 23 kt
791159 290˚ true (79 ‑ 50 = 29) at 111 kt
(11 + 100 = 111), temperature ‑59˚C
859950 350˚ true (85 ‑ 50 = 35) at 199 kt
or greater, temperature ‑50˚C
FD forecasts, which are an older version of upper wind forecast
that are updated less often, will continue to be available for a
transition period to be determined.
10.0 SURFACE WEATHER MAPS
Figure 10.1—Surface Weather Maps Legend
The following is a list of things to keep in mind when reading
surface weather maps:
1. Check the time of the map to make sure that it is the latest one available.
2. Always remember that weather moves. A map provides a
static picture of weather conditions over a large area at a
specific time. Always use a map along with the latest reports
and forecasts.
3. The curving lines on the map, which form patterns like
giant thumbprints, are called isobars. Joining points of
equal sea level pressure, isobars outline the areas of high
and low pressure, marked H and L, respectively.
4. The winds at 2 000 ft AGL blow roughly parallel to the
isobars—in a clockwise direction around highs and
TC AIM March 20, 2025METcounter -clockwise around lows. Wind speeds vary with the
distance between isobars. Where the lines are close together,
moderate to strong winds can be expected; where they are
far apart, light variable winds are expected.
5. The red and blue lines are called fronts. These lines indicate
the zones of contact between large air masses with differing
physical properties—cold vs. warm, dry vs. moist, etc. Blue lines are for cold fronts—cold air advancing. Red lines are
for warm fronts—warm air advancing. Alternate red and
blue lines are for stationary fronts—neither warm air nor
cold air advancing. Hook marks in red and blue are for
trowals -troughs of warm air aloft. A purple line is called
an occluded front—where a cold front has overtaken a warm
front. Solid coloured lines are fronts which produce air mass
changes at the ground level as well as in the upper air. Dashed
coloured lines represent “upper air” fronts—they also are
important. Along all active fronts, one usually encounters clouds and precipitation.
6. When colours cannot be used to distinguish the various
kinds of fronts, monochromatic symbols are used.
11.0 UPPER LEVEL CHARTS
Upper level charts depict two forms of data: actual and forecast.
Actual measured conditions are represented on analyzed charts
(ANAL). These charts show conditions as they were at a specific
time in the past. Prognostic charts (PROG) show forecast
conditions for a specific time in the future. Always check the
map label for the type, date and valid time of a chart.
11.1 UPPER LEVEL ANALYSIS CHARTS
Meteorological parameters in the upper atmosphere are measured
twice a day (0000Z and 1200Z). The data are plotted and analyzed
on constant pressure level charts. These charts always indicate
past conditions. The 850 hPa (5 000 ft), 700 hPa (10 000 ft),
500 hPa (18 000 ft) and 250 hPa (34 000 ft) analyzed charts are available in Canada and are generally in weather offices and on
NAV CANADA’s aviation weather Web site (< https://plan.
navcanada.ca >) about three hours after the data are recorded.
The maps include the following useful information:
(a) Height— The solid lines (contours) on all the charts represent
the approximate height of the pressure level indicated by
the map. The contours are labelled in decametres (10s of
metres) such that on a 500 hPa map, 540 means 5 400 m
and on a 250 hPa map, 1020 means 10 200 m. Contours are spaced 60 m (6 decametres) apart except at 250 hPa, where the spacing is 120 m.
(b) Temperature— Temperature is analyzed on the 850 hPa
and 700 hPa charts only. Dashed lines are drawn at 5˚C
intervals and are labelled 5, 0, -5, etc. Temper atures at 500 hPa
and 250 hPa are obtained by reading the number in the
upper left corner of each of the station plots. (c) Wind direction— Wind direction may be determined at
any point by using the height contours. The wind generally
blows parallel to the contours and the direction is determined
by keeping the “wind at your back with low heights to the left”. The plotted wind arrows also provide the actual wind direction at the stations.
(d) Wind speed— Wind speed is inversely proportional to the
spacing of the height contours. If the contours are close
together, the winds are strong; if far apart, the winds are
light. The plotted wind arrows also provide the wind speed.
On the 250 hPa chart, wind speeds are analyzed using dashed
lines for points with the same wind speed (isotachs). The
isotachs are analyzed by a computer and are drawn at 30 -kt
intervals starting at 60 kt.
NOTE :
Computer analyzed charts have the analyzed parameters
smoothed to some extent.
11.2 UPPER LEVEL PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
Upper level wind and temperature charts are issued by a world
area forecast centre (WAFC), through the U.S. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration’s National Weather Service
in Washington, D.C. Winds are depicted for FL 240, FL 340,
FL 390 and FL 450 using arrow shafts with pennants (50 kt each),
full feathers (10 kt each) and half feathers (5 kt each). The orientation of the shaft indicates wind direction (degree
true). Temperatures (˚C) are presented in bold type at fixed grid
points for the flight level. All temperatures are negative unless otherwise noted.
Wind and temperature information from these charts, in conjunction with the upper level wind and temperature
forecast (FD) and significant weather charts (SIGWX), can be
used to determine wind shear and other salient information
such as the probability of clear air turbulence (CAT) over given
points. Remember, the wind speed is normally highest at the
tropopause and decreases above and below at a relatively
constant rate.
Figure 11.1—Section of an Upper Level
Wind and Temperature Chart
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET12.0 SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
12.1 MID-LEVEL CHARTS
Figure 12.1(a)—Example of a Mid-Level Significant Weather Chart
TC AIM March 20, 2025METThe Canadian Meteorological Aviation Centres (CMACs) issue
a series of significant weather prognostic charts for the
mid-levels from 700 to 400 hPa (FL 100 to FL 240). They use the
same criteria as the significant weather prognostic high-level
charts plus the following:
(a) moderate to severe icing (light icing is not depicted);
(b) cloud layers of significance;
(c) marked mountain waves;
(d) freezing level line (0˚C) at 5 000 -ft intervals , and labeled in
hundreds of feet; and/or
(e) surface positions and direction of motion (in knots) of highs,
lows, and other significant features (front, trough).
Symbols used on the Significant Weather Prognostic Charts by
the CMAC:
Figure 12.1(b)—Significant Weather Symbols
Cloud types are represented by the
conventional abbreviation, cloud amounts are indicated as BKN or OVC and the height of the baseand the tops are inicated by the following convention:
* ABBREVIATIONS
CAT – clear air turbulence
ISOL – isolated
FRQ – frequent
LYR – layers
MX – mixed
OCNL – occasion al
LEE WV – lee/moun tain waves
CLR – clear
FZLVL – freezing l evel
Figure 12.1(c)—Fronts and Other Conventions
Upper troughWarm front
Cold front
Mean sea level Isobars,
pressure in millibars102050Occlusion
Quasistationary
front
0˚C Isotherm height
in hundreds of feetTrough lineTrough ofwarm air aloft12.2 HIGH-LEVEL CHARTS
Figure 12.2(a)—Example of a Significant Weather
Prognostic High-Level Chart (SIGWX HI LVL)
These charts, produced for the mid and high levels, show
occurring or forecast weather conditions considered to be of
concern to aircraft operations. A world area forecast
centre (WAFC), through the U.S. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration’s National Weather Service, issues
a chart depicting forecast weather conditions between FL 250
and FL 630. Each chart includes a background that depicts the major bodies of land and water for the related region along with a few letters that correspond to the first letters of the names of
cities located at the adjacent black dot. The meteorological
conditions depicted and the symbols used are:
(a) Active thunderstorms— The cumulonimbus (CB) symbol
is used when thunderstorms occur, or are forecast to occur,
over a widespread area, along a line, embedded in other
cloud layers, or when concealed by a hazard. The amounts and the spatial coverage (in brackets) are indicated as:
(i) ISOL (isolated)— for individual CBs (less than 50%)
(ii) OCNL (occasional)— for well -separated CBs (50–
75% inclusive)
(iii) FRQ (frequent)— for CBs with little or no separation
(greater than 75%)
NOTE :
The definitions of the above terms, as used in the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) charts, differ from those
used for national significant meteorological information
(SIGMET), AIRMET and graphic area forecast (GFA). The ICAO
definitions involve 25% greater coverage in all cases. Some charts
may include SCT which refers to 25–50% area coverage.
Embedded CBs may or may not be protruding from the
cloud or haze layer. The following abbreviations are used
to indicate the presence of CBs: ISOL embedded CB, OCNL
embedded CB, FRQ embedded CB and FRQ CB. All other clouds are depicted using OKTA amounts, followed by the
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METcloud type. In certain cases the abbreviation LYR (layer or
layered) is used to indicate cloud structure.
(b) Cloud heights— When cloud tops or bases exceed the upper
or lower limits of a significant weather prognostic chart, an XXX symbol is used on the appropriate side of the dividing
line. Consider, for example, the significant weather prognostic
chart that extends from FL 250 to FL 630. If well-separated
embedded CBs based below FL 250 and topped at FL 450
were present, this would be depicted as follows:
Figure 12.2(b)—Clouds Heights
The scalloped line indicates the area in which the conditions
written inside apply.
(c) Tropopause heights— Tropopause heights are depicted as
flight levels, except when defining areas of very flat slope,
and are enclosed in a rectangular box. The centre of the box
represents the grid point being forecast.
Figure 12.2(c)—Tropopause Heights
(d) Jet streams— The height and speed of jet streams having a
core speed of 80 kt or more are shown oriented to true north
using arrows with pennants and feathers for speed and
spaced sufficiently close to give a good indication of speed
and height changes. A double-hatched line across the jet
stream core indicates a speed increase or decrease of 20 kt
or greater at a jet stream speed of 100 kt or higher. For
example, a 120 kt jet stream initially at FL 420 dropping to 80 kt at FL 370 would be depicted as
Figure 12.2(d)—Jet Streams
The vertical depth of the jet stream is depicted by two
numbers, indicating the base and top of the 80-kt isotach in hundreds of feet above sea level. In the above example,
the 80-kt isotach is forecast to be based at FL 320 and topped
at FL 520. Only jet streams with a speed of 120 kt or more will contain vertical depth information.(e) Turbulence— Areas of moderate or severe turbulence in
cloud or clear air are depicted using heavy dashed lines,
height symbols, a for moderate turbulence and a
for severe. Wind shear and mountain wave turbulence are
included; convective turbulence is not. For example, an area
of moderate turbulence between FL 280 and FL 360 would be shown as:
Figure 12.2(e)—Turbulence
(f) Severe squall lines— Severe squall lines are depicted using
the symbol –V– and are oriented to true north with a
representative length. An area of frequent CBs associated
with a squall line would be shown as:
Figure 12.2(f)—Severe Squall Lines
(g) Icing and hail— Icing and hail are not specifically noted,
but rather, the following statement is included in the label on each chart:
SYMBOL CB IMPLIES HAIL, MODERATE OR GREATER TURBULENCE AND ICING
(h) Widespread sandstorms or dust storms— Areas of these
conditions are shown using a scalloped line, height symbol and a
. For example:
Figure 12.2(g)—Widespread Sandstorms
or Dust Storms
(i) Tropical cyclones— The symbol is used to depict tropical
cyclones and, if any of the previous criteria are met, these
will be included. For example, an area of frequent CBs
between 10 000 ft and 50 000 ft with an associated tropical storm named “William” would be shown as:
Figure 12.2(h)—Tropical Cyclones
TC AIM March 20, 2025METSignificant weather prognostic charts depicting the tropical
cyclone symbol will have a statement to the effect that the
latest tropical cyclone advisory, rather than the tropical
cyclone’s prognostic position on the chart, is to be given
public dissemination.
(j) Volcanic eruptions— Information on the location of volcanic
eruptions that are producing ash clouds of significance to
aircraft operations is shown as follows: the volcanic eruption
symbol is shown at the location of the volcano; on the side
of the chart, a box is shown containing the volcano eruption
symbol, the name and international number of the volcano
(if known), the latitude/longitude, and date and time of the first eruption (if known). Check SIGMET and NOTAM or
ASHTAM for volcanic ash. The symbol is as follows, and
may be depicted in red on colour charts:
Figure 12.2(i)—Volcanic Eruptions
(k) Radioactive material in the atmosphere— Information on
the location of a release of radioactive materials into the
atmosphere that is of significance to aircraft operations is shown as follows: the radioactivity symbol at the site of the accident; on the side of the chart, in a box containing the
radioactivity symbol, latitude/longitude of the site of the
accident, date and time of the release and a reminder to
users to check NOTAM for the area concerned. The symbol,
in black on a yellow circular background when depicted in colour, is as follows:
Figure 12.2(j)—Radioactive Material in the Atmosphere
13.0 VOLCANIC ASH PRODUCTS
ICAO products —The Montréal volcanic ash advisory
centre (VAAC), a unit of ECCC, is an International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) designated centre responsible for issuing
specialized advisories when volcanic ash is present in Canadian-
controlled airspace. VAAC Montréal issues volcanic ash
advisories (VAA) on the horizontal and vertical extent of volcanic
clouds, their altitude, and expected movements. These advisories
are based on satellite observations, pilot reports, and weather
forecast and dispersion models. VAA are issued as both text and
graphic products and are available via the VAAC Montréal Web
site at < https://weather.gc.ca/eer/vaac/index_e.html >.
Model simulations of volcanic ash—In addition to the official
VAA described in the previous paragraph, results from simulations
of the volcanic ash dispersion model, known as MLDPn (an
abbreviation that stands for modèle langrangien de dispersion de particules d’ordre n ), are also available at < https://weather.
gc.ca/eer/vaac/index_e.html>. Forecasts of concentrations of
ash and the expected paths of volcanic clouds are generated
when volcanic ash threatens Canadian-controlled airspace.
Such simulations are also performed for active volcanos whose
eventual eruption could affect Canadian-controlled airspace.
These MLDPn outputs are produced automatically using
hypothetical eruption start times that are three hours apart.
Forecast ash concentrations are presented as prognostic charts
composed of four panels. Figure 13.1 shows the average
concentration for three layers expressed in terms of flight levels
(in hundreds of feet) as well as the ash mass loading for the whole
atmospheric column: surface to FL200 (upper left-hand panel),
FL200–FL350 (upper right-hand panel), FL350–FL600 (lower
left-hand panel), and ash mass loading (lower right-hand panel).
The time at which the run starts is indicated in the legend box in the lower, left-hand portion of the image. The date and time of forecast validity are indicated on the clock in the lower, right-
hand portion of the image. The results are based on the execution
of the last global numerical weather prediction (NWP) model using either 0000 or 1200 UTC data.
The volcano of interest is at the centre of the image. The average
volcanic ash concentration in the atmospheric layer is depicted
as very low, low, moderate, or high. The isolines are for 1, 10,
100 and 1 000 µg/m3 (micrograms per cubic metre). The areas
between the isolines are enhanced as follows:
(a) 1–10 µg/m3 is indicated by blue stippling;
(b) 10–100 µg/m3 is indicated by green stippling;
(c) 100–1 000 µg/m3 is indicated by yellow stippling; and
(d) > 1 000 µg/m3 is indicated by orange stippling.
The total ash mass loading is also depicted as very low, low,
moderate, or high, with isolines for 0.01; 0.1; 1 and 10 g/ m2.
CAUTION :
Users are reminded to consult the latest significant meteorological
information (SIGMET) and official ICAO products for updates on the position and vertical extent of the volcanic ash warning
area. Even light (LGT) concentrations constitute a potential
danger to aviation. Turbine engine flameouts have been attributed
to light volcanic ash clouds located up to 1 000 NM from the
source (see AIR 2.6).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METFigure 13.1—Example of Volcanic Ash Forecast Caused by a Hypothetical Eruption
TC AIM March 20, 2025MET14.0 SPACE WEATHER
INFORMATION SERVICE
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Civil aviation may be affected by space weather phenomena,
notably with respect to:
(a) high-frequency (HF) radio communications;
(b) global navigation satellite system-based (GNSS-based)
navigation and surveillance;
(c) satellite communications; and
(d) increased exposure to radiation aboard aircraft.
ICAO has therefore organized a space weather information
service, whereby advisories will be disseminated through the
aeronautical fixed service (AFS), including the aeronautical fixed
telecommunications network (AFTN) and the Air Traffic Services
Message Handling System (AMHS), in cases of moderate or
severe impacts on the four domains identified above.
14.2 NATURE OF THE DISTURBANCES
Space weather events are caused by solar flares and particles
ejected from the sun. The electromagnetic radiation from solar flares causes a shortwave fadeout (i.e. an increased absorption of HF radio waves on the dayside of the earth that lasts for up to an hour). The particles arriving from the sun are guided to
high latitudes, where they produce polar cap absorption and
auroral absorption, which cause a loss of HF radio communications
that can last for many hours and recur for several days. In addition,
ionospheric disturbances at mid-latitudes can reduce the
maximum useable frequency for HF radio communications.
Ionospheric disturbances can also interfere with the radio signals
used for global navigation satellite system (GNSS) positioning and navigation. Increases in the total electron content (TEC) of
the ionosphere lead to an increase in the transit time of the GNSS
signal, producing position errors in GNSS receivers. Scintillation
(rapid variations in amplitude or phase) of the radio signals can
cause GNSS receivers to “lose lock” on the radio signals and give
false information or no information at all. Satellite communications (SATCOM) signals also pass through the
ionosphere and can be affected by scintillation.
High-energy particles from the sun are guided by the earth’s
magnetic field and enter the atmosphere in polar regions. The
latitudes affected depend on the energy of the particles. Most
solar particles are absorbed by the atmosphere, but the high-
energy particles that interact with atmospheric particles trigger secondary ionising particle cascades, which increase radiation aboard aircraft. The dose from these particles is greatest at the highest aviation altitudes and decreases with reduced altitude.
14.3 THE ICAO SERVICE ADVISORIES
Space weather service providers will issue an advisory when
conditions exceed thresholds for moderate (MOD) or severe (SEV)
events. The parameters and thresholds used to define MOD and
SEV events are listed in the first edition (2019) of the ICAO Manual on Space Weather Information in Support of International
Air Navigation (Doc 10100).
The space weather advisories will contain information about
current conditions, as well as forecast levels for 6 hours, 12 hours,
18 hours, and 24 hours ahead.
Separate advisories will be issued for each of the following three
phenomena:
(a) HF radio communications (HF COM)
(b) GNSS-based navigation (GNSS)
(c) Radiation at aircraft altitudes (RADIATION)
Advisories for satellite communications (SATCOM) will not be
provided by any space weather centres as further work is required
to establish operationally relevant thresholds for aviation
SATCOM.
Affected geographic areas are referenced by their latitudes and
longitudes, and above flight levels (ABV FL) for radiation.
Abbreviations are also used:
(a) High latitudes northern hemisphere (N9000 – N6000):
HNH
(b) Mid-latitudes northern hemisphere (N6000 – N3000): MNH
(c) Equatorial latitudes northern hemisphere (N3000 – N0000):
EQN
(d) Equatorial latitudes southern hemisphere (S0000 – S3000):
EQS
(e) Mid-latitudes southern hemisphere (S3000 – S6000): MSH
(f) High latitudes southern hemisphere (S6000 – S9000): HSH
NOTE :
Some advisories may be for the whole daylight side of Earth
(daylight side).
Advisories will be issued as soon as an increase above the MOD
or SEV thresholds are detected. Advisories are updated as often
as necessary, but at least every 6 hours, until such time as the
elevated space weather levels are no longer detected or no longer
expected. At that time, an advisory will be issued stating that
the event is finished, with the message that no elevated space
weather is expected (NO SWX EXP).
Test or exercise advisories may be issued.Space weather advisory information relevant to the whole route
should be supplied to operators and flight crew members as part
of meteorological information.
14.4 RESPONSE TO ADVISORIES
The ICAO service does not define the operational responses to
space weather events. Such responses are the responsibility of
aircraft operators, who may choose to have operational procedures
in place to be ready in case of space weather events. Guidance
on the use of space weather advisory information is provided in Chapter 4 of the ICAO Manual on Space Weather Information
in Support of International Air Navigation (Doc 10100, 2019).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET14.5 SPACE WEATHER ADVISORY
MESSAGE
A space weather advisory message has the following format:
Table 14.1—Space Weather Advisory Message Format
(1) WMO Header (FNXX01, WMO location indicator,
UTC date-time of issue of the message)
(2) SWX ADVISORY (message type)
(3) STATUS (either test (TEST) or exercise (EXER) if required)
(4) DTG (Time of Origin – Year/month/date/time in UTC)
(5) SWXC (name of Space Weather Centre)
(6) ADVISORY NR (advisory number; unique sequence for each space weather effect: HFCOM, GNSS, RADIATION, SATCOM)
(7) NR RPLC (number of the previously issued advisory being replaced)
(8) SWX EFFECT (effect and intensity of space weather phenomenon)
(9) OBS (or FCST) SWX (Date and time [in UTC] and description of spatial extent of observed or forecast space weather phenomenon)
(10) FCST SWX +6HR (Date-time [in UTC] of forecast spatial extent of space weather event)
(11) FCST SWX +12HR (as above)
(12) FCST SWX +18HR (as above)
(13) FCST SWX +24HR (as above)
(14) RMK (NIL or free text)
(15) NXT ADVISORY (Year/month/date/time [in UTC] or NO FURTHER ADVISORIES) 14.6 EXAMPLES OF SPACE WEATHER
ADVISORIES
Table 14.2—Advisories: Example #1
FNXX01 YMMC
SWX ADVISORY
DTG: 20190502/0054Z
SWXC: ACFJ
ADVISORY NR 2019/319
SWX EFFECT: HF COM MOD
OBS SWX: 02/0054Z DAYLIGHT SIDE
FCST SWX + 6
HR:02/0700Z DAYLIGHT SIDE
FCST SWX + 12
HR:02/1300Z DAYLIGHT SIDE
FCST SWX + 18 HR:02/1900Z NOT AVBL
FCST SWX + 24 HR:03/0100Z NOT AVBL
RMK: SOLAR FLARE EVENT IN
PROGRESS IMPACTING HF COM ON DAYLIGHT SIDE. PERIODIC
LOSS OF HF COM ON DAYLIGHT
SIDE POSSIBLE NXT 12HRS.
NXT ADVISORY: WILL BE ISSUED BY
20190502/0654Z=
Table 14.3—Advisories: Example #2
FNXX01 EFKL 190300
SWX ADVISORY
DTG: 20190219/0300Z
SWXC: PECASUS
ADVISORY NR: 2019/20
SWX EFFECT: RADIATION MOD
OBS SWX: 19/0300Z HNH HSH
E18000-W18000 ABV FL370
FCST SWX + 6 HR:19/0900Z NO SWX EXP
FCST SWX + 12 HR:19/1500Z NO SWX EXP
FCST SWX + 18 HR:19/2100Z NO SWX EXP
FCST SWX + 24 HR:20/0300Z NO SWX EXP
RMK: RADIATION AT AIRCRAFT ALTITUDES ELEVATED BY SMALL ENHANCEMENT JUST ABOVE PRESCRIBED THRESHOLD. DURATION TO BE SHORT-LIVED
NXT ADVISORY: NO FURTHER ADVISORIES=
TC AIM March 20, 2025METTable 14.4—Advisories: Example #3
FNXX01 KWNP
SWX ADVISORY
DTG: 20190502/0100Z
SWXC: SWPC
ADVISORY NR: 2019/59
SWX EFFECT: GNSS MOD
OBS SWX 02/0100Z HNH HSH E18000-W18000
FCST SWX + 6
HR:02/0700Z HNH HSH E18000-W18000
FCST SWX + 12 HR:02/1300Z HNH HSH E18000-W18000
FCST SWX + 18 HR:02/1900Z NO SWX EXP
FCST SWX + 24 HR:03/0100Z NO SWX EXP
RMK: IONOSPHERIC STORM CONTINUES TO CAUSE LOSS-OF-LOCK OF GNSS IN AURORAL ZONE. THIS ACTIVITY IS EXPECTED TO SUBSIDE IN THE FORECAST PERIOD
NXT ADVISORY: 20190502/0700Z=
15.0 ABBREVIATIONS—AVIATION
FORECASTS
The following list of commonly used abbreviations is not
exhaustive. For a complete list of abbreviations, please consult
the Manual of Word Abbreviations (MANAB) on the Environment
and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) Web site: < https://www.
canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/weather-manuals-documentation.html >.
Table 15.1—Aviation Forecast Abbreviations
CONTRACTION PLAIN LANGUAGE
ABV above
ACC altocumulus castellanus
ACRS across
AFL above-freezing layer
AHD ahead
ALG along
ALQDS all quadrants
APCH approach
APRX approximate, approximately
ASL above sea level
BECMG becoming
BGNG beginning CONTRACTION PLAIN LANGUAGE
BKN broken
BL blowing
BLW below
BR mist
BRF brief
BRFLY briefly
BRK(S) break(s)
BTN between
CAT clear air turbulence
CAVOK ceiling and visibility OK
CB cumulonimbus
CIG ceiling
CLD cloud(s)
CLR clear
CNLcancel, cancelled, cancelling,
cancellation
CNTR centre
CONS continuing, continuous
CST coast
CU cumulus
DEG degree(s)
DNSLP downslope
DP deep
DPNG deepening
DRFT drift, drifting
DRG during
DVLPG developing
DZ drizzle
E east, eastern longitude
ELSW elsewhere
EMBD embed, embedded
ENDG ending
ERLY easterly
EXC except
FCST forecast(s)
FEW few
FG fog
FM from
FROIN frost on indicator
FRQ frequent
FT foot, feet
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
METCONTRACTION PLAIN LANGUAGE
FU smoke
FZ freeze, freezing
FZLVL freezing level
FZRA freezing rain
GR hail
H high
HGT height(s)
HR hour(s)
HVY heavy
ICE icing
ICEIC icing in cloud
ICEIP icing in precipitation
INSTBY instability
INTMT intermittent
INTS intense
INTSF intensify, intensifying, intensified
ISOL isolate, isolated, isolating, isolation
KT knot(s)
L low
LCA local, locally, location, located
LFTG lifting
LGT light
LINE line(s)
LK lake
L LVL JET low-level jet
L LVL WS low-level wind shear
LTL little
LTNG lightning
LVL level(s)
LWR lower
LYR layer(s), layered
MNLY mainly
MOD moderate, moderated, moderating,
moderation
MOV move, moving, movement
MT mountain(s)
MTW mountian wave(s)
MX mixed type of ice formation (white and clear)
N north, northern latitude
NC no change
NE northeast CONTRACTION PLAIN LANGUAGE
NELY northeasterly
NGT night
NLY northerly
NM nautical mile(s)
NMRS numerous
NR near
NRLY nearly
NSW nil significant weather
NW northwest
NWLY northwesterly
OBSC obscure, obscured, obscuring
OCNL occasional, occasionally
OFSHR offshore
ONSHR onshore
OTLK outlook
OTWZ otherwise
OVC overcast
OVR over
PCPN precipitation
PD period
PL ice pellets
POSS possible, possibly
PROB probability
PROG prognosis, prognostic
PRSTG persisting
PSN position(s)
PTCH(S) patch(es)
PTCHY patchy
PTLY partly
RA rain
RDG ridge
REP report(s), reported, reporting
RGN region
RMK remark(s)
RPDLY rapidly
S south, southern latitude
SCT scattered, scatter
SE southeast
SECN section(s)
SELY southeasterly
SEV severe
TC AIM March 20, 2025METCONTRACTION PLAIN LANGUAGE
SFC surface(s)
SH shower(s)
SHLW shallow
SIGWX significant weather
SKC sky clear
SLY southerly
SM statute mile(s)
SN snow
SPECIspecials, aerodrome special
meteorological report
SQ squall(s)
SQLN squall line(s)
STG strong
STNR stationary
SVRL several
SW southwest
SWLY southwesterly
TCU towering cumulus
TEMPO temporary
TOP cloud top(s)
TROF trough(s)
TROWAL trough of warm air aloft
TRRN terrain
TS thunderstorm(s)
TSGR thunderstorm(s) with hail
TURB turbulence
UPR upper
UPSLP upslope
UTC Coordinated Universal Time
VC vicinity (of the aerodrome)
VCTS thunderstorms in the vicinity
VIS visibility
VLY valley
VRB variable
VV vertical visibility
W west, western longitude
WDLY widely
WI within
WID wide, width
WIND wind
WK weak CONTRACTION PLAIN LANGUAGE
WKN weaken, weakening
WLY westerly
WRM warm
WS wind shear
WSPD wind speed
WV wave
XTNSV extensive
XTRM extreme
Z zulu (Coordinated Universal Time [UTC])
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MET
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACRAC—RULES OF THE AIR
AND AIR TRAFFIC
SERVICES
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES
The following is a list of control, advisory and information
services that are available to pilots.
1.1.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) and In formation
Services
The following air traffic control and information services are
provided by ACCs and TWRs.
(a) Airport control service is provided by airport TWRs to
aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area of an airport
and to aircraft operating in the vicinity of an airport.
(b) Area control service is provided by ACCs to IFR and CVFR
flights operating within specified control areas.
(c) Terminal control service is provided by ACCs to IFR and
CVFR flights operating within specified control areas.
(d) Terminal control service is an additional service provided
by IFR units to VFR aircraft operating within Class C airspace.
(e) Alerting service notifies appropriate organizations regarding
aircraft in need of search and rescue services, or alerts crash
equipment, ambulances, doctors, and any other safety
services.
(f) Altitude reservation service provides mission planning
support for altitude reservations (ALTRVs) and other
military activities, airspace coordination for military or
specialized operations in controlled airspace, coordination
with user agencies and affected ATS units, and issuing
approvals and clearances for aircraft to operate within
approved ALTRVs.
(g) AMIS is provided by ACCs for the collection, processing
and dissemination of aircraft movement information for
use by air defence units relative to flights operating into or
within Canadian ADIZ.
(h) Flight information service is provided by ATC units to
assist pilots by supplying information concerning known
hazardous flight conditions. This information will include data concerning unfavourable flight conditions and other known hazards; which may not have been available to the
pilot prior to takeoff or which may have developed along
the route of flight. (i) Flight information will be made available, whenever
practicable, to any aircraft in communication with an ATC
unit, prior to takeoff or when in flight, except where such
service is provided by the aircraft operator. Many factors
(such as volume of traffic, controller workload,
communications frequency congestion and limitations of
ATS surveillance equipment) may prevent a controller from
providing this service.
The ATC service has been established primarily for the prevention
of collisions and the expediting of traffic. The provision of such
service will take precedence over the provision of flight
information service, but every effort will be made to provide
flight information and assistance.
VFR flights will be provided with information concerning:
(a) severe weather conditions along the proposed route of flight;
(b) changes in the serviceability of navigation aids;
(c) conditions of airports and associated facilities;
(d) other items considered pertinent to safety of flight.
IFR flights will be provided with information concerning:
(a) severe weather conditions;
(b) weather conditions reported or forecast at destination or
alternate aerodromes;
(c) changes in the serviceability of navigation aids;
(d) condition of airports and associated facilities; and
(e) other items considered pertinent to the safety of flight.
Flight information messages are intended as information only.
If a specific action is suggested, the message will be prefixed by the term “ATC SUGGESTS…” or “SUGGEST YOU…” and the
pilot will be informed of the purpose of the suggested action.
The pilot is responsible for making the final decision concerning
any suggestion.
ATS surveillance equipment is frequently used in the provision
of information concerning hazards, such as chaff drops, bird
activity and possible traffic conflictions. Due to limitations
inherent in all ATS surveillance systems, aircraft, chaff, etc.,
cannot be detected in all cases.
Whenever practicable, ATC will provide flights with severe
weather information pertinent to the area concerned. Pilots may
assist ATC by providing pilot reports of severe weather conditions
they encounter. ATC will endeavour to suggest alternate routes
available in order to avoid areas experiencing severe weather.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACATC will provide pilots intending to operate through chaff areas
with all available information relating to proposed or actl chaff
drops:
(a) location of chaff drop area;
(b) time of drop;
(c) estimated speed and direction of drift;
(d) altitudes likely to be affected; and
(e) relative intensity of chaff.
Information concerning bird activity, obtained through
controller’s observations or pilot reports, will be provided to
aircraft operating in the area concerned. In addition, pilots may
be warned of possible bird hazards if ATS surveillance observation
indicates the possibility of bird activity. Information will be
provided concerning:
(a) size or species of bird, if known;
(b) location;
(c) direction of flight; and
(d) altitude, if known.
ATS surveillance traffic information and ATS surveillance
navigation assistance to VFR flights are contained in RAC 1.5.
1.1.2 Flight Advisory and Information Services
The following flight advisory and information services are
provided by FICs and FSSs.
1.1.2.1 Flight Information Centres (FICs)
Pilot briefing service: the provision of, or consultation on,
meteorological and aeronautical information to assist pilots in pre-flight planning for the safe and efficient conduct of flight.
The flight service specialist adapts meteorological information,
including satellite and radar imagery, to fit the needs of flight
crew members and operations personnel, and provides
consultation and advice on special weather problems. Flight
service specialists accept flight plan information during a briefing.
FISE: the exchange on the FISE frequency of information
pertinent to the en-route phase of flight. Air traffic information is not provided. Upon request from an aircraft, a FIC provides:
(a) meteorological information: SIGMET, AIRMET, PIREP,
aerodrome routine meteorological report (METAR), aviation
selected special weather report (SPECI) , aerodrome forecast
(TAF), altimeter setting, weather radar, lightning information
and briefing update;
(b) aeronautical information: NOTAM, RSC, CRFI, MANOT
and other information of interest for flight safety; and
(c) relay of communications with ATC: IFR clearance and
SVFR authorization.En-route aircraft may submit to a FIC: PIREPs, IFR and VFR
position reports (including arrival and departure times), revised
flight plan or flight itinerary information and other reports,
such as vital intelligence sightings (CIRVIS) and pollution reports.
Fuel dumping information may also be submitted for coordination
with the appropriate ACC and for aeronautical broadcast needs.
Aeronautical broadcast service: the broadcast on the FISE
frequency, and on 126.7 MHz, of SIGMET, urgent PIREP and
information concerning fuel dumping operations.
VFR flight plan alerting service: the notification of RCCs and
provision of communications searches when an aircraft on a
VFR flight plan or flight itinerary becomes overdue and needs
SAR aid.
Flight regularity message service: the relay by FICs of messages
between an aircraft in flight and the aircraft operating agency,
and vice versa, when an agency with AFTN access subscribes
to the service for an annual cost. Agencies interested in subscribing
to this service should contact the NAV CANADA Customer
Service Centre.
1.1.2.2 Flight Service Stations (FSSs)
AAS: the provision of information pertinent to the arrival and
departure phases of flight at uncontrolled aerodromes and for transit through an MF area. AAS is provided on the MF and is normally in conjunction with VCS.
The elements of information listed below are provided, if appropriate, by the flight service specialist during initial
aerodrome advisory communications with an aircraft:
(a) runway;
(b) wind direction and speed;
(c) air traffic that warrants attention;
(d) vehicle traffic;
(e) wake turbulence cautionary;
(f) aerodrome conditions;
(g) weather conditions;
(h) additional information of interest for the safety of flight.
The flight service specialist updates this information, when
appropriate, after the initial advisory. Pilots are encouraged to indicate in initial transmissions to the FSS that information has
been obtained from the ATIS or from an AWOS (or LWIS)
broadcast, or use the phrase “HAVE NUMBERS” if runway,
wind and altimeter information from the previous aerodrome advisory have been received, so that the flight service specialist does not repeat the information.
Mandatory reports by aircraft on the MF are critical for the FSS
to be able to provide effective air traffic information. At certain
FSS locations, air traffic information may also be based on a
situation display. A pilot remains responsible for avoidance of
traffic in Class E airspace.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACCommunications regarding TCAS events and displayed
information should be limited to that required to inform the
flight service specialist that the aircraft is responding to an RA.
Discretion should be used in using the TCAS traffic display to ask questions regarding traffic in the vicinity of an aircraft. As would be expected, aircraft shown on a TCAS display may not
match the traffic information provided by the flight service
specialist.
NOTAM, RSC and CRFI are included in advisories for a period
of 12 hr for domestic traffic, and 24 hr for international traffic,
after dissemination by means of telecommunication. Aerodrome
conditions published prior to these time limits should have been
received in the pilot briefing or can be obtained on request.
Aerodrome lighting is operated by the FSS, unless otherwise
indicated in the CFS. The flight service specialist relays ATC
clearances, SVFR authorizations, and routinely informs the ACC
of all IFR arrival times. The specialist also relays a VFR arrival report to a FIC upon request from an aircraft.
Pilots should be aware that a flight service specialist will alert
the appropriate agencies for any aircraft that has received a
landing advisory for an aerodrome that lies within an MF area
and within radio communication range, if it fails to arrive within
5 min of its latest ETA, and communication cannot be
re-established with the aircraft.
VCS: the provision, at locations where AAS is provided, of
instructions to control the movements of vehicles, equipment
and pedestrians on manoeuvring areas of uncontrolled
aerodromes. Flight service specialists will normally instruct
vehicle traffic to leave the intended runway at least 5 min prior
to the estimated time of landing or before a departing aircraft
enters the manoeuvring area. The specialist will coordinate with
the pilot prior to authorizing traffic to operate on the intended runway within less than 5 min of the estimated time of landing or the time an aircraft is ready for takeoff.
1.1.2.3 Flight Information Centres (FICs) an d Flight
Service Stations (FSSs)
RAAS: the provision, via RCO, of information pertinent to the
arrival and departure phases of flight and for transit through
an MF area.
RAAS consists in the issuance of the same type of information
as in AAS, except that it is provided from a remote location. It is emphasized that the flight service specialist cannot observe
the runways, taxiways, airspace or weather conditions in the
vicinity of the aerodrome. Wind, altimeter and other weather
information is usually extracted from the latest METAR or
SPECI, and may not always be as representative of actual
conditions as in AAS.
V AS: the provision, via RCO, of information and advisories
concerning the movements of vehicles, equipment and pedestrians
on manoeuvring areas at designated uncontrolled aerodromes.
VAS is provided at locations where RAAS is also provided. The
flight service specialist will request vehicle traffic to leave the
intended runway at least 5 min prior to the estimated time of
landing, but cannot ascertain visually if the traffic has actually vacated the runway.Alerting service: the notification of appropriate organizations
regarding aircraft in need of SAR services or alerts of crash
equipment, ambulances, doctors and any other safety services.
Alerting of a responsible authority, if experiencing unlawful
interference, bomb threat or inability to communicate in the
clear, is also included in this service.
Emergency assistance service: the provision of aid to a pilot
when in an emergency, or potential emergency situation, such
as being lost, encountering adverse weather conditions or
experiencing aircraft-related emergencies or equipment failure.
At some locations, emergency navigational assistance is provided
to a pilot who is lost or experiencing IMC, by transferring the pilot to ATC for ATS surveillance service.
NOTAM information service: the collection and dissemination
of NOTAM, RSC, and CRFI information by the flight service
specialist. A pilot may report to a FIC or to an FSS any hazards
to the air navigation system that may need NOTAM distribution.
The flight service specialist will distribute the information if it
meets the criteria established in the Canadian NOTAM Operating
Procedures (CNOP).
Weather observation service: the observation, recording and
dissemination of surface weather information for aviation
purposes.
1.1.2.4 International Flight Service Station (IFSS)
An aeronautical station that provides a communications service
for international air operators. Gander is the only IFSS in Canada.
1.1.3 Arctic Territories
Arctic territories are serviced by the Edmonton (Alta.),
Winnipeg (Man.), and Quebec (Que.) FICs, which provide FISE
and emergency communication to aircraft operating in the
Northwest Territories and Nunavut and in the vicinity of the
ADIZ.
1.1.4 Military Flight Advisory Unit (MFAU)
DND operates Military Flight Advisory Unit (MFAU) which
provide flight information services that enhance flight safety
and efficiency. These services are available by calling the
appropriate station followed by “Advisory”, i.e. “Namao Advisory”.
MFAU provide en route flight information, airport advisory,
ground control, field condition reports, flight planning, alerting
service, navigation assistance, NOTAM, PIREPs, and weather
reports. An MFAU may be used to accept and relay VFR and
IFR position reports and ATC clearances.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC1.2 SERVICES OTHER THAN AIR TRAFFIC
SERVICES (ATS)
1.2.1 Universal Communications (UNICOM)
A UNICOM is an air-ground communications facility operated
by a private agency to provide PAS service at uncontrolled
aerodromes. At these locations the choice of frequencies are
122.7, 122.8, 123.0, 123.3, 123.5, 122.35, 122.95, 123.35, 122.725,
122.775, and 122.825 MHz.
The use of all information received from a UNICOM station is
entirely at the discretion of the pilot. The frequencies are published
in aeronautical information publications as a service to pilots,
but TC takes no responsibility for the use made of a UNICOM frequency.
An AU is an air-ground communications service that can provide
approach and landing information to IFR pilots. The service
provider is required to ensure that:
(a) meteorological instruments used to provide the approach and landing information meet the requirements stipulated under CAR 804.01(1)(c) or the applicable exemption; and
(b) UNICOM operators meet the training requirements stipulated under CAR 804.01(1)(c) or the applicable
exemption.
Where the above standards are met, the AU operator may provide
a station altimeter setting for an instrument procedure. The
wind speed and direction for a straight-in landing from an
instrument approach may or may not be provided.
Operators providing AU services may also advise pilots of runway
conditions and of vehicle or aircraft positions on the
manoeuvring area.
An AU is indicated as “UNICOM (AU)” in the CAP and the CFS.
1.2.2 Airport Radio/Community Aerodrome Radio Station
Airport radio (APRT RDO), in most cases, is provided by a
community aerodrome radio station (CARS) and has been
established to provide aviation weather and communication
services to enhance aircraft access to certain aerodromes.
APRT RDO/CARS service is provided by observer-communicators
(O/C) who are trained to conduct aviation weather observations
and radio communications to facilitate aircraft arrivals and
departures.
Hours of operation are liste d in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS)
Aerodrome/ Facility Directory under the subheadings COM/
APRT RDO.
Services provided by APRT RDO/CARS include the following:
(a) Emergency Service : The O/C will respond to all emergency
calls (distress, urgency and ELT signals), incidents or
accidents by alerting a designated NAV CANADA FIC and
appropriate local authorities.
(b) Communication Service : The O/C will provide pilots with
information in support of aircraft arrivals and departures, including wind, altimeter, runway and aerodrome status
(including vehicle intentions and runway condition), current
weather conditions, PIREPs and known aircraft traffic.
NOTES :
1. O/Cs are authorized to provide an altimeter setting for an instrument approach.
2. O/Cs provide limited traffic information. APRT RDOs/
CARS are located at uncontrolled aerodromes within MF
areas. Pilots must communicate on the MF as per uncontrolled
aerodrome procedures.
3. O/Cs do not provide ATC services. At aerodromes within
controlled airspace served by APRT RDO/CARS, pilots
must contact ATS via the RCO, PAL or telephone to obtain special VFR authorization or IFR clearances.
(c) Weather Observation Service: The O/C will monitor, observe,
record and relay surface weather data for aviation purposes
(METARs or SPECIs) in accordance with CAR 804 standards.
The O/C may request PIREPs from pilots to confirm weather conditions, such as height of cloud bases.
(d) Flight Plan/Flight Information Service : If necessary, at
most APRT RDOs/CARS, O/Cs will accept flight plans/
itineraries; however, pilots are encouraged to obtain a full pre-flight briefing and then file their flight plan/itinerary with a FIC.
NOTE :
Pilots should be aware that O/Cs are only authorized to provide
NOTAMs and weather information (METARs or SPECIs) for
their own aerodrome. Information for other areas/aerodromes should be obtained from a FIC.
At APRT RDO/CARS sites colocated with an RCO, pilots
should open and close flight plans/itineraries, pass position
reports and obtain FISE directly from the FIC via the RCO.
At sites with no RCO, when requested by the pilot, the APRT
RDO/CARS O/C will relay messages to open and close flight
plans/ itineraries and position reports (IFR, VFR, DVFR) to a FIC.
(e) Monitoring of Equipment/NAVAIDs : During the APRT
RDO/CARS hours of operation, O/Cs will monitor the status
of equipment related to aerodrome lighting, weather,
communications, etc. Malfunctions will be reported to the designated NAV CANADA facility, and a NOTAM will be
issued as required. For site-specific NAVAID monitoring
by APRT RDO/CARS, refer to the CFS and Enroute Low
Altitude and Enroute High Altitude charts.
1.2.3 Private Advisory Stations (PAS)—Controlled Airports
Aeronautical operators may establish their own private facilities
at controlled airports for use in connection with company
business, such as servicing of aircraft, availability of fuel, and
lodging. The use of PAS at controlled aerodromes shall not
include information relative to ATC, weather reports, condition
of landing strips, or any other communication normally provided
by ATC units.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC1.2.4 Apron Advisory Service
Apron advisory service at most controlled airports is provided
by ATS. However, some large airports are providing advisory
service on aprons through a separate apron management unit
staffed by airport or terminal operator personnel. This service
normally includes gate assignment, push-back instructions, and
advisories on other aircraft and vehicles on the apron. Aircraft
entering the apron will normally be instructed by the ground
controller to contact apron prior to or at the designated change-over point. Aircraft leaving the apron shall contact ground on
the appropriate frequency to obtain taxi clearance before exiting
the apron and before entering the manoeuvring area.
1.3 AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION
SERVICE (ATIS)
ATIS is the continuous broadcasting of recorded information
for arriving and departing aircraft on a discrete VHF/UHF
frequency. Its purpose is to improve controller and flight service
specialist effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by
automating the repetitive transmission of essential but routine information.
ATIS messages are recorded in a standard format and contain
such information as:
(a) airport name and message code letter;
(b) weather information, including:
(i) time,
(ii) surface wind, including gusts,
(iii) visibility,
(iv) weather and obstructions to vision,
(v) ceiling,
(vi) sky condition,
(vii) temperature,
(viii) dew point,
(ix) altimeter setting,
(x) pertinent SIGMETs, AIRMETs and PIREPs, and
(xi) other pertinent remarks;
(c) type of instrument approach in use, including information
on parallel or simultaneous converging runway operations;
(d) landing runway, both IFR and VFR, including information
on hold short operations and the stopping distance available;
(e) departure runway, both IFR and VFR;
(f) a NOTAM or an excerpt from a NOTAM, pertinent
information regarding the serviceability of a NAVAID, or
field conditions applicable to arriving or departing aircraft.
These may be deleted from an ATIS message after a broadcast
period of 12 hr at domestic airports or 24 hr at international
airports;
(g) instruction that aircraft are to acknowledge receipt of the ATIS broadcast on initial contact with ATC/FSS. Each recording will be identified by a phonetic alphabet code
letter, beginning with ALFA. Succeeding letters will be used for each subsequent message.
Example of an ATIS Message:
TORONTO INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION
BRAVO. WEATHER AT ONE FOUR ZERO ZERO ZULU: WIND ZERO FIVE ZERO AT TWO ZERO, VISIBILITY FIVE HAZE, CEILING THREE THOUSAND OVERCAST, TEMPERATURE ONE EIGHT, DEW POINT ONE SIX, ALTIMETER TWO NINER FOUR SIX, PARALLEL ILS APPROACHES ARE IN PROGRESS. IFR LANDING ZERO SIX RIGHT, ZERO SIX LEFT. VFR LANDING ZERO SIX LEFT. DEPARTURE ZERO SIX LEFT. NOTAM: GLIDE PATH ILS RUNWAY ONE FIVE OUT OF SERVICE. INFORM ATC YOU HAVE INFORMATION BRAVO.
NOTE :
Current time and RVR measurements will not be included in
the ATIS message, but will be issued in accordance with current
practices. Temperature and dew point information is derived
only from the scheduled hourly weather observations.
Pilots hearing the broadcast should inform the ATC/FSS unit
on initial contact that they have received the information, by
repeating the code letter that identifies the message, thus
obviating the need for the controller/specialist to issue information.
Example:
…WITH BRAVO .
During periods of rapidly changing conditions that would create
difficulties in keeping the ATIS message current, the following message will be recorded and broadcasted:
BECAUSE OF RAPIDLY CHANGING WEATHER/AIRPORT CONDITIONS, CONTACT ATC/FSS FOR CURRENT INFORMATION.
The success and effectiveness of ATIS is largely dependent upon
the co-operation and participation of airspace users; therefore, pilots are strongly urged to take full advantage of this service.
1.4 USE OF TERM “CEILING AND
VISIBILITY OK (CAVOK)”
The term “CAVOK” (KAV-OH-KAY) may be used in air-ground
communications when transmitting meteorological information
to arriving aircraft.
CAVOK refers to the simultaneous occurrence of the following
meteorological conditions at an airport:
(a) no cloud below 5 000 feet, or below the highest minimum
sector altitude, whichever is higher, and no cumulonimbus;
(b) a visibility of 6 SM or more;
(c) no precipitation, thunderstorms, shallow fog, or low
drifting snow.
This term, coupled with other elements of meteorological
information, such as wind direction and speed, altimeter setting
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACand pertinent remarks, will be used in transmissions directed
to arriving aircraft and, where applicable, in the composition
of ATlS messages. A pilot, on receipt of CAVOK, may request
that detailed information be provided.
CAVOK does not apply to the provision of meteorological
information to en route aircraft and, therefore, will not be used
when such information is transmitted to aircraft engaged in that
particular phase of flight.
1.5 ATS SURVEILLANCE SERVICE
1.5.1 General
The use of ATS surveillance increases airspace utilization by
allowing ATC to reduce the separation interval between aircraft.
In addition, ATS surveillance permits an expansion of flight
information services, such as ATS surveillance traffic information,
ATS surveillance navigation assistance and information on chaff
drops and bird activity. Due to limitations inherent in all ATS
surveillance systems, it may not always be possible to detect
aircraft, weather disturbances, etc. Where ATS surveillance
information is derived from secondary surveillance radar (SSR)
only (i.e. without associated primary radar coverage), it is not
possible to provide traffic information on aircraft that are not
transponder-equipped or to provide some of the other flight
information (See AIP Canada ENR 1.6).
1.5.2 Procedures
Before providing ATS surveillance service, ATC will establish
identification of the aircraft concerned either through the use
of position reports, identifying turns, or transponders. Pilots
will be notified whenever identification is established or lost.
Examples:
IDENTIFIED; or IDENTIFICATION LOST.
Pilots are cautioned that identification of their flight does not
relieve them of the responsibility for collision avoidance or
terrain (obstacle) clearance. ATC will normally provide identified
IFR and CVFR flights with information on observed targets. At
locations where an SSR is used without collocated primary radar
equipment, ATC cannot provide traffic information on aircraft
without a functioning transponder.
ATC assumes responsibility for terrain (obstacle) clearance when
vectoring en route IFR and CVFR flights and for IFR aircraft
being vectored for arrival until the aircraft resumes normal
navigation.
Vectors are used when necessary for separation purposes, when
required by noise abatement procedures, when requested by the pilot, or whenever vectors will offer operational advantages to the pilot or the controller. When vectors are initiated, the pilot
will be informed of the location to which the aircraft is
being vectored. Example:
VECTORS TO VICTOR THREE ZERO ZERO, TURN LEFT HEADING ZERO FIVE ZERO.
VECTORS TO THE VANCOUVER V ‑O‑R ZERO
FIVE THREE RADIAL, FLY HEADING ZERO TWO ZERO. VECTORS TO FINAL APPROACH COURSE, DEPART KLEINBURG BEACON ON HEADING TWO FOUR ZERO.
Pilots will be informed when vectors are terminated, except
when an arriving aircraft is vectored to the final approach course
or to the traffic circuit.
Example:
RESUME NORMAL NAVIGATION.
When an aircraft is vectored to final approach or to the traffic
circuit, the issuance of approach clearance indicates that normal
navigation should be resumed.
Normally ATS surveillance service will be continued until an
aircraft leaves the area of surveillance coverage, enters
uncontrolled airspace, or is transferred to an ATC unit not
equipped with ATS surveillance. When ATS surveillance service
is terminated the pilot will be informed accordingly. Example:
ATS SURVEILLANCE SERVICE TERMINATED.
1.5.3 Air Traffic Service (ATS) Surveillance
Traffic Information
Traffic (or workload) permitting, ATC will provide IFR and
CVFR flights with information on observed ATS surveillance
targets whenever the traffic is likely to be of concern to the pilot,
unless the pilot states that the information is not wanted. This information may be provided to VFR aircraft when requested by the pilot, depending on the classification of the airspace (see RAC 2.8).
When issuing ATS surveillance information, ATS units will
frequently define the relative location of the traffic, weather
areas, etc., by referring to the clock position. In this system, the 12 o’clock position is based on the observed surveillance track
rather than the actual nose of the aircraft. In conditions of strong
crosswind, this can lead to a discrepancy between the position
as reported by the controller and the position as observed by
the pilot.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACThe following diagram illustrates the clock positions.
Figure 1.1—Clock Positions Diagram
Issue ATS surveillance traffic information to identified aircraft
as follows:
(a) Position of the traffic in relation to the aircraft’s
observed track.
(b) Direction of flight.
(c) Type of aircraft, if known, or the relative speed and the
altitude, if known.
NOTE :
Direction of flight may be expressed as OPPOSITE DIRECTION
or SAME DIRECTION, while the altitude may be expressed as
a number of feet above or below the aircraft receiving the traffic information.
Example:
TRAFFIC, TWO O’CLOCK, THREE AND A HALF
MILES, WESTBOUND, B747, ONE THOUSAND
FEET ABOVE YOUR ALTITUDE.
Issue ATS surveillance traffic information to non-identified
aircraft as follows:
(a) Position of the traffic in relation to a fix.
(b) Direction of flight.
(c) Type of aircraft, if known, or the relative speed and the
altitude, if known.
NOTE :
Direction of flight may be expressed as OPPOSITE DIRECTION
or SAME DIRECTION, while the altitude may be expressed as a number of feet above or below the aircraft receiving the traffic information.
Example :
TRAFFIC, SEVEN MILES SOUTH OF RESOLUTE
BAY VOR, NORTHBOUND, B737, FL300.1.5.4 ATS Surveillance Navigation Assistance to
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flights
When requested by pilots, ATS surveillance-equipped ATC units
will provide assistance to navigation in the form of position
information, vectors or track, and ground speed checks. Flights
requesting this assistance must be operating within areas of ATS
surveillance and communication coverage, and be identified.
VFR flights may be provided with this service:
(a) at the request of a pilot, when traffic conditions permit;
(b) when the controller suggests and the pilot agrees; or
(c) in the interest of flight safety.
The pilot is responsible for avoiding other traffic and avoiding
weather below VFR minima while on a VFR flight on vectors.
If a vector will lead a VFR flight into IFR weather conditions,
the pilot must inform the controller and take the following
action:
(a) if practicable, obtain a vector which will allow the flight to remain in VFR weather conditions; or
(b) if an alternative vector is not practicable, revert to navigation
without assistance; or
(c) if the pilot has an IFR rating and the aircraft is equipped
for IFR flight, the pilot may file an IFR flight plan, and
request an IFR clearance.
Emergency ATS surveillance assistance will be given to VFR
flights which are able to maintain two-way radio communication
with the unit, are within coverage, and can be identified.
Pilots requiring ATS surveillance assistance during emergency
conditions should contact the nearest ATC unit and provide the
following information:
(a) Declaration of emergency (state nature of difficulty and
type of assistance required).
(b) Position of aircraft and weather conditions within which
the flight is operating.
(c) Type of aircraft, altitude, and whether equipped for
IFR flight.
(d) Whether pilot has an IFR Rating.
Pilots unable to contact ATS surveillance but in need of emergency
assistance may alert ATS surveillance by flying a triangular
pattern.
1.5.5 Obstacle Clearance During Vectors
(a) IFR Flights: The pilot of an IFR flight is responsible for
ensuring that the aircraft is operated with adequate clearance
from obstacles and terrain; however, when the flight is being
vectored, ATC will ensure that the appropriate obstacle
clearance is provided.
Minimum vectoring altitudes (lowest altitude at which an
aircraft may be vectored and still meet obstacle clearance
criteria), which may be lower than minimum altitudes shown
on navigation and approach charts, have been established
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACat a number of locations to facilitate transitions to instrument
approach aids. When an IFR flight is cleared to descend to
the lower altitude, ATC will provide terrain and obstacle
clearance until the aircraft is in a position from which an
approved instrument approach or a visual approach can be commenced.
If a communication failure occurs while a flight is being
vectored at an altitude below the minimum IFR altitudes
shown in the instrument approach chart, the pilot should climb immediately to the appropriate published minimum
altitude, unless the flight is able to continue in Visual
Meteorological Conditions (VMC).
(b) VFR Flights : The pilot of a VFR aircraft remains
responsible for maintaining adequate clearance from obstacles and terrain when the flight is being vectored
by ATC.
If adequate obstacle or terrain clearance cannot be maintained
on a vector, the pilot must inform the controller and take the following action:
(i) if practicable, obtain a heading that will enable
adequate clearance to be maintained, or climb to a suitable altitude, or
(ii) revert to navigation without ATS surveillance
assistance.
1.5.6 Misuse of Vectors
Pilots have, on occasion, for practice purposes, followed ATS
surveillance instructions issued to other pilots without realizing
the potential hazard that accompanies such action.
ATC may require aircraft to make turns for identification;
however, when more than one aircraft target is observed making
a turn, identification becomes difficult or impossible. Should
misidentification be the result of more than one aircraft following
the instructions issued by ATC, it could be hazardous to the
aircraft involved.
Any pilot wishing to obtain ATS surveillance practice, however,
needs only to contact the appropriate ACC or TCU and request
practice vectors. Practice vectors will be issued to the extent that
air traffic conditions permit.
1.5.7 Canadian Forces Radar Assistance
The Canadian Forces can provide assistance in an emergency
to civil aircraft operating within the ADIZ.
No responsibility for the direct control of aircraft is accepted
and radar assistance does not absolve the captain of the
responsibility of complying with ATC clearances or other required
procedures. Assistance consists of:
(a) track and ground speed checks—speeds in kt;
(b) position of the aircraft in geographic reference, or by bearing
and distance from the station—distances are in NM and
bearings in degrees True; and
(c) position of heavy cloud in relation to the aircraft. To obtain assistance in the North Warning System area, call “Radar
Assistance” on 126.7 MHz; or when circumstances require a
MAYDAY call, use 121.5 MHz, giving all the necessary details.
When assistance is required in ADIZ areas contact will have to be
made on the 121.5 MHz frequency or on the UHF frequencies 243.0
or 364.2 MHz. Initial contact should be made at the highest practicable altitude. If air defence commitments preclude the
granting of radar assistance, the ground station will transmit the word “UNABLE” and no further explanation will be given.
1.5.8 The Use of ATS Surveillance in the Provision of Aerodrome Advisory
Service (AAS) and Remote Aerodrome
Advisory Service (RAAS) by
Flight Service Stations (FSS)
Certain FSSs are equipped with an ATS surveillance display to aid the flight service specialist in monitoring the aircraft traffic
situation and to enhance the accuracy of traffic information
provided in AAS or RAAS.
An FSS equipped with an ATS surveillance display:
(a) may instruct an aircraft to “SQUAWK IDENT” or assign
a specific SSR code to the aircraft;
(b) will acknowledge the squawk transmission or SSR code
change by stating the phrase “ROGER IDENT”;
(c) will issue the reminder “NO CONTROL SERVICE
AVAILABLE, THIS IS AN ADVISORY SERVICE,” if deemed
appropriate;
(d) may issue observed ATS surveillance traffic information
with reference to the 12-hr clock position or geographical
locations.
It is important for pilots to keep in mind that:
(a) flight service specialists may stop monitoring the ATS
surveillance display at any time without prior notice to
aircraft;
(b) FSSs do not inform aircraft when identification is lost;
(c) FSSs do not provide control services such as vectors and
conflict resolution;
(d) pilots are responsible for maintaining a visual lookout outside
the cockpit at all times for the purpose of avoiding a collision
with other aircraft, terrain and obstacles.
1.6 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)
CLEARANCES, INSTRUCTIONS
AND INFORMATION
Whenever pilots receive and accept an ATC clearance, they shall
comply with the clearance. If unable to comply with the clearance,
pilots should immediately inform ATC since the controller will
understand the acknowledgement of the clearance as indicating
acceptance. For example, upon receiving a clearance for takeoff,
pilots should acknowledge the clearance and take off without
undue delay or, if not ready to take off at that particular time,
inform ATC of their intentions, in which case the clearance may
be changed or cancelled.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACA clearance will be identified by the use of some form of the
word “clear” in its contents. An instruction will always be worded
in such a manner as to be readily identified, although the word
“instruct” will seldom be included. Pilots shall comply with and
acknowledge receipt of all ATC instructions directed to and
received by them, provided the safety of the aircraft is not
jeopardized (CAR 602.31).
CAR 602.31 permits pilots to deviate from an ATC instruction
or clearance in order to follow TCAS or ACAS RAs. Pilots
responding to an RA shall advise the appropriate ATC unit of
the deviation as soon as possible and shall expeditiously return to the last ATC clearance received and accepted, or the last ATC
instruction received and acknowledged prior to the RA manoeuvre. Aircraft manoeuvres conducted during an RA
should be kept to the minimum necessary to satisfy the resolution
advisory. For more information on TCAS and ACAS, see the
COM chapter.
ATC is not responsible for the provision of IFR separation to an
IFR aircraft which carries out a TCAS or ACAS RA manoeuvre until one of the following conditions exist:
(a) the aircraft has returned to the last ATC clearance received
and accepted, or last ATC instruction received and
acknowledged prior to the RA; or
(b) an alternate ATC clearance or instruction has been issued.
TCAS and ACAS do not alter or diminish the pilot-in-command’s
responsibility to ensure safe flight. Since TCAS and ACAS do
not respond to aircraft which are not transponder-equipped or
to aircraft with a transponder failure, TCAS and ACAS alone
do not ensure safe operation in every case. The services provided
by ATC units are not predicated upon the availability of TCAS or ACAS equipment in an aircraft.
It should be remembered that air traffic control is predicated
on known air traffic only and, when complying with clearances
or instructions, pilots are not relieved of the responsibility of
practicing good airmanship.
NOTE :
A clearance or instruction is only valid while in controlled
airspace. Pilots crossing between controlled and uncontrolled
airspace should pay close attention to the terrain and obstacle
clearance requirements.
ATS personnel routinely inform pilots of conditions, observed
by others or by themselves, which may affect flight safety and
are beyond their control. Examples of such conditions are
observed airframe icing and bird activity. These are meant solely
as assistance or reminders to pilots and are not intended in any
way to absolve the pilot of the responsibility for the safety of
the flight.1.6.1 Inability to Issue Clearance
ATC clearances are based on known traffic conditions and
aerodrome limitations which affect the safety of aircraft operations. This encompasses aircraft in flight and on the
manoeuvring area, vehicles, and other potential obstructions.
ATC is not authorized to issue ATC clearances when traffic
conditions are unknown, when any part of the aerodrome is
partially or fully closed, or when the aerodrome or runway
operating minima are not met.
There are two distinct phrases used when unable to issue ATC
clearances:
(a) AT YOUR DISCRETION— Used to approve aircraft
movement on any surface not visible from the control tower
due to a physical obstruction other than weather phenomena,
or on the non-manoeuvring area. Pilots are responsible for
manoeuvring safely with respect to traffic or hazards encountered during the operation. ATC will provide
information on known traffic or obstructions when possible.
(b) UNABLE TO ISSUE CLEARANCE— Used when controllers
are not authorized to issue an ATC clearance. Pilots who
continue without a clearance in these circumstances may
be subject to regulatory action by TC. ATC will provide
pertinent taxi, take-off or landing information and then
file an aviation occurrence report. Pilots are responsible for
manoeuvring safely with respect to traffic or other hazards
encountered during the operation.
1.6.1.1 Examples
The following are scenarios in which ATC may not be able to
provide a clearance, followed by ensuing ATC actions, and
examples of phraseology that will be used.
(a) ATIS message— ATC will include the following information
in an ATIS message, as applicable, upon restriction or
suspension of landings or takeoffs. These restrictions or
suspensions may be due to the implementation of RVOP or
LVOP, direction from the airport operator, obstructed
runway protected area, or other reasons .
NOTE :
When conditions are rapidly changing, this information may
be issued by ATC, rather than via the ATIS.
Examples:
LOW VISIBILITY PROCEDURES IN EFFECT.
RUNWAY ZERO FOUR NOT AUTHORIZED FOR LANDING.
REDUCED VISIBILITY PROCEDURES IN EFFECT.
RUNWAY TWO TWO NOT AVAILABLE.
RUNWAY ONE THREE NOT AVAILABLE DUE TO
RUNWAY PROTECTED AREA OBSTRUCTION .
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC(b) Operations on a surface other than a runway
(i) If the pilot of a fixed-wing aircraft requests landing
or takeoff from a surface other than a runway or
area approved and designated for that purpose, ATC
will provide traffic and obstruction information;
control instructions, if necessary; and inform the
pilot that landing or takeoff will be at the pilot’s
discretion.
NOTE :
Examples of surfaces other than a runway may include areas at
or adjacent to the airport, areas in the control zone but not at
the airport, a water aerodrome, or a temporary landing area in
the control zone.
Example:
GOLF JULIETT ALFA LIMA, WIND THREE ZERO
ZERO AT FIFTEEN, TAKE OFF AT YOUR DISCRETION.
(ii) Workload permitting, ATC will provide traffic and
obstruction information to aircraft taxiing on a
non-manoeuvring area.
Example:
GOLF LIMA BRAVO JULIETT, TAXI AT YOUR DISCRETION.
(iii) If necessary, ATC will inform a taxiing aircraft that
a portion of the manoeuvring area is not visible from
the tower and, if possible, provide traffic and
obstruction information.
NOTE :
Restricted visibility of the manoeuvring area may be the result of a structure, but excludes situations due to weather.
Example:
FOXTROT ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, TAXIWAY NOT
VISIBLE, TAXI AT YOUR DISCRETION ON TAXIWAY ALFA .
(c) RVOP and LVOP— The following procedures will be used
by ATC when implementation of RVOP or LVOP results in
manoeuvring area restrictions or closures. RVOP and LVOP
procedures vary across Canada, depending on airport
operating limits.
(i) If a pilot requests taxi clearance, ATC will inform
the pilot that taxi clearance cannot be issued, and
provide the reason. Pilots shall make the request
prior to commencing push-back with the intent of taking off; commencing push-back with the intent
of taxiing to the de-icing bay; or commencing taxiing
on the manoeuvring area under the aircraft’s own power with the intent of taking off.
Example:
FOXTROT BRAVO WHISKY DELTA, UNABLE TAXI CLEARANCE ON TAXIWAY CHARLIE, LOW VISIBILITY PROCEDURES
IN EFFECT.(ii) If a pilot is taxiing for takeoff, ATC will inform the
pilot that clearance cannot be issued on the intended
runway; provide the reason; determine if another
runway is available for takeoff; inform the pilot of
the alternate runway; and request the pilot’s
intentions.
Example:
GOLF JULIETT ALFA LIMA, UNABLE CLEARANCE. REDUCED VISIBILITY PROCEDURES IN EFFECT. RUNWAY THREE TWO CLOSED.
Then, if appropriate:
GOLF JULIETT ALFA LIMA, RUNWAY TWO FIVE AVAILABLE, ADVISE INTENTIONS.
NOTE :
If no alternate runway is available ATC will request the pilot’s intentions.
Example:
FOXTROT ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, UNABLE
CLEARANCE. LOW VISIBILITY PROCEDURES IN EFFECT. ALL RUNWAYS CLOSED. ADVISE INTENTIONS.
(iii) If a pilot requests taxi after landing, ATC will provide
taxi clearance.
Example:
FOXTROT BRAVO WHISKY DELTA, TAXI VIA ECHO .
(iv) If a pilot requests landing or takeoff, ATC will inform
the pilot that a clearance cannot be issued; provide the reason; and request the pilot’s intentions.
Example:
GOLF JULIETT ALFA LIMA, UNABLE CLEARANCE RUNWAY ONE EIGHT, LANDING NOT
AUTHORIZED. ADVISE INTENTIONS .
(v) If the pilot chooses to land or take off anyway, and
traffic permits, ATC will acknowledge the pilot’s
intentions; provide landing or take-off information as well as any special information required; notify
the airport operator; and complete an aviation
occurrence report.
NOTE :
Special information may include traffic, hazards, obstructions,
runway exits, runway surface conditions, or other pertinent
information.
Example:
GOLF LIMA BRAVO JULIETT, ROGER .
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC(d) Denial of clearance— The following procedures will be
used when ATC refuses a clearance request because the
airport or part of the airport is closed by the operator; or
ATC is directed to deny taxi clearance by NAV CANADA or other authority.
(i) If the pilot requests a landing, takeoff or other
manoeuvre, ATC will inform the pilot that a clearance
cannot be issued; provide the reason; provide
pertinent NOTAM(s) or airport condition directive(s);
and request the pilot’s intentions.
Example:
WESTJET THREE SEVEN ONE, UNABLE CLEARANCE. RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN IS CLOSED FOR MAINTENANCE
UNTIL ONE NINE ZERO ZERO ZULU AS PER
NOTAM. ADVISE INTENTIONS .
(ii) If the pilot chooses to land, take off or manoeuvre
anyway, and traffic permits, ATC will acknowledge
the pilot’s intentions; provide landing, take-off or
manoeuvring information as well as any special
information required; notify the airport operator;
and complete an aviation occurrence report.
NOTE :
Special information may include traffic, hazards, obstructions,
runway exit, runway surface conditions, or other pertinent
information.
Example:
AIR CANADA THREE FIVE SIX, ROGER.
(e) Taxi authorization— If a pilot requests a push-back from
a loading position on the apron, ATC will inform the pilot
that the push-back is at pilot’s discretion and provide traffic
information, if possible.
Example:
NOVEMBER ONE THREE SIX TWO ALFA, PUSH
BACK AT YOUR DISCRETION .
(f) Helicopters— If a helicopter pilot intends to land or take
off from a non-manoeuvring area approved for that purpose,
ATC will provide traffic and obstruction information;
control instructions, if necessary; and inform the pilot that landing or takeoff will be at the pilot’s discretion.
Example:
GOLF JULIETT ALFA DELTA, TRAFFIC CHEROKEE DEPARTING RUNWAY THREE ONE, WIND THREE ZERO ZERO AT TEN. TAKE OFF AT YOUR DISCRETION FROM APRON FOUR .(g) Taxiing aircraft and ground traffic— The following
procedures will be used when ATC is unable to determine that the runway or runway protected area is or will be free
of obstacles before either an arrival crosses the threshold
or a departure starts its take-off roll.
NOTE :
Obstacles include taxiing aircraft and ground traffic.
(i) If the pilot requests a landing or takeoff, ATC will inform the pilot that a clearance cannot be issued;
provide the reason; and request the pilot’s intentions.
Example:
GOLF ZULU YANKEY ZULU, UNABLE LANDING CLEARANCE RUNWAY ONE FOUR, VEHICLE INSIDE THE RUNWAY PROTECTED AREA AT ALFA. ADVISE INTENTIONS.
(ii) If the pilot chooses to land or take off anyway, and
traffic permits, ATC will acknowledge the pilot’s
intentions; provide landing or take-off information
as well as any special information required; notify
the airport operator; and complete an aviation
occurrence report.
NOTE :
Special information may include traffic, hazards, obstructions,
runway exit, runway surface conditions or other pertinent
information.
Example:
JAZZ SIX EIGHT EIGHT, ROGER .
(iii) If a landing or take-off clearance has been issued
and ATC is unable to determine that the runway or
runway protected area is or will be free of obstacles
before an arrival crosses the threshold, or a departure
starts its take-off roll, ATC will cancel the clearance.
NOTE :
Controllers will use their best judgement if cancelling the
clearance may result in a hazardous situation.
Example:
GOLF ALFA DELTA ALFA, TAKE ‑OFF
CLEARANCE CANCELLED, AIRCRAFT INSIDE
THE RUNWAY PROTECTED AREA AT CHARLIE, ADVISE INTENTIONS.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC1.7 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC) SERVICE
PRIORITY
1.7.1 Normal Conditions
Normally, ATC provides control service on a first-come, first-
served basis. However, controllers may adjust the arrival or
departure sequence in order to facilitate the maximum number
of aircraft movements with the least average delay. Altitude
assignment may also be adjusted in order to accommodate the
maximum number of aircraft at their preferred altitudes, or to comply with ATFM requirements.
1.7.2 Special Conditions
Flight priority is provided to:
(a) an aircraft that is known or believed to be in a state
of emergency;
NOTE :
This category includes aircraft subjected to unlawful interference
or other distress or urgency conditions that may compel the
aircraft to land or require flight priority.
(b) a MEDEVAC flight;
(c) military or civilian aircraft participating in SAR missions
and identified by the radiotelephony call sign “RESCUE”
and the designator “RSCU,” followed by an appropriate
flight number;
(d) military aircraft that are departing on:
(i) operational air defence flights,
(ii) planned and coordinated air defence training
exercises, and
(iii) exercises to an altitude reservation; or
(e) an aircraft carrying Her Majesty the Queen, the Governor
General, the Prime Minister, heads of state, or foreign heads
of government.
1.7.3 Minimum Fuel Advisory
Pilots may experience situations where traffic, weather or other delays result in concern about the aircraft’s fuel state. The term
MINIMUM FUEL describes a situation where the aircraft’s fuel
supply has reached a state where the flight is committed to land
at a specific aerodrome and no additional delay can be accepted.
The pilot should advise ATC as soon as possible that a MINIMUM
FUEL condition exists. This is not an emergency situation, but
merely an advisory that indicates an emergency is possible should
any undue delay occur.A minimum fuel advisory does not imply an ATC traffic priority;
however, ATC special flight handling procedures are as follows:
(a) Be alert for any occurrence or situation that might delay
the aircraft;
(b) Respond to the declaration and keep the pilot informed of any anticipated delay as soon as you become aware, using the following phraseology:
ROGER or
ROGER NO DELAY EXPECTED or
ROGER EXPECT (delay information).
(c) Inform the next sector or unit of the minimum fuel status of the aircraft and
(d) Record the information in the unit log, reduce unnecessary
radio transmissions and ensure appropriate responses; use
of internationally recognized fuel-related phraseology among
pilots and controllers is essential.
Traffic priority is given to a pilot who declares an emergency
for fuel by broadcasting MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY FUEL.
Use of standardized pilot phraseology distinguishes minimum
fuel from a fuel emergency, assuring pilot intent without further
verification
1.8 COLLISION AVOIDANCE—RIGHT
OF WAY ( CANADIAN AVIATION
REGULATIONS [CARS])
Reckless or Negligent Operation of Aircraft
No person shall operate an aircraft in such a reckless or negligent
manner as to endanger or be likely to endanger the life or property
of any person.
Right-of-Way – General
(1) Notwithstanding any other provision of this section,
(a) the pilot-in-command of an aircraft that has the right-
of-way shall, if there is any risk of collision, take such action as is necessary to avoid collision; and
(b) where the pilot-in-command of an aircraft is aware that
another aircraft is in an emergency situation, the pilot-in-command shall give way to that other aircraft.
(2) When two aircraft are converging at approximately the
same altitude, the pilot-in-command of the aircraft that has the other on its right shall give way, except as follows:
(a) a power-driven, heavier-than-air aircraft shall give way
to airships, gliders and balloons;
(b) an airship shall give way to gliders and balloons;
(c) a glider shall give way to balloons; and
(d) a power-driven aircraft shall give way to aircraft that
are seen to be towing gliders or other objects or carrying
a slung load.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC(3) When two balloons operating at different altitudes are
converging, the pilot-in-command of the balloon at the
higher altitude shall give way to the balloon at the lower
altitude.
(4) Where an aircraft is required to give way to another aircraft,
the pilot-in-command of the first-mentioned aircraft shall
not pass over or under, or cross ahead of, the other aircraft
unless passing or crossing at such a distance as will not
create any risk of collision.
(5) Where two aircraft are approaching head-on or approximately
so and there is a risk of collision, the pilot-in-command of each aircraft shall alter its heading to the right.
(6) An aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way and
the pilot-in-command of the overtaking aircraft, whether
climbing, descending or in level flight, shall give way to
the other aircraft by altering the heading of the overtaking
aircraft to the right, and no subsequent change in the relative
positions of the two aircraft shall absolve the pilot-in-
command of the overtaking aircraft from this obligation
until that aircraft has entirely passed and is clear of the
other aircraft.
(7) Where an aircraft is in flight or manoeuvring on the surface,
the pilot-in-command of the aircraft shall give way to an
aircraft that is landing or about to land.
(8) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft that is approaching an aerodrome for the purpose of landing shall give way to any
aircraft at a lower altitude that is also approaching the
aerodrome for the purpose of landing.
(9) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft at a lower altitude, as
described in subsection (8), shall not overtake or cut in front
of an aircraft at a higher altitude that is in the final stages of an approach to land.
(10) No person shall conduct or attempt to conduct a takeoff or
landing in an aircraft until there is no apparent risk of
collision with any aircraft, person, vessel, vehicle or structure
in the takeoff or landing path.
Right-of-Way – Aircraft Manoeuvring on Water
(1) Where an aircraft on the water has another aircraft or a
vessel on its right, the pilot-in-command of the first-
mentioned aircraft shall give way.
(2) Where an aircraft on the water is approaching another aircraft
or a vessel head-on, or approximately so, the pilot-in-command of the first-mentioned aircraft shall alter its
heading to the right.
(3) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft that is overtaking
another aircraft or a vessel on the water shall alter its heading
to keep well clear of the other aircraft or the vessel. Avoidance of Collision
No person shall operate an aircraft in such proximity to another
aircraft as to create a risk of collision.
Formation Flight
No person shall operate an aircraft in formation with other
aircraft except by pre-arrangement between.
(a) the pilots-in-command of the aircraft; or
(b) where the flight is conducted within a control zone,
the pilots-in-command and the appropriate air traffic control unit.
1.9 AEROBATIC FLIGHT ( CANADIAN
AVIATION REGULATIONS [CARS] 602.27
AND 602.28)
Aerobatic Manoeuvres – Prohibited Areas and
Flight conditions
No person operating an aircraft shall conduct aerobatic
manoeuvres
(a) over a built-up area or an open-air assembly of persons;
(b) [Repealed, SOR/2019-119, s. 28]
(c) when flight visibility is less than three miles;
(d) below 2,000 ft AGL, except in accordance with a special
flight operations certificate issued pursuant to
section 603.02 or 603.67;
(e) in any class of airspace that requires radio contact with
air traffic services unless the appropriate unit that
provides air traffic services is advised that aerobatic
manoeuvres will be conducted; or
(f ) in Class A, B or C airspace or Class D Control Zones
without prior co-ordination between the pilot-in-command
and the air traffic control unit that pro-vides air traffic
control service in that airspace.
Aerobatic Manoeuvres with Passengers
No person operating an aircraft with a passenger on board shall
conduct aerobatic manoeuvres unless the pilot-in-command of the aircraft has engaged in
(a) at least 10 hours dual flight instruction in the conducting
of aerobatic manoeuvres or 20 hours cond ucting
aerobatic manoeuvres; and
(b) at least one hour of conducting aerobatic manoeuvres in the preceding six months.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC1.10 CONSERVATION
1.10.1 Fur and Poultry Farms
Experience has shown that aviation noise caused by rotary wing
and fixed wing aircraft flying at low altitudes can cause serious
economic losses to the farming industry. The classes of livestock
particularly sensitive are poultry (including ostriches and emus),
because of the crowding syndrome and stampeding behaviour
they exhibit when irritated and frightened, and foxes who, when
excited, will eat or abandon their young. Avoid overflying these
farms below 2 000 ft AGL.
Fur farms may be marked with chrome yellow and black stripes
painted on pylons or roofs. In addition, a red flag may be flown during whelping season (February–May).
Pilots are therefore warned that any locations so marked should
be avoided, and special vigilance should be maintained during the months of February, March, April and May.
1.10.2 Protection of Wildlife
It is vital that all pilots understand the importance of wildlife
conservation. They are urged to become familiar with the game
laws in force in the various provinces and territories, and
encouraged to co-operate with all game officers to ensure that
violations of game laws do not occur. The Migratory
Birds Regulations prohibit the intentional killing of migratory
birds through the use of an aircraft.
Pilots should be aware that flying low over herds of wild animals
such as reindeer, caribou, moose or muskoxen may result in
reducing the animal population. Accidents resulting in broken
bones may increase. Exhausted and disorganized animals are
more susceptible to be attacked by wolves. Feeding is interrupted,
and normal herd movement and reproductive functions may be seriously disrupted.
Serious damage can also be done to migratory birds by low-flying
aircraft. Geese in particular have a great fear of aircraft, and
their movements may be seriously disorganized by such
interference. As well, many bird species in Canada are in decline,
and it is felt that every effort should be made to protect them.
In the interest of conserving wildlife, pilots must not fly at an
altitude of less than 2 000 ft AGL when in the vicinity of herds
of wildlife animals or above wildlife refuges/bird sanctuaries,
depicted on affected aeronautical charts.
The landing or takeoff of aircraft in areas designated as bird
sanctuaries may require a permit. Contact information for bird
sanctuaries can be found at Environment and Climate Change Canada’s Web site: < https://www.canada.ca/en/
environment-climate-change/services/migratory-bird-sanctuaries.html >.
Contact information for provincial and territorial game officers
and information concerning the preservation of wildlife within the various provinces and territories in Canada can be found in
the AIP Canada on the NAV CANADA Web site at: < https://
www.navcanada.ca/en/aeronautical-information/aip-canada.aspx >.Information pertaining to the Migratory Birds Regulations may
be obtained at https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/
SOR-2022-105/index.html or by contacting:
Assistant Deputy Minister
Canadian Wildlife Service
Environment and Climate Change Canada Ottawa ON K1A 0H3
Tel.:
.................................................................. 1-800-668-6767
E-mail: ....................................... ec.enviroinfo.ec@canada.ca
1.10.3 National, Provincial and Municipal Parks,
Reserves and Refuges
To preserve the natural environment of parks, reserves and
refuges, and to minimize the disturbance to the natural habitat,
overflights should not be conducted below 2 000 ft AGL. To
assist pilots in observing this, boundaries are depicted on the
affected aeronautical charts.
The landing or takeoff of aircraft in national parks and national
park reserves may only take place at prescribed locations. Contact
information for each location can be found on the Parks Canada
Web site at: < www.pc.gc.ca/ >.
Additional details can be found in the National Parks of Canada
Aircraft Access Regulations available at: < http://laws-lois.justice.
gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-97-150/page-1.html >.
2.0 AIRSPACE – REQUIREMENTS
AND PROCEDURES
2.1 GENERAL
Canadian airspace is divided into a number of categories, which
in turn are subdivided into a number of areas and zones. The
various rules are simplified by the classification of all Canadian airspace. This section describes all of the above in detail, as well
as the regulations and procedures specific to each. The official
designation of all airspace is published in the DAH. Canadian
airspace is managed by NAV CANADA in accordance with the
terms established for the transfer of the air navigation system
(ANS) from government operation to NAV CANADA, and with
the rights granted to the corporation pursuant to the Civil Air
Navigation Services Commercialization Act .
2.2 CANADIAN DOMESTIC
AIRSPACE (CDA)
Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) includes all airspace over
the Canadian land mass, the Canadian Arctic, Canadian
Archipelago and those areas of the high seas within the airspace
boundaries. These boundaries are depicted on the Enroute Charts.
2.2.1 Northern Domestic Airspace (NDA)
Canadian Domestic Airspace is geographically divided into the
Southern Domestic Airspace and the Northern Domestic
Airspace as indicated in Figure 2.1. In the Southern Domestic Airspace, magnetic track is used to determine cruising altitude for direction of flight.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACThe Magnetic North Pole is located near the centre of the
Northern Domestic Airspace, therefore magnetic compass
indications may be erratic. Thus, in this airspace, runway heading
is given in true and true track is used to determine cruising
altitude for direction of flight in lieu of magnetic track.
Figure 2.1—Boundaries of Canadian Domestic
Airspace, Northern Domestic Airspace
and Southern Domestic Airspace
2.3 HIGH- AND LOW-LEVEL AIRSPACE
The CDA is further divided vertically into low-level airspace,
which consists of all of the airspace below 18 000 ft ASL; and
high-level airspace which consists of all airspace from 18 000 ft ASL
and above.
2.3.1 Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels Appropriate to Aircraft Track
General Provisions
(a) The appropriate altitude or flight level for aircraft in level cruising flight is determined in accordance with:
(i) the magnetic track, in SDA; and
(ii) the true track, in NDA.
(b) When an aircraft is operated in level cruising flight:
(i) at more than 3 000 ft AGL, in accordance with VFR;
(ii) in accordance with IFR; or
(iii) during a CVFR flight;
The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall ensure that the aircraft is operated at an altitude or flight level appropriate to the track, unless he/she is assigned an altitude or flight
level by an ATC unit or by written authority from the
Minister.
(c) RVSM cruising flight levels appropriate to aircraft track are
applicable in designated RVSM airspace.
(d) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft operating within
controlled airspace between 18 000 ft ASL and FL 600, inclusive, shall ensure that the aircraft is operated in
accordance with IFR unless otherwise authorized in writing
by the Minister. (CAR 602.34).
NOTE :
As per the table in CAR 602.34(2), a vertical separation of 2 000 ft
is required from FL 290 to FL 410 inclusive.
Table 2.1—Aircraft Tracks at Various
Altitudes and Flight Levels
ALTITUDES OR
FLIGHT LEVELSAIRCRAFT TRACK
000° - 179° 180° - 359°
ABOVE FLIGHT
LEVEL 290:
FLY 4 000 FT
INTERVALSBEGINNING AT FLIGHT LEVEL
290 (FL 290, 330,
370, 410, 450)BEGINNING AT FLIGHT LEVEL
310 (FL 310, 350,
390, 430, 470)
RVSM FL 290, 310, 330,
350, 370, 390, 410FL 300, 320, 340,
360, 380, 400
AT OR ABOVE
18 000 ASL BUT
BELOW FL 290:
FLY 2 000 FT
INTERVALSODD FLIGHT LEVELS
(FL 190, 210,
230, etc.)EVEN FLIGHT LEVELS
(FL 180, 200,
220, etc.)
BELOW 18 000
ASL: (FLY CORRESPONDING FLIGHT LEVELS IN STANDARD PRESSURE REGION)
FLY 2 000 FT INTERVALSIFR and CVFR IFR and CVFR
ODD THOUSANDS ASL
(1 000, 3 000,
5 000, etc.)EVEN THOUSANDS ASL
(2 000, 4 000,
6 000, etc.)
VFR VFR
ODD THOUSANDS
plus 500 FT ASL
(3 500, 5 500,
7 500, etc.)EVEN THOUSANDS
plus 500 FT ASL
(4 500, 6 500,
8 500, etc.)
2.4 FLIGHT INFORMATION REGIONS (FIRS)
A Flight Information Region (FIR) is an airspace of defined
dimensions extending upwards from the surface of the earth,
within which flight information service and alerting services
are provided. The Canadian Domestic Airspace is divided into
the Vancouver, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Toronto, Montréal,
Moncton and Gander Domestic Flight Information Regions.
Gander Oceanic is an additional FIR allocated to Canada by
ICAO for the provision of flight information and alerting services
over the high seas.
Canadian Flight Information Regions are describe d in the
Designated Airspace Handbook (TP l820E), and are depicted
on the Enroute Charts and illustrated in Figure 2.2.
Agreements have been effected between Canada and the United
States to permit reciprocal air traffic control services outside of
the designate national FIR boundaries. An example is V300 and
J500 between SSM and YQT. The control of aircraft in US airspace
delegated to a Canadian ATC unit is effected by applying the
Canadian rules, procedures and separation minima with the
following exceptions:
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC(a) aircraft will not be cleared to maintain “1 000 feet on top”;
(b) ATC vertical separation will not be discontinued on the
basis of visual reports from the aircraft; and
(c) Canadian protected airspace criteria for track separation
will not be used.
Figure 2.2—Flight Information Regions
2.5 CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
Controlled airspace is the airspace within which air traffic control
service is provided and within which some or all aircraft may
be subject to air traffic control. Types of controlled airspace are:
(a) in the High-Level Airspace:
– the Southern, Northern and Arctic Control Areas.
NOTE :
Encompassed within the above are high-level airways, the upper
portions of some military terminal control areas and terminal
control areas.
(b) in the Low-Level Airspace:
– low-level airways, – control z ones,
– terminal control areas, – transiti on areas,
– control area extensions, – military t erminal
control areas.2.5.1 Use of Controlled Airspace by Visual Flight
Rules (VFR) Flights
Due to the speeds of modern aircraft, the difficulty in visually observing other aircraft at high altitudes and the density of air traffic at certain locations and altitudes, the “see and be seen”
principle of VFR separation cannot always provide positive
separation. Accordingly, in certain airspace and at certain
altitudes VFR flight is either prohibited or subject to specific
restrictions prior to entry and during flight.
2.5.2 Aircraft Speed Limit Order
According to CAR 602.32, no person shall operate an aircraft in Canada:
(a) below 10 000 ft ASL at more than 250 KIAS; or
(b) below 3 000 ft AGL within 10 NM of a controlled airport
and at more than 200 KIAS, unless authorized to do so in an air traffic control clearance.
Exceptions
(a) A person may operate an aircraft at an indicated airspeed greater than the airspeeds referred to in (a) and (b) above
where the aircraft is being operated in accordance with a
special flight operations certificate – special aviation event issued under CAR 603.
(b) If the minimum safe speed, given the aircraft configuration,
is greater than the speed referred to in (a) or (b) above, the aircraft shall be operated at the minimum safe speed.
Notifying ATC
On departure, when intending to operate at speeds exceeding
250 KIAS below 10 000 ft ASL, pilots must, on initial contact, notify the departure controller of the reason for this action.
ATC requires this information for the following reasons:
(a) for operational considerations regarding other traffic,
particularly in potential overtake situations; and
(b) so that ATC will know that the request or notification of
intent to operate above the speed limit is for “ minimum safe
speed ” requirements and will therefore not file an Aviation
Occurrence Report.
The phraseology of “ minimum safe speed XXX kt” is encouraged
and ATC will acknowledge. Example: Montreal Centre, ACA123, minimum safe speed 270 kt
As ATC is not authorized to approve a speed greater than
250 KIAS below 10 000 ft ASL, the phraseology “request high-
speed climb” should not be used.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC2.6 HIGH-LEVEL CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
Controlled airspace within the High-Level Airspace is divided
into three separate areas. They are the Southern Control
Area (SCA), the Northern Control Area (NCA) and the Arctic
Control Area (ACA). Their lateral dimensions are illustrated in
Figure 2.3. Figure 2.4 illustrates their vertical dimensions which
are: SCA, 18 000 ft ASL and above; NCA, FL 230 and above;
ACA, FL 270 and above.
Pilots are reminded that both the NCA and the ACA are within
the Northern Domestic Airspace; therefore, compass indications
may be erratic, and true tracks are used in determining the flight
level at which to fly. In addition, the airspace from FL 330 to
FL 410 within the lateral dimensions of the NCA, the ACA and
the northern part of the SCA has been designated CMNPS
airspace. (See AIP Canada ENR 2.2)
Figure 2.3—Southern, Northern and Arctic Control Areas
Figure 2.4—Vertical Dimensions of Southern,
Northern and Arctic Control Areas2.7 LOW-LEVEL CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
2.7.1 Low-Level Airways
Controlled low-level airspace extends upward from 2 200 ft AGL
up to, but not including, 18 000 ft ASL, within the following
specified boundaries:
(a) VHF/UHF Airways: The basic VHF/UHF airway width is
4 NM on each side of the centreline prescribed for such an
airway. Where applicable, the airway width shall be increased
between the points where lines, diverging 4.5˚ on each side
of the centreline from the designated facility, intersect the basic width boundary; and where they meet, similar lines projected from the adjacent facility.
Figure 2.5(a)—VHF/UHF Airway Dimensions
Where a Victor airway is established based on a VOR/VORTAC
and NDB, the boundaries of that airway will be those of an LF/MF airway [see Figure 2.5(b)].
Figure 2.5(b)—VHF/UHF Airway Based on VOR and NDB
(b) LF/MF Airways: The basic LF/MF airway width is 4.34 NM
on each side of the centreline prescribed for such an airway.
Where applicable, the airway width shall be increased
between the points where lines, diverging 5˚ on each side of the centreline from the designated facility, intersect the basic width boundary; and where they meet, similar lines projected from the adjacent facility.
Figure 2.6—LF/MF Airway Dimensions
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC(c) T-Routes: Low-level controlled fixed RNAV routes have
dimensions of 4 NM of primary obstacle protection area,
plus 2 NM of secondary obstacle protection area on each
side of the centreline. The airspace associated with RNAV
T-routes is 10 NM on each side of the centreline. RNAV
T-route airspace and protection areas do not splay.
Figure 2.7(a)—Fixed RNAV Route
4.0 NM
4.0 NM2.0 NM
Figure 2.7(b)—Fixed RNAV Route Cross Section
4 NM 4 NM 2 NMCL
MEA
(ASL)
MOCA
(ASL)1 000 ft ROC
(Non-mountainous)
ROC = Required Obstacle ClearanceAirspace floor
2 200 ft AGL
2.7.2 Control Area Extensions
Control area extensions are designated around aerodromes
where the controlled airspace provided is insufficient to permit
the required separation between IFR arrivals and departures
and to contain IFR aircraft within controlled airspace. A control
area extension provides:
(a) additional controlled airspace around busy aerodromes for
IFR control. The controlled airspace contained within the
associated control zone and airway(s) width is not always sufficient to permit the manoeuvring required to separate IFR arrivals and departures; or
(b) connecting controlled airspace, e.g. a control area extension
is used to connect a control zone with the en route structure.
Control area extensions are based at 2 200 ft AGL unless otherwise
specified and extend up to, but not including 18 000 ft ASL.
Some control area extensions, such as those which extend to the
oceanic controlled airspace, may be based at other altitudes such
as 2 000, 5 500 or 6 000 ft ASL. The outer portions of some other
control area extensions may be based at higher levels. Even if
described with an ASL floor, the base of a Control Area Extension
shall not extend lower than 700 ft AGL. 2.7.3 Control Zones
Control zones are designated around certain aerodromes to keep
IFR aircraft within controlled airspace during approaches and to facilitate the control of VFR and IFR traffic.
Control zones having a civil control tower within a terminal
control area normally have a 7-NM radius. Others have a 5-NM radius, with the exception of a few which have a 3-NM radius.
Control zones are capped at 3 000 ft AAE unless otherwise
specified. Military control zones usually have a 10-NM radius and are capped at 6 000 ft AAE. All control zones are depicted
on VFR aeronautical charts and the Enroute Low Altitude Charts.
Control zones will be classified as “B”, “C”, “D” or “E” depending
on the classification of the surrounding airspace.
The VFR weather minima for control zones are outlined in
Table 2.2. When weather conditions are below VFR minima, a
pilot operating VFR may request special VFR (SVFR) authorization
in order to enter the control zone. This authorization is normally
obtained through the local tower or FSS, and must be obtained before SVFR is attempted within a control zone. ATC will issue
an SVFR authorization, traffic and weather conditions permitting,
only upon a request for SVFR from a pilot. SVFR will not be
initiated by ATS. Once having received SVFR authorization, the
pilot continues to remain responsible for avoiding other aircraft
and weather conditions beyond the pilot’s own flight capabilities
and the capabilities of the aircraft.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACTable 2.2—VFR Weather Minima*
AIRSPACE FLIGHT VISIBILITY DISTANCE FROM
CLOUD DISTANCE AGL
Control Zones not less than 3 mi.** horizontally: 1 mi.
vertically: 500 ft vertically: 500 ft
Other Controlled Airspace not less than 3 mi. horizontally: 1 mi.
vertically: 500 ft —
Uncon trolled
Airspace 1 000 ft AGL or above not less than 1 mi. (day)
3 mi. (night)horizontally: 2 000 ft
vertically: 500 ft —
below 1 000 ft AGL
– all aircraft except
helicoptersnot less than 2 mi. (day)
3 mi. (night)
(see Note 1)clear of cloud —
below 1 000 ft AGL –
helicopter not less than 1 mi. (day)
3 mi. (night)
(see Note 2)clear of cloud —
* See CAR 602, Divis ion VI – Visual Flight Rules
** Ground visibility when reported
NOTE S:
1. Notwithstanding CAR 602.115, an aircraft other than an
helicopter may be operated in visibilities less than 2 miles
during the day, when authorized to do so in an air operator certificate or in a private operator certificate.
2. Notwithstanding CAR 602.115, a helicopter may be operated
in visibilities less than 1 mile during the day, when authorized
to do so in an air operator certificate or in a flight training
unit operator certificate helicopter.
Special VFR weather minimum and requirements applicable
within control zones are found in CAR 602.117, and are
summarized as follows:
Where authorization is obtained from the appropriate ATC unit,
a pilot-in-command may operate an aircraft within a control
zone, in IFR weather conditions without compliance with the
IFR, where flight visibility and, when reported, ground visibility
are not less than:
(a) 1 mile for aircraft other than helicopters; and
(b) 1/2 mile for helicopters.NOTE S:
1. All aircraft, including helicopters, must be equipped with a radio capable of communicating with the ATC unit and must comply with all conditions issued by the ATC unit as part of the SVFR authorization.
2. Aircraft must operate clear of cloud and within sight of the ground at all times.
3. Helicopters should operate at such reduced airspeeds so as to give the pilot-in-command adequate opportunity to see other air traffic or obstructions in time to avoid a collision.
4. When the aircraft is not a helicopter and is being operated
at night, ATC will only authorize special VFR where the
authorization is for the purpose of allowing the aircraft to land at the destination aerodrome.
Table 2.3—Special VFR Weather
Minima (control zones only)
—Flight Visibility
(Ground when reported)Distance
from cloud
Aircraft
other than
Helicopter1 mile
Clear of cloud
Helicopter 1/2 mile
2.7.4 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Over-the-Top
A person may operate an aircraft VFR over-the-top (VFR OTT), provided certain conditions are met. Those conditions include
weather minima, aircraft equipment and pilot qualifications.
Pilots should indicate that the flight is VFR OTT during
communications with ATS units. Deviations from the intended route of flight may be necessary when transiting CZs or TCAs.
Pilots should take into consideration the additional fuel
requirements this may cause.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACCAR 602.116 specifies the weather minima for VFR OTT. A
summary of the minima follows:
(a) VFR OTT is allowed during the day only, and during the
cruise portion of the flight only.
(b) The aircraft must be operated at a vertical distance from
cloud of at least 1 000 ft.
(c) Where the aircraft is operated between two cloud layers,
those layers must be at least 5 000 ft apart.
(d) The flight visibility at the cruising altitude of the aircraft must be at least 5 mi.
(e) The weather at the destination aerodrome must have a sky
condition of scattered cloud or clear, and a ground visibility
of 5 mi. or more, with no forecast of precipitation, fog,
thunderstorms, or blowing snow, and these conditions must
be forecast to exist
(i) in the case of an aerodrome forecast (TAF), for the period from 1 hr before to 2 hr after the ETA; and
(ii) in the case of an area forecast (GFA) because a TAF
is not available, for the period from 1 hr before to
3 hr after the ETA.
CARs 605.14 and 605.15 outline the aircraft equipment
requirements for VFR OTT. In part, the equ ipment requirements
are the same as for VFR flight, with extra requirements for
VFR OTT.
Pilot qualifications for VFR OTT flight are specified in CARs
Part IV —Personnel Licensing and Training .
2.7.5 Transition Areas
Transition areas are established when it is considered advantageous
or necessary to provide additional controlled airspace for the
containment of IFR operations.
Transition areas are of defined dimensions, based at 700 ft AGL
unless otherwise specified, and extend upwards to the base of
overlying controlled airspace. The area provided around an
aerodrome will normally be 15 NM radius of the aerodrome
coordinates, but shall be of sufficient size to contain all of the
aerodrome published instrument approach procedures. Even if
described with an ASL floor, the base of a transition area shall
not extend lower than 700 ft AGL.
2.7.6 Terminal Control Areas
Terminal control areas are established at high volume traffic
airports to provide an IFR control service to arriving, departing
and en route aircraft. Aircraft operating in the TCA are subject
to certain operating rules and equipment requirements. The
TCA operating rules are established by the classification of the
airspace within the TCA. These rules will be based on the level of ATC service that is appropriate for the number and type of
aircraft using the airspace as well as the nature of the operations
being conducted. A TCA is similar to a control area extension except that:
(a) a TCA may extend up into the high-level airspace;
(b) IFR traffic is normally controlled by a terminal control unit.
The ACC will control a TCA during periods when a TCU is not in operation; and
(c) TCA airspace will normally be designed in a circular
configuration, centred on the geographic coordinates of
the primary aerodrome. The outer limit of the TCA should
be at 45 NM radius from the aerodrome geographic
coordinates based at 9 500 ft AGL, wit h an intermediate
circle at 35 NM based at 2 200 ft AGL and an i nner circle
at 12 NM radius based at 1 200 ft AGL. Wher e an operational
advantage may be gained, the area may be sectorized. For publication purposes the altitudes may be rounded to the
nearest appropriate increment and published as heights
ASL. The floor of a TCA shall not extend lower than
700 ft AGL.
A military terminal control area is the same as a TCA, except
that special provisions prevail for military aircraft while operating
within the MTCA. MTCAs may be designated at selected military
aerodromes where the control service will be provided by a
military TCU, or by ATC, through agreement with DND.
2.8 AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION
Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) is divided into seven classes,
each identified by a single letter—A, B, C, D, E, F or G. Flight within each class is governed by specific rules applicable to that
class, and the rules are contained in Canadian Aviation Regulation
(CAR) 601, which can be found at < https://lois-laws.justice.
gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-96-433/FullText.html#s-601.01 >.
The air traffic services available and the rules for operating
within a particular portion of airspace depend on the classification
of that airspace and not on the name by which it is commonly known. Thus, the air traffic services available and the rules for
flight within a high-level airway, a terminal control area (TCA),
or a control zone (CZ) depend on the class of airspace within
all or part of the defined area. Weather minima are specified
for controlled or uncontrolled airspace, not for each class of
airspace. For more information on Canada’s airspace classification
and structure, please see Figure 2.8. A printable copy of Figure 2.8
is available at < https://tc.canada.ca/sites/default/files/migrated/
tc_6010_airspaceposter_e.pdf >.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACFigure 2.8—Canada’s Airspace (TP 6010)
D F C B E G
VFRA
V
F
RATS provides
FL ight Information
and Alerting Service.
ATS provides
FL ight Information
and Alerting Service.
FI
F
RTransport
CanadaTransports
Canada
2.8.1 Class A Airspace
Class A airspace is designated where an operational need exists
to exclude VFR aircraft.
All operations must be conducted under IFR and are subject to
ATC clearances and instructions. ATC separation is provided
to all aircraft.
All aircraft operating in Class A airspace must be equipped with
a transponder and automatic pressure-altitude reporting
equipment, including ADS-B, as detailed in section 551.103 of
the Airworthiness Manual Chapter 551 - Aircraft Equipment
and Installation, available here: < https://tc.canada.ca/en/
corporate-services/acts-regulations/list-regulations/canadian-
aviation-regulations-sor-96-433/standards/airworthiness-chapter-551-aircraft-equipment-installation-canadian-aviation-regulations-cars#551_103 >.
Class A airspace will be designated from the base of all high -level
controlled airspace, or from 700 ft AGL, whichever is higher, up to and including FL 600. 2.8.2 Class B Airspace
Class B airspace is designated where an operational need exists
to provide ATC service to IFR aircraft and to control VFR flights.
Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. All aircraft
are subject to ATC clearances and instructions. ATC separation
is provided between all aircraft. VFR flights are conducted as
controlled VFR flights (see RAC 5.6).
All low-level controlled airspace above 12 500 ft ASL or at and
above the MEA, whichever is higher, up to but not including
18 000 ft ASL, will be Class B airspace.
Control zones and associated terminal control areas may also
be classified as Class B airspace.
NOTES :
1. No person shall operate an aircraft in Class B controlled
airspace in VFR flight unless:
(a) the aircraft is equipped with:
(i) radio communication equipment capable of two-
way communication with the appropriate ATS
facility;
(ii) radio navigation equipment capable of using
navigation facilities to enable the aircraft to be
operated in accordance with the flight plan; and
(iii) a transponder and automatic pressure-altitude reporting equipment.
(b) a continuous listening watch is maintained by a flight crew member on a radio frequency assigned by ATC;
(c) except as otherwise authorized by ATC, when the
aircraft is over a reporting point a position report is
transmitted to the appropriate unit or, when so directed
by ATC, to an FSS; and
(d) the aircraft is operated in VMC at all times.
2. A person operating an aircraft on a VFR flight in Class B
airspace shall operate the aircraft in VMC at all times. When
it becomes evident that flight in VMC will not be possible at the altitude or along the route specified, the pilot shall:
(a) request an ATC clearance that will enable the aircraft
to be operated in VMC to the filed destination, or to
another aerodrome;
(b) where the person is the holder of a valid instrument
rating, request an IFR clearance for flight under the
instrument flight rules; or
(c) where the Class B airspace is a control zone, request an authorization for special VFR flight.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC3. A person operating an aircraft in Class B controlled airspace
in VFR flight who is unable to comply with the requirements
of the preceding paragraphs shall ensure that:
(a) the aircraft is operated in VMC at all times;
(b) the aircraft leaves Class B controlled airspace:
(i) by the safest and shortest route, either exiting
horizontally or descending, or
(ii) when that airspace is a control zone, by landing
at the aerodrome on which the control zone is based; and
(c) an ATC unit is informed as soon as possible of the
actions taken pursuant to paragraph (b).
2.8.3 Class C Airspace
Class C airspace is a controlled airspace within which both IFR
and VFR flights are permitted, but VFR flights require a clearance
from ATC to enter. ATC separation is provided between all
aircraft operating under IFR. Conflict resolution is provided,
when necessary, to resolve possible conflicts between VFR and
IFR aircraft. All aircraft will be provided with traffic information.
Conflict resolution between VFR aircraft can be provided upon
request, after VFR aircraft are provided with traffic information.
Runway separation is provided between all aircraft.
Traffic information is issued to advise pilots of known or observed
air traffic which may be in proximity to their aircraft’s position or intended route of flight warranting their attention. Conflict
resolution is defined as the resolution of potential conflicts
between IFR and VFR aircraft and between VFR aircraft that
are identified and in communication with ATC.
Airspace classified as Class C becomes Class E airspace when
the appropriate ATC unit is not in operation.
Terminal control areas and associated control zones may be
classified as Class C airspace.
A person operating an aircraft in VFR flight in Class C airspace
shall ensure that:
(a) the aircraft is equipped with:
(i) radio communication equipment capable of two-way
communication with the appropriate ATC unit, and
(ii) a transponder and automatic pressure-altitude
reporting equipment, and
(b) a continuous listening watch is maintained by a flight crew member on a radio frequency assigned by ATC.
A person wishing to operate an aircraft that is not equipped
with functioning communication and transponder equipment
for VFR flight in Class C airspace may, during daylight hours
and in VMC, enter Class C airspace provided that permission to enter and operate within the airspace is obtained from ATC prior to the operation being conducted. 2.8.4 Class D Airspace
Class D airspace is a controlled airspace within which both IFR and VFR flights are permitted, but VFR flights must establish two-way communication with the appropriate ATC unit prior
to entering the airspace. ATC separation is provided only between
IFR aircraft. Aircraft will be provided with traffic information.
Equipment and workload permitting, conflict resolution will
be provided between VFR and IFR aircraft, and upon request
between VFR aircraft. Runway separation is provided between all aircraft.
Airspace classified as Class D becomes Class E airspace when
the appropriate ATC unit is not in operation.
A terminal control area and associated control zone could be
classified as Class D airspace.
A person operating an aircraft in VFR flight in Class D airspace
shall ensure that:
(a) the aircraft is equipped with:
(i) radio communication equipment capable of two-way
communication with the appropriate ATC unit, and
(ii) where the Class D airspace is specified as transponder
airspace, a transponder and automatic pressure-
altitude reporting equipment; and
(b) a continuous listening watch is maintained by a flight crew member on a radio frequency assigned by ATC.
A person operating an aircraft in VFR flight that is not equipped
with the required radio communication equipment may, during
daylight hours in VMC, enter Class D airspace, provided that
permission to enter is obtained from the appropriate ATC unit prior to operating within the airspace.
2.8.5 Class E Airspace
Class E airspace is designated where an operational need exists for controlled airspace but does not meet the requirements for Class A, B, C, or D.
Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. ATC separation
is provided only between aircraft operating under IFR. VFR
aircraft do not require permission to enter Class E airspace and, except for mandatory frequency areas (see RAC 4.5.4), are not required to establish communication with an ATS unit prior to
entering. Workload and equipment permitting, traffic information
may be provided, upon request, to VFR aircraft. When requesting
traffic information from ATC, pilots should be aware that air
traffic controllers providing services in Class E airspace are
responsible for larger volumes of airspace than those providing services in Class C or D airspace. As a result, there is a higher potential that workload and equipment limitations could affect
the provision of traffic information, including potentially discontinuing this service without notification. A person
operating an aircraft in VFR flight in Class E airspace remains responsible for maintaining a vigilant watch for, and avoiding, other traffic.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACAircraft are required to be equipped with a transponder and
automatic pressure-altitude equipment to operate in Class E
airspace that is specified as transponder airspace.
Low-level airways, control area extensions, transition areas, or
control zones established without an operating control tower
may be classified as Class E airspace.
2.8.6 Class F Airspace
Class F airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which
activities must be confined because of their nature, and within
which limitations may be imposed upon aircraft operations that
are not a part of those activities.
Class F airspace may be restricted airspace, advisory airspace,
military operations areas, or danger areas and can be controlled
airspace, uncontrolled airspace, or a combination of both. An
advisory area, for example, may have the floor in uncontrolled
airspace and the ceiling in controlled airspace. The significance,
in this instance, is that the weather minima would be different
in the controlled and uncontrolled portions.
Unless otherwise specified, the rules for the surrounding airspace
apply in areas of Class F airspace, no matter if these areas are
active or inactive.
Class F airspace is designated in the DAH (TP 1820) and published
on the appropriate aeronautical charts.
2.8.6.1 Charting of Class F Airspace
All designated Class F restricted and advisory airspace is published on HI or LO charts, as applicable, and on VFR
aeronautical charts.
Each restricted and advisory area within Canada has been
assigned an identification code group, which consists of four
parts:
(a) Part (a) — the nationality letters CY;
(b) Part (b) — the letter R for restricted area, the letter A for
advisory area, or the letter D for danger area;
(c) Part (c) — a three-digit number that identifies the area.
This number indicates the Canadian region
within which the area lies, as follows:
(i) 101 to 199 – British Columbia
(ii) 201 to 299 – Alberta
(iii) 301 to 399 – Saskatchewan
(iv) 401 to 499 – Manitoba
(v) 501 to 599 – Ontario
(vi) 601 to 699 – Quebec
(vii) 701 to 799 – New Brunsw ick, Nova Scotia, Prince
Edward Island, Newfoundland and
Labrador
(viii) 801 to 899 – Yukon Territory
(ix) 901 to 999 – Northwest Territories and Nunavut
(including the Arctic Islands)(d) Part (d) — in the case of advisory areas, the letter A, F, H,
M, P, S or T in parentheses after the three-digit
number that indicates the type of activity within
the area, as follows:
(i) A – acrobatic
(ii) F – aircraft test
(iii) H – hang gliding
(iv) M – military operations
(v) P – parachuting
(vi) S – soaring
(vii) T – training
Example:
The identification code group CYA113(A) means the following:
(a) CY – indicates Canada
(b) A – indicates advisory
(c) 113 – indicates the number of an area in British Columbia
(d) (A) – indicates acrobatic activity takes place within the area.
All altitudes will be inclusive, unless otherwise indicated
(e.g. 5 000 to 10 000 ft). To indicate when either the bottom or
upper altitude is not included, the words “below” and “above” will be placed before the appropriate altitude (e.g. above 5 000 to 10 000 ft, or 5 000 to below 10 000 ft).
ATC will maintain separation between IFR aircraft and active
Class F airspace unless:
(a) the pilot states that permission has been obtained from the user agency to enter the airspace;
(b) the aircraft is operating on an altitude reservation approval
(ALTRV APVL); or
(c) the aircraft has been cleared for a contact or visual approach.
2.8.6.2 Danger Area (International Waters)
A danger area is Class F airspace that may be established over international waters but within Canada’s area of responsibility for providing ATS, as agreed to with ICAO. This is an airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the
flight of aircraft may exist at specified times. ATC clearances
will not be issued for non-participating flights to enter a danger
area. Aircraft should avoid flight in danger areas unless
participating in the activity taking place therein.
2.8.6.3 Advisory Airspace
Airspace may be classified as Class F advisory airspace if it is
airspace within which an activity occurs that, for flight safety purposes, non-participating pilots should be aware of, such as training, parachuting, hang gliding, and military operations.
Although not specifically restricted from operating therein, all
aircraft are encouraged to avoid flight in advisory airspace unless
participating in the activity taking place. If necessary, pilots of
non-participating flights may enter advisory areas at their own discretion; however, extra vigilance is recommended. Pilots of
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACparticipating aircraft, as well as pilots flying through the area,
are equally responsible for collision avoidance. ATC will normally
ensure that IFR aircraft in controlled airspace remain clear of
Class F advisory airspace. IFR aircraft shall be provided 500 ft
vertical separation from an active Class F advisory airspace,
unless wake turbulence minima are applicable, in which case
1 000 ft vertical separation shall be applied.
Pilots intending to fly in Class F advisory airspace are encouraged
to monitor an appropriate frequency, to broadcast their intentions
when entering and leaving the area, and to communicate, as
necessary, with other users to ensure flight safety in the airspace.
In a Class F advisory uncontrolled airspace area, 126.7 MHz
would be an appropriate frequency.
NOTE :
Military operations in Class F airspace may be UHF only.
2.8.6.4 Restricted Airspace
A restricted area is airspace of defined dimensions above the
land areas or territorial waters within which the flight of aircraft
is restricted in accordance with certain specified conditions.
Restricted airspace is designated for safety purposes when the
level or type of aerial activity, the surface activity, or the protection
of a ground installation requires the application of restrictions
within that airspace.
No person may conduct aerial activities within active Class F
restricted airspace unless permission has been obtained from
the user agency. In some instances, the user agency may delegate
a controlling agency the authority to approve access. In most
cases, the controlling agency will be an ATC unit or an ANSP.
The user agency is the civil or military agency or organization
responsible for the activity for which the Class F airspace has
been provided. It has the jurisdiction to authorize access to the
airspace when it is classified restricted. The user agency must
be identified for Class F restricted airspace and, where possible,
it should be identified for Class F advisory airspace.
There are two additional methods of restricting airspace.
(a) CAR 601.16 is designed to allow the Minister to issue a
NOTAM to restrict flight around and over forest fire areas
or areas where forest fire control operations are being
conducted. The provisions of this section can be invoked
quickly via NOTAM by TC.
(b) Section 5.1 of the Aeronautics Act allows the Minister to
restrict flight in any airspace, for any purpose, by NOTAM.
This authority is delegated by the Minister to cover specific
situations for a temporary period, such as well fires, disaster
areas, etc., for the purpose of ensuring safety of flight for
air operations in support of the occurrence.
It should be noted that airspace that is restricted by invoking
CAR 601.16 or section 5.1 of the Aeronautics Act is not Class F
restricted airspace; the airspace has not been classified in accordance with the airspace regulations. This distinction is important to those who are charged with the responsibility for restricting airspace, since their actions are governed by the provisions of the Statutory Instruments Act.2.8.6.5 Joint-Use Airspace
Joint-use airspace is Class F airspace within which operations
may be authorized by the controlling agency when it is not being
utilized by the user agency.
Class F restricted airspace should be available for use by non-
participating aircraft when all or part of the airspace is not
required for its designated purpose.
To ensure maximum utilization of restricted airspace, user
agencies should be encouraged to make restricted airspace available for the conduct of operations or training of other
agencies or commands on a joint-use basis.
An ATS unit may be designated to provide air traffic control or
information service within the Class F airspace involved. A
controlling agency will normally be assigned when there is joint
use of the airspace.
2.8.6.6 NOTAM
It is permissible to designate Class F restricted airspace by
NOTAM, if the following prerequisites are met:
(a) the area of restricted airspace is required for a specified
period of time of relative short duration (i.e. several hours
or days); and
(b) the approp riate NOTAM is issued at least 24 hours in advance
of the area’s activation.
2.8.7 Class G Airspace
Class G airspace is airspace that has not been designated Class
A, B, C, D, E or F, and within which ATC has neither the authority
nor the responsibility to exercise control over air traffic.
However, ATS units do provide flight information and alerting
services. The alerting service will automatically alert SAR
authorities once an aircraft becomes overdue, which is normally
determined from data contained in the flight plan or flight
itinerary. In effect, Class G is all uncontrolled domestic airspace.
Low-level air routes are contained within Class G airspace. They
are basically the same as a low-level airway, except that they
extend upwards from the surface of the earth and are not
controlled, and ATC separation is not provided to IFR or VFR
aircraft. The lateral dimensions are identical to those of a low-level airway.
2.9 OTHER AIRSPACE DIVISIONS
Additional airspace divisions have been designated in order to
increase safety or make allowances for the remote or mountainous
regions within Canada. These divisions (or regions) are: altimeter
setting region, standard pressure region and designated
mountainous region.
2.9.1 Altitude Reservation
An altitude reservation is airspace of defined dimensions within
controlled airspace reserved for the use of a civil or military agency
during a specified period. An altitude reservation may be confined
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACto a fixed area (stationary) or moving in relation to the aircraft
that operates within it (moving). Information on the description
of each altitude reservation is normally published by NOTAM.
Civil altitude reservations are normally for a single aircraft, while
those for military use are normally for more than one aircraft.
Pilots should plan to avoid known altitude reservations. ATC
will not clear an unauthorized flight into an active reservation.
IFR and CVFR flights are provided with standard separation
from altitude reservations.
2.9.2 Temporary Flight Restrictions—Forest
Fires
In the interest of safe and efficient fire fighting operations, the
Minister may issue a NOTAM restricting flights over a forest
fire area to those operating at the request of the appropriate fire control authority (i.e. water bombers), or to those with written permission from the Minister.
The NOTAM would identify the following:
(a) the location and dimensions of the forest fire area;
(b) any airspace in which forest fire control operations are being
conducted; and
(c) the length of time during which flights are restricted in
the airspace.
No person shall operate an aircraft in the airspace below
3 000 ft AGL within 5 NM of the limits of a forest fire area, or
as described in a NOTAM (CARs 601.15, 601.16, and 601.17).
2.9.3 Flight Operations Over or in the Vicinity of Nuclear Power Plants
Pilots are reminded that overflights of nuclear power plants shall
be carried out in accordance with the provisions of CAR 602.14(2)
(see RAC 5.4).
Pilots should also be aware that loitering in the vicinity of, or
circling, nuclear power plants should be avoided. Aircraft
observed operating in this manner in the vicinity of nuclear
power plants could be intercepted by government or law-
enforcement aircraft, and escorted away from the facility to the
nearest suitable aerodrome to be interviewed by police authorities.
2.9.4 Military Operations Areas
Regular military training activity, such as basic or advanced
flight training or routine operational training, is typically carried
out in Class F advisory airspace. More intensive operational
training is normally reserved for Class F restricted airspace.
Some non-hazardous military activity can still require increased
coordination with ATC, but these exercises may not require
advisory or restricted airspace to be designated.
Military operations areas (MOA) consist of airspace of defined
dimensions established to segregate certain military activities
from IFR traffic and to identify for VFR traffic where these
activities are conducted. ATC will not clear a non-participating
IFR aircraft through an active MOA, unless appropriate IFR
separation can be provided. There is no need for VFR aircraft to avoid flight into an MOA, but pilots should be alert for both
large and small military aircraft that may be operating there at various altitudes and speeds.
MOAs can be designated in Class G airspace. User agencies
and pilots operating in such MOAs should be aware that non-participating aircraft may legally operate under IFR or VFR without an ATC clearance in these MOAs.
MOAs will be included in the Designated Airspace Handbook
and will be published on relevant aeronautical charts.
2.10 ALTIMETER SETTING REGION
The altimeter setting region is an airspace of defined dimensions
below 18 000 feet ASL (see CAR 602.35 and Figure 2.9) within
which the following altimeter setting procedures apply:
Departure – Prior to takeoff, the pilot shall set the aircraft
altimeter to the current altimeter setting of that aerodrome or, if that altimeter setting is not available, to the elevation of the aerodrome.
En route – During flight the altimeter shall be set to the current
altimeter setting of the nearest station along the route of flight
or, where such stations are separated by more than 150 NM, the nearest station to the route of flight.
Arrival – When approaching the aerodrome of intended landing
the altimeter shall be set to the current aerodrome altimeter
setting, if available.
2.11 STANDARD PRESSURE REGION
The standard pressure region includes all airspace over Canada
at or above 18 000 feet ASL (the high-level airspace), and all
low-level airspace that is outside of the lateral limit of the altimeter
setting region (see Figure 2.11 and CAR 602.36). Within the
standard pressure region the following flight procedures apply;
(a) General – Except as otherwise indicated below, no person
shall operate an aircraft within the standard pressure region
unless the aircraft altimeter is set to standard pressure,
which is 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 mbs. (See Note).
(b) Departure – Prior to takeoff the pilot shall set the aircraft
altimeter to the current altimeter setting of that aerodrome
or, if the altimeter setting is not available, to the elevation
of that aerodrome. Immediately prior to reaching the flight level at which flight is to be conducted, the altimeter shall
be set to standard pressure (29.92 inches of mercury or
1013.2 mbs). If the planned cruising flight level is above
FL 180, resetting the altimeter to 29.92 inches of mercury or
1013.2 mbs at 18 000 ft ASL is acceptable and meets the
requirement of CAR 602.36.
(c) Arrival – Prior to commencing descent with the intention
to land, the altimeter shall be set to the current altimeter
setting of the aerodrome of intended landing, if available.
However, if a holding procedure is conducted, the altimeter
shall not be set to the current aerodrome altimeter setting
until immediately prior to descending below the lowest
flight level at which the holding procedure is conducted.
Pilots of aircraft descending from cruising flight levels
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACabove FL 180 may reset altimeters to the current altimeter
setting of the aerodrome of intended landing when
approaching FL 180 provided no holding or cruise level
flight below FL 180 is to be made or anticipated.
(d) Transition – CAR 602.37 – Altimeter Setting and Operating
Procedures in Transition betwee n Regions, specifies that
except as otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft progressing
from one region to another shall make the change in the
altimeter setting while within the standard pressure region
prior to entering, or after leaving, the altimeter setting
region. If the transition is to be made into the altimeter
setting region while in level cruising flight, the pilot should
obtain the current altimeter setting from the nearest station
along the route of flight as far as practical before reaching
the point at which the transition is to be made. When
climbing from the altimeter setting region into the standard
pressure region, pilots shall set their altimeters to standard
pressure (29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 mbs) immediately
after entering the standard pressure region. When descending
into the altimeter setting region, pilots shall set their
altimeters to the appropriate station altimeter setting
immediately prior to descending into the altimeter setting
region. Normally, the pilot will receive the appropriate
altimeter setting as part of the ATC clearance prior to
descent. If it is not incorporated in the clearance, it should be requested by the pilot.
NOTE :
When an aircraft is operating in the standard pressure region with standard pressure set on the altimeter subscale, the term
“flight level” is used in lieu of “altitude” to express its height.
Flight level is always expressed in hundreds of feet. For example FL 250 represents an altimeter indication of 25 000 ft; FL 50, an indication of 5 000 ft.
Figure 2.9—Altimeter Setting and
Standard Pressure Regions2.12 MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS
Designated mountainous regions are areas of defined lateral
dimensions, specifie d in the Designated Airspace Handbook,
above which special rules concerning minimum IFR altitudes to ensure obstacle clearance (CAR 602.124) apply.
An aircraft, when operated in accordance with IFR within
designated mountainous regions, but outside of areas for which
minimum altitudes for IFR operations have been established
(including minimum vectoring altitudes, MOCAs, transition
altitudes, 100NM safe altitudes, MSAs and AMAs), shall be
flown at an altitude of at least 2000 feet above the highest obstacle
within 5NM of the aircraft in flight when in areas 1 and 5, and at least 1500 feet above the highest obstacle within 5NM when in areas 2, 3 and 4. (See Figure 2.10.)
As minimum en route IFR altitudes have been established for
designated airways and air routes, such minimum altitudes shall
be applied when flying in accordance with IFR along airways
or air routes within designated mountainous regions, except
that aircraft should be operated at an altitude which is at least 1000 feet higher than the minimum en route IFR altitude, when
there are large variations in temperature and/or pressure.
(See RAC 8.6)
Figure 2.10—Designated Mountainous
Regions in Canada
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC2.13 EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS
AND SECURITY
The rules for operating within the Air Defence Identification
Zone (ADIZ) are specified in CAR 602.145 – ADIZ, and are
repeated in RAC 3.8.
Figure 2.11—Air Defence Identification Zone (ADIZ)
3.0 FLIGHT PLANNING
3.1 GENERAL
The flight planning requirements contained in this Section are
based, in part, on the CAR, Part VI, General Operating and
Flight Rules.
The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall, before commencing
a flight, be familiar with the available information that is
appropriate to the intended flight (CAR 602.71). The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall, before commencing
a flight, be familiar with the available weather information that
is appropriate to the intended flight (CAR 602.72). Pilots should
refer to the MET Section for aviation weather information.
3.2 PILOT BRIEFING SERVICE
The pilot briefing service is provided by FICs to assist pilots at the pre-flight planning stage and for information updates while
en route. Pilot requests for initial briefings while airborne are
not encouraged because this practice leads to frequency
congestion.
The telephone numbers of NAV CANADA FICs are found in
the General and Aerodrome/Facility Directory sections of the CFS or CWAS. Long distance phone calls can be made to a FIC
toll-free at 1-866-WXBRIEF (1-866-992-7433). A call to this
number is routed to the FIC that serves the area from which the call originates. A call to 1-866-GOMÉTÉO (1-866-466-3836) is routed to the Québec FIC for the provision of bilingual service. A specific FIC may be contacted at the number shown in the
CFS or CWAS, General section, Flight Planning (FLT PLN)
subsection. Collect calls from pilots are accepted at all FICs.
When requesting a briefing, identify yourself as a pilot; provide
the aircraft identification and the following:
(a) type of flight (VFR, IFR, CVFR, composite) planned;
(b) type of aircraft;
(c) aerodrome of departure and estimated time of
departure (ETD);
(d) destination aerodrome and estimated elapsed time (EET);
(e) planned cruising level(s) or altitude(s);
(f) route to be flown and estimated times of arrival at, and
departure from, any intermediate aerodrome(s);
(g) alternate aerodrome, if appropriate;
(h) type of meteorological information requested, i.e. whether a briefing or consultation; and
(i) information already on hand, if any.
The flight service specialist requires this information to tailor the briefing to the planned flight and the needs of the pilot. The
flight service specialist may omit information normally provided
in a briefing if the pilot has indicated having the data on hand
or requested the briefing be limited to specific information. The
flight service specialist will terminate the briefing by soliciting flight plan information not already obtained at the beginning of the briefing and PIREP, if appropriate.
3.3 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
Aeronautical information (NOTAM, RSC, CRFI, flow control, etc.) is available at ATS units and at certain operations offices. Aeronautical information is routinely provided by FICs during a pilot briefing and upon request in FISE. Telephone numbers
and RCO frequencies for all FICs are listed in the CFS and
t he CWAS.
Canadian domestic NOTAMs are disseminated via the
aeronautical fixed service (AFS) and stored electronically in
accordance with a NOTAM series concept. NOTAMs are further
divided as aerodrome NOTAM and flight information
region (FIR) NOTAM in accordance with the subject and impact.
Before commencing a flight, pilots must ensure that each pertinent
NOTAM series and type has been reviewed, so that they are
familiar with all appropriate NOTAMs for the intended flight.
All Canadian NOTAMs, with the exception of RSC NOTAM,
are composed and disseminated in the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) format. Canadian NOTAM series
have different distribution lists and dissemination categories.
For more details on series, NOTAM regions, and dissemination
categories, refer to AIP Canada section GEN 3.1.3.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC3.4 WEIGHT AND BALANCE CONTROL
3.4.1 Definitions
The following definitions and abbreviations are used in weight
and balance control:
(a) Actual weight is the weight, when referenced to passenger
weight, derived by the weighing of each passenger just prior
to flight boarding, and then adding the allowances for
personal clothing and carry-on baggage. Infants shall be
weighed along with their accompanying adult. Where weighing scales are not available or serviceable, or the
passenger refuses to be weighed, the following weights may
be used in lieu of actual weight.
(i) Volunteered weight is the weight obtained by asking
the passenger for their weighˆt, adding 4.5 kg (10 lb)
to the disclosed weight, and then adding the allowances for personal clothing and carry-on
baggage.
(ii) Estimated weight is the reasonable estimate of the
passenger’s weight made by the operator, where actual
weight is not available and volunteered weight is
either not provided or is deemed to be understated,
to which allowances are then added for personal
clothing and carry-on baggage.
NOTE :
Personnel who board passengers should, with a reasonable degree
of accuracy, be able to assess the validity of a passenger’s
volunteered weight, or estimate the weight, and shall include
allowances for personal clothing and carry-on baggage. Where
necessary, the volunteered weight should be appropriately
increased so as to avoid gross inaccuracies.
(b) Air operator segmented weights are the approved segmented
weights derived by the air operator from statistically
meaningful data using a methodology that is acceptable to the Minister. They may be used in lieu of TCCA published
segmented weights and are applicable only to that air
operator. Furthermore, the weights may be used only in
circumstances consistent with those under which the survey
was conducted.
(c) Air operator standard weights are the approved standard
weights derived by the air operator from statistically computed data in accordance with procedures that are
acceptable to the Minister. They may be used in lieu of the
standard weights published by TCCA and are applicable
only to that air operator. Furthermore, the weights may be
used only in circumstances consistent with those under
which the survey was conducted.
(d) Basic empty weight is the basic weight of the aircraft as
determined in accordance with the aircraft flight
manual (AFM).
(e) Carry-on baggage is the baggage that a passenger may carry
on board. Based on the particular aircraft stowage limitations,
the operator may limit the number, size, shape and weight of the carry-on baggage to enable it to be stowed under the passenger seat or in the storage compartment. Otherwise, the standard allowance is 5.9 kg (13 lb) of carry-on baggage
per passenger and this remains constant throughout the
year. Carry-on baggage weight shall be included in the
weight of the passenger for the purpose of weight and balance
calculation.
NOTE :
The only circumstance under which the weight of the carry-on
baggage may not be added to the weight of each passenger is
when no carry-on baggage is permitted on the flight.
(f) Checked baggage is baggage that is individually checked
in, weighed and placed in the cargo compartment of the
aircraft. This includes baggage that is too large to be placed
in the cabin of the aircraft and baggage that must be carried
in the cargo compartment by regulation, security program,
or company policy. For baggage checked plane-side, see the
definition for plane-side loaded bag.
(g) Empty weight is the total weight of the following parts or
contents, which are part of, or carried on board, the aircraft:
(i) the airframe, including the rotor of a helicopter
or gyroplane;
(ii) the power plant;
(iii) the fixed ballast;
(iv) the unusable fuel;
(v) the maximum amount of normal operating fluids, including oil, power-plant coolant, hydraulic fluid,
de-icing fluid and anti-icing fluid, but not including
potable water, lavatory pre-charge fluid or fluid
intended for injection into the engines; and
(vi) all of the installed equipment.
(h) Large aeroplane is an aeroplane with an maximum
certificated take-off weight (MCTOW) of over 5 700 kg
(12 566 lb).
(i) Maximum certificated take-off weight (MCTOW) is weight
identified as such in an aircraft type certificate.
(j) Maximum permissible take-off weight or maximum take-
off weight (MTOW) is the maximum take-off weight for
an aircraft as authorized by the aircraft’s state of registry
or as provided for in the aircraft type certificate.
(k) On board weight and balance system is a system that weighs
the aircraft and its payload and then calculates the centre of gravity (CG) using equipment on board the aircraft.
(l) Operational empty weight is the actual weight of the aircraft
before loading for dispatch. The operational empty weight
may include removable equipment, flight crew members
and crew members (including baggage), oil, unusable fuel, as well as emergency equipment, and should be defined by
the air operator. It does not include usable fuel and payload.
(m) Operations personnel is the personnel whose duties and
responsibilities involve maintenance, loading, unloading,
dispatching, servicing, weight and balance, passenger escort,
scheduling, de-icing, or working on the ramp. This also
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACincludes members of the flight crew and cabin crew, as well
as anyone involved in the aircraft’s operation.
(n) Passenger is a person, other than a crew member, who is
carried on board an aircraft and who, for weight and balance
control, is categorized as a(n):
(i) Adult —a person, regardless of sex, who is aged
12 years or older and who may be subcategorized as male or female;
(ii) Child —a person (male or female) who is between
two to less than 12 years of age; or
(iii) Infant —a baby who is less than two years of age.
(o) Personal clothing allowance is the weight of personal
clothing that a passenger carries on board the aircraft, which
is standardized as 3.6 kg (8 lb) for summer and 6.4 kg (14 lb)
for winter and must be added to the passenger’s weight for the purpose of weight and balance calculation.
(p) Plane-side loaded bag is any bag or item that is placed at
the door or steps of an aircraft because it cannot be
accommodated as carry-on baggage and that is subsequently
placed in the aircraft cargo compartment or cargo bin.
(q) Segmented weights are the statistically derived average
adult (male or female) passenger weights modified by
appropriate standard deviations so as to be representative
of small passenger groups and provide a predetermined
degree of confidence and accuracy (tolerance) that the actual
weight of the passenger group will not exceed the weight
calculated by using segmented weight values. The segmented
weight table identifies weight values that are modified to
cater for variations in aircraft passenger seating capacity
and include personal clothing and carry-on baggage
allowances. In the Canadian context, segmented weights
are applicable only for aeroplanes that are certificated for
passenger seating capacity of five or more and are being
operated under Subpart 703 of the CARs.
NOTE :
Segmented weights should be used where actual weights,
volunteered weights or estimated weights are not available or
cannot be used.
(r) Small aircraft is an aircraft with a maximum permissible
take-off weight of 5 700 kg (12 566 lb) or less, or a helicopter
with a maximum permissible take-off weight of 2 730 kg
(6 018 lb) or less.
(s) Standard weights are the weights published by TCCA as
standard average passenger weights, including personal
clothing and carry-on baggage allowances, for use in weight
and balance calculations that do not involve actual weighing.
3.4.2 Weight Control
Pilots must recognize the effect of weight and balance on the
performance and handling of aircraft, particularly in combination
with performance-reducing factors, such as contaminated
runways, aircraft icing, degraded engine performance, severe
or uncoordinated manoeuvres, turbulence, high ambient
temperatures and emergency situations.It is mandatory to calculate weight and balance accurately for
every flight and ensure that they are within the aircraft’s permissible limits in order to comply with the aircraft
airworthiness certificate and conform to the regulations. Before
the aircraft takes off, it is important that the PIC of the aircraft ensure that the load carried by the aircraft is of an appropriate
weight; the weight must be distributed and secured so that it
may be carried safely on the intended flight. If weight and CG (balance) limitations are not observed, then the pilot has failed to comply with a legal condition for the operation of the aircraft and the airworthiness certificate is nullified.
It must be recognized that with many four- and six-seat aircraft,
it is not possible to fill all the seats, use the maximum baggage
allowance, fill all the fuel tanks and still remain within the
approved weight and CG limitations.
Estimating baggage weight can result in gross inaccuracies. If
it is possible that the aircraft is operating close to its MTOW,
the baggage must be weighed. Even a pocket-sized spring balance
can be used as a handy standby if weighing scales are not available.
This reduces the risk involved in guesswork. Note that on some
aircraft, restrictions are placed on rear-seat occupancy if the
maximum baggage allowance is used. When the aircraft is
carrying freight, check for discrepancies with the declared weight.
Ensure that the weight per unit area limitation on the baggage compartment floor is not exceeded. It is critical to ensure that
the baggage/freight is properly stowed, cannot move during
flight, and does not obstruct exits or access to emergency
equipment. If the aircraft is suspected to be operating anywhere
close to its maximum weight, passengers must be weighed. The
risk of embarrassment is not a reason for risking safety or crossing
weight limits. It is important to remember that a passenger’s
weight is not his or her stripped weight, but must include personal
clothing and carry-on baggage allowances.
Fuel is supplied in pounds, kilograms, litres or gallons. Pilots
should note which unit is being used and calculate the fuel weight
accordingly. Incorrect conversion could be hazardous in terms of endurance and fuel weight estimation.
3.4.3 Balance
Balance refers to the location of the CG along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. There are forward and aft limits established
during certification flight testing; they are the maximum CG
positions at which the longitudinal stability requirements can
be met. If an aircraft is being operated outside these limits, its
handling is either unsatisfactory or has not been investigated.
The limits for each aircraft are contained in the pilot operating
handbook and the AFM. The aircraft must not be flown outside
these limits.
In many aircraft, there is significant CG movement as fuel is
being consumed; pilots should familiarize themselves with how
this affects their aircraft.
3.4.4 Operational Requirements
It is the responsibility of the PIC of the aircraft to ensure that
the weight and balance report of the flight accurately represents
the actual load and that the actual load does not exceed the
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACmaximum allowable weight limits specified in the AFM for any
phase of the flight.
The report may be prepared by the crew, another qualified person
authorized by the company or by the operator of the aircraft.
Companies and operators may establish specific procedures
with respect to preparing and retaining weight and balance
documentation in order to meet regulatory requirements.
3.4.5 Computerized Systems
When a company or operator generates load data from a
computerized weight and balance system, the integrity of the
output data must be checked at regular intervals (preferably not
greater than six months). The length of the intervals must be
specified in the company operations manual.
There must be a means in place to identify the person inputting
the data for the preparation of every load manifest. Moreover,
the identity of that person must be verified and authenticated
by the system and retained as required.
3.4.6 Segmented Weights
In practice, it was found that the use of standard passenger
weights, regardless of aircraft size, increases the probability of
overloading the aircraft when its passenger-carrying capacity
decreases and vice versa. For example, when the standard passenger weight is used for an aircraft certificated for
12 passengers, like the Twin Otter, the statistical probability of
overloading the aircraft is as high as 25%, whereas when it is
used for large passenger aircraft, like the Boeing 747, this
probability diminishes to 0.0014%.
Furthermore, a single weight cannot account for the weight
differences between men and women or for variations in aircraft
seating capacity. To minimize the probability of overloading the
aircraft, an alternative to standard passenger weights, called
segmented weights, was implemented. Segmented weights are
based on aircraft seating capacity and account for weight
differences between men and women as well as for summer and winter variations.
Segmented weights are designed to guarantee a 95% confidence
level that the actual total weight of passengers will not exceed
the total weight of passengers obtained by using segmented
weights by more than one percent. This is the benchmark of
segmented weights for accuracy and reliability.
3.4.6.1 Derivation of Segmented Weights
A specific methodology was used to calculate the precise values
published in the segmented weight tables. TCCA’s segmented
weight tables are based on the Canadian Community
Health Survey, Cycle 2.1 (2003), which obtained large-scale
weight data by interviewing some 130 000 Canadians. In addition,
standard deviations of 16.8 kg (37 lb) for males and 14.6 kg (32.2 lb)
for females were applied to obtain a revised average weight for
each sex. These weights were further modified to account for
specific aircraft seating capacity ranges so as to be representative
of the highest average weight amongst all sample sizes for that
range. A constant value of 5.9 kg (13 lb) for carry-on baggage was then added to the average adult (male/female) passenger
weight and finally, two values were developed to account for
seasonal variations in personal clothing—3.6 kg (8 lb) for summer
clothing and 6.4 kg (14 lb) for winter clothing. See Table 3.2 for
finalized weight values.
3.4.7 Computation of Passenger and Baggage Weights
To compute passenger weight, the following methods are used: actual weights, standard weights and segmented weights.
NOTE :
For aircraft with a passenger seating capacity of less than five,
the use of actual weights provides the greatest accuracy in
calculating the weight and balance of the aircraft, therefore the
use of standard or segmented passenger weights is not
recommended.
(a) Using Actual Weights— In determining the actual weight,
an air operator must weigh each passenger and must ensure
that personal clothing and carry-on baggage are also
weighed. The total of the person’s weight, personal clothing
and carry-on baggage would then be treated as the passenger’s
weight. Weighing should be conducted just before boarding
(to minimize the chances of the passenger acquiring
additional load just before boarding the aircraft); alternatively,
the allowances for personal clothing and carry-on baggage
can be added to a passenger’s weight and the result can be used as the passenger’s actual weight.
When a passenger refuses to be weighed, the air operator
should ask the passenger to volunteer their weight ( volunteered
weight ). If they refuse, the air operator should estimate the
passenger’s weight ( estimated weight ), ensuring in both cases
that the allowances for personal clothing and carry-on baggage
are included in the passenger’s weight.
Personnel boarding passengers based on volunteered weights
should be able to assess the validity of the disclosed weight.
If a volunteered weight is deemed to be significantly
inaccurate, personnel should use good judgment to make
a reasonably accurate estimate. Similarly, estimating
passenger weight must be done with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Due diligence should be exercised to ensure that
passenger weights used to calculate the passenger and
baggage load accurately reflect the actual weight to be carried
on any given flight.
(b) Using Standard Weights— The weight of each passenger
is calculated using standard weights published by TCCA
or established by the air operator. The standard weights
include the standardized allowances for personal clothing
and carry-on baggage. See Tables 3.1 and 3.3 for standard weights.
(c) Using Segmented Weights— Segmented weights should be
used only when actual weights, volunteered weights, and
estimated weights are not available or cannot be implemented.
Air operators are prohibited from using standard weights
for aeroplanes operated under Subpart 703 of the CARs that
also have a certificated passenger seating capacity of five
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACor more passengers. Instead, it is recommended that they
use either actual weights or the segmented weights that are published by TCCA or established by the air operator.
When using the segmented weight table (Table 3.2), an air
operator must follow these steps:
(i) Step 1: Under the column titled Maximum
Certificated Passenger Seating Capacity, select the row that represents the certificated seating capacity of the intended aircraft.
(ii) Step 2: Under the column that represents the season,
select winter or summer.
(iii) Step 3: Depending on the aircraft capacity and
seasons selected in steps 1 and 2, use the weight
values identified in the intersecting cells for the
weights of males and females. When changing the aircraft, steps 1 to 3 have to be repeated.
(iv) Step 4: Multiply the individual male/female weight
identified in step 3 by the number of male/female
passengers on board, and the total of these weights
will be the weight of the passenger load for that
particular flight.NOTE S:
1. Actual weights should be used on any flight identified as
carrying a significant number of passengers whose weight
or number of carry-on baggage is deemed to be in excess
of those specified in the segmented weights published by
TCCA or established by the air operator.
2. The only circumstance under which the weight of carry-on
baggage may not be added to the weight of each passenger is when no carry-on baggage is permitted on the flight.
(d) Weight of Children and Infants— Each child should be
weighed, or their weight should be included at the standard
rate. Infants should be weighed with the accompanying
adult. When an infant’s weight is over 10% of the adult
passenger’s weight, the infant’s weight should be included separately at the rate of 13.6 kg (30 lbs) per infant. Infants occupying separate seats should be treated as children for
the purpose of weight and balance calculation, and their
weight should be included at the standard rate per child.
See Table 3.3 for standard weights of children and infants.
(e) Checked Baggage and Cargo— The air operator must use
the actual weight of checked baggage and cargo.
Table 3.1—Standard Weights of Passengers Aged 12 Years or Older
Summer — Winter
93.4 kg or 206 lb Males (12 years and up) 96.2 kg or 212 lb
78.1 kg or 172 lb Females (12 years and up) 80.7 kg or 178 lb
93.4 kg or 206 lb Gender X (12 years and up) 96.2 kg or 212 lb
Table 3.2—Segmented Weights of Passengers Aged 12 Years or Older in Pounds (lb)
Maximum
Certificated
Passenger
Seating CapacityWinter Summer
Male Female Gender X Male Female Gender X
1–4 Use actual weights, volunteered weights, or estimated weights .
5 249 210 249 243 204 243
6–8 244 206 244 238 200 238
9 –11 236 199 236 230 193 230
12–16 233 196 233 227 190 227
17–25 229 193 229 223 187 223
Table 3.3—Standard Weights of Children and Infants
Summer — Winter
34 kg or 75 lb Children 2–11 years 34 kg or 75 lb
13.6 kg or 30 lb *Infants 0 to less than 2 years 13.6 kg or 30 lb
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC3.4.8 Fuel and Oil Weights
Fuel and oil weights were obtained from the Canadian Government
Standards Bureau specifications. It should be remembered that
the capacity of tanks is often expressed in US gallons. The
standard weights of fuel and oil are provided in Tables 3.4, 3.5
and 3.6.NOTE :
The weights shown are for the maximum density at the various temperatures. The actual fuel weight for specific conditions can
usually be obtained from the dealer supplying the fuel. Conversion
factors for litres to imperial gallons and kilograms to pounds
are found in GEN 1.7.1.
Table 3.4—Fuel Weight Based on Temperature
Temperature -40ºC -20ºC 0ºC 15ºC 30ºC
Fuellb per lb per lb per lb per lb per
litreUK
gal.US
gal.litreUK
gal.US
gal.litreUK
gal.US
gal.litreUK
gal.US
gal.litreUK
gal.US
gal.
Aviation Kerosene
CAN 2-3, 23-M81
(JET A, JET A-1,
JET A-2) and
Arctic Diesel1.93 8.80 7.32 1.90 8.65 7.19 1.87 8.50 7.09 1.85 8.39 7.00 1.83 8.27 6.91
Aviation Wide Cut Fuel CAN 2-3, 23-M80 (F-40 [JP4]
and JET B)1.85 8.38 6.99 1.82 8.24 6.88 1.79 8.11 6.78 1.77 8.01 6.68 1.74 7.92 6.60
Aviation Gasoline All Grades CAN 2-3, 25-M82
(AV GAS)1.69 7.68 6.41 1.65 7.50 6.26 1.62 7.33 6.12 1.59 7.20 6.01 1.56 7.07 5.90
Table 3.5—Lubricating Oil Weight Based on Temperature
Temperature -10ºC 0ºC 10ºC 20ºC 30ºC
Lubricating oillb per lb per lb per lb per lb per
litreUK
gal.US
gal.litreUK
gal.US
gal.litreUK
gal.US
gal.litreUK
gal.US
gal.litreUK
gal.US
gal.
Piston Engine 65 Grade 1.98 8.98 7.46 1.97 8.92 7.46 1.95 8.85 7.38 1.94 8.78 7.33 1.92 8.71 7.28
120 Grade2.01 9.10 7.59 1.99 9.03 7.54 1.97 8.96 7.46 1.96 8.88 7.41 1.94 8.82 7.35
Table 3.6—Turbine Engine Lubricating Oil Weight at a 15°C Temperature
Type of lubricating oil lb/litre lb/UK gal. lb/US gal.
3cS 2.09 9.4 7.92
5cS 2.15 10.1 8.14
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC3.5 FLIGHT PLANS AND FLIGHT
ITINERARIES
3.5.1 When Required
CAR 602.73 states that no pilot-in-command shall operate an
aircraft in VFR flight unless a VFR flight plan or a VFR flight
itinerary has been filed, except where the flight is conducted
within 25 NM of the departure aerodrome.
No pilot-in-command shall operate an aircraft in IFR flight
unless an IFR flight plan has been filed. A pilot-in-command
may file an IFR flight itinerary instead of an IFR flight plan where:
(a) the flight is conducted, in part or in whole, outside controlled
airspace; or
(b) facilities are inadequate to permit the communication of
flight plan information to an ATC unit, an FSS or a CARS.
Notwithstanding any of the requirements mentioned above,
pilots are required to file a flight plan when operating between
Canada and a foreign state.
3.5.2 Filing ( Canadian Aviation
Regulation [RAC] 602.75)
(1) A flight plan shall be filed with an air traffic control unit,
a flight service station or a community aerodrome radio
station.
(2) A flight itinerary shall be filed with a responsible person,
an air traffic control unit, a flight service station or a
community aerodrome radio station.
(3) A flight plan or flight itinerary, shall be filed by
(a) sending, delivering or otherwise communicating the
flight plan or flight itinerary or the information
contained therein; and
(b) receiving acknowledgement that the flight plan or flight
itinerary or the information contained therein has been
received.
A “responsible person” means an individual who has agreed
with the person who has filed a flight itinerary to ensure that,
if the aircraft is overdue, the following are notified in the manner
prescribed in this Section:
(a) an ATC unit, an FSS or a CARS; or
(b) an RCC.
NOTES :
1. The notification requires the flight itinerary information.
2. The expression flight service station used in the regulation
includes a FIC. Flight plan information should be filed with
a FIC, where complete briefing information is available. An
IFR flight plan should be submitted to the flight planning section of an ACC.The timely filing of IFR flight plans or flight itineraries is essential
to allow ATC personnel time to extract and record the relevant content, correlate these new data with available information on
other traffic under control, coordinate as necessary, and determine
how the flight may best be integrated with the other traffic.
Accordingly, in order to assist ATS in improving the service
provided and to allow sufficient time for input into the ATS data
processing system, pilots are encouraged to file IFR flight plans or flight itineraries as early as practicable, preferably at least 30 min prior to their proposed departure time. Pilots are expected
to depart in accordance with the flight plan ETD. Some delay
could be experienced if an IFR clearance is required less than
30 min after filing. It is also important that ATS be informed of
the circumstances if commencement of an IFR flight is to be
delayed. IFR flight itineraries are limited to one departure from
and one entry into controlled airspace; multiple exits and entries
into controlled airspace will not be accepted by ATS.
3.5.3 Flight Plan Requirements—Flights
Between Canada and a Foreign State
A VFR or IFR flight plan must be filed prior to conducting any flight between Canada and a foreign state. If the flight is to any country other than the U.S., an ICAO flight plan must be filed. ATS must not accept flight itineraries, composite flight plans, or CVFR flight plans for flights between Canada and the U.S.
ADCUS notification is no longer accepted on flight plans for
transborder flights departing from Canada to the U.S. or from the U.S. to Canada. Pilots are required to file a flight plan to an
acceptable customs destination in the U.S. and are also required
to contact U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) to make customs arrangements prior to their flight. Failure to do so may subject the pilot to a penalty.
3.5.4 Opening a Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight
Plan or Flight Itinerary
A VFR flight plan or flight itinerary should normally be opened
with a TWR, an FSS, a FIC or a CARS upon departure to activate
the alerting service. The pilot is responsible for extending or
cancelling the flight plan or flight itinerary if the flight is delayed
or cancelled. If an extension or cancellation is not received by
the proposed departure time, the responsible ATS unit will
activate the flight plan or flight itinerary, using the ETD as the actual time of departure (ATD).
3.6 CHANGES TO THE INFORMATION IN A
FLIGHT PLAN OR FLIGHT ITINERARY
Since control and alerting services are based primarily on
information provided by the pilot, it is essential that modifications
to flight plans and flight itineraries be communicated to an ATC
unit, a FIC, a CARS or, as applicable, a responsible person
concerned, as soon as practicable.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC
3.6.1 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight Plan or
Flight Itinerary
CAR 602.76(3) and (4) specify that a pilot “shall notify as soon
as practicable an air traffic control unit, a flight service station,
a community aerodrome radio station or the responsible person,”
of any change to:
(a) the route of flight,
(b) the duration of the flight; or
(c) the destination aerodrome.
3.6.2 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight Plan or
Flight Itinerary
CAR 602.76(1) and (2) specify that a pilot shall notify as soon
as practicable an air traffic control unit, a flight service station, a community aerodrome radio station or a responsible person, as the case may be, of any change to:
(a) the cruising altitude or cruising flight level;
(b) the route of flight;
(c) the destination aerodrome;
(d) when in controlled airspace:
(i) the true airspeed at the cruising altitude or cruising
level where the change intended is 5% or more of
the TAS specified in the IFR flight plan; or
(ii) the Mach number, where the change intended is 0.01
or more of the Mach number that has been included
in the ATC clearance.
Where the flight is being conducted in controlled airspace, the
pilot shall receive ATC clearance before making the
intended change.
3.7 COMPOSITE FLIGHT PLAN OR
FLIGHT ITINERARY—VISUAL FLIGHT
RULES (VFR) AND INSTRUMENT
FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
A composite flight plan or flight itinerary may be filed that
describes part(s) of the route as operating under VFR and part(s)
of the route as operating under IFR. All rules governing VFR
or IFR apply to that portion of the route of flight. A composite
flight plan or flight itinerary shall not be filed for an aircraft
that will enter airspace controlled by the FAA, including CDA
delegated to the FAA, as composite data cannot be correctly
processed between NAV CANADA and FAA systems.
A pilot who files IFR for the first part of a flight and VFR for
the next part will be cleared by ATC to the point within controlled
airspace at which the IFR part of the flight ends. A pilot who
files VFR for the first part of a flight and IFR for the next part
is expected to contact the appropriate ATC unit for clearance
prior to approaching the point where the IFR portion of the
flight commences. If direct contact with an ATC unit is not
possible, the pilot may request ATC clearance through a FIC. It
is important that the flight continue under VFR conditions until
appropriate IFR clearance within controlled airspace is issued
by ATC and acknowledged by the pilot.3.8 DEFENCE VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)
FLIGHT PLANS AND DEFENCE FLIGHT
ITINERARIES ( CANADIAN AVIATION
REGULATION [CAR] 602.145)
CAR 602.145 outlines the requirements when operating into or
within the Air Defence Identification Zone (ADIZ). In order to
ensure that the Air Traffic System (ATS) is aware that VFR
flights will be operating into or within the ADIZ, ATS requires that pilots file a Defence Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary.
CAR 602.145 ADIZ states: 602.145 ADIZ
(1) This Section applies in respect of aircraft before entering
into and while operating within the ADIZ, the dimensions
of which are specifie d in the Designated Airspace Handbook.
(2) Every flight plan or flight itinerary required to be filed
pursuant to this Section shall be filed with an air traffic
control unit, a flight service station or a community
aerodrome radio station.
(3) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft whose point of departure
within the ADIZ or last point of departure before entering
the ADIZ has facilities for the transmission of flight plan or flight itinerary information shall:
(a) before takeoff, file a defence flight plan or defence
flight itinerary;
(b) in the case of a VFR aircraft where the point of departure
is outside the ADIZ,
(i) indicate in the flight plan or flight itinerary the
estimated time and point of ADIZ entry, and
(ii) as soon as possible after takeoff, communicate by radio to an air traffic control unit, a flight service station or a community aerodrome radio station a position report of the aircraft’s location, altitude,
aerodrome of departure and estimated time and
point of ADIZ entry; and
(c) in the case of a VFR aircraft where the point of departure
is within the ADIZ, as soon as possible after takeoff, communicate by radio to an air traffic control unit, a flight service station or a community aerodrome radio
station a position report of the aircraft’s location, altitude
and aerodrome of departure.
(4) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft whose point of departure
within the ADIZ or last point of departure before entering
the ADIZ does not have facilities for the transmission of
flight plan or flight itinerary information shall:
(a) as soon as possible after takeoff, file by radio
communication a flight plan or flight itinerary; and
(b) in the case of a VFR aircraft, indicate in the flight plan
or flight itinerary the estimated time and point of ADIZ
entry, if applicable.
(5) The pilot-in-command of a VFR aircraft shall revise the
estimated time and point of ADIZ entry and inform an air traffic control unit, a flight service station or a community aerodrome radio station, when the aircraft is not expected
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACto arrive:
(a) within plus or minus five minutes of the estimated
time at:
(i) a reporting point,
(ii) the point of ADIZ entry, or
(iii) the point of destination within the ADIZ; or
(b) within 20 nautical miles of:
(i) the estimated point of ADIZ entry, or
(ii) the centreline of the route of flight indicated in
the flight plan or flight itinerary.
3.9 INTERMEDIATE STOPS
Intermediate stops may not be included in a single instrument
flight rules (IFR) flight plan. A single visual flight rules (VFR)
flight plan or an IFR or VFR flight itinerary including one or
more intermediate stops en route may be filed provided that:
(a) for VFR flight plans, the stop will be of short duration (for purposes such as boarding passengers, and refuelling);
(b) for IFR flight itineraries, the stop will be in uncontrolled
airspace; and
(c) each intermediate stop is indicated by repeating the name
of the stopping point and its duration in the “Route”
section of the flight plan or flight itinerary. Record the
duration of the stopover in hours and minutes with four
consecutive digits. Example: CYXU 0045 CYXU. You may
include a phone number for the stopover in the “Other
Information” section of the flight plan or flight itinerary,
if available, as this may be useful in case of search and
rescue (SAR).
When intermediate stops are planned, the “Estimated Elapsed
Time” must be calculated as the total time to the final destination,
including the duration of the intermediate stops. It should be
noted that SAR action would only be initiated at the specified
SAR time or, in the event that a SAR time is not indicated,
60 minutes for a flight plan and 24 hours for a flight itinerary
after the estimated time of arrival (ETA) at the final destination.
Pilots who wish to have SAR action based on every leg of a flight should file one flight plan or flight itinerary for each stop.
3.9.1 Consecutive Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
Flight Plans
Consecutive IFR flight plans may be filed at the initial point of departure providing the following points are adhered to:
(a) initial point of departure and en route stops must be in
Canada except that one flight plan will be accepted for a
departure point within United States controlled airspace;
(b) the sequence of stops will fall within one 24-hour period;
(c) the flight planning unit must be provided with at least the following items of information for each stage of the flight:
(i) point of departure,
(ii) altitude,
(iii) route,
(iv) destination, (v) proposed time of departure,
(vi) estimated elapsed time,
(vii) alternate,
(viii) fuel on board, and, if required,
(A) TAS,
(B) number of persons on board, and
(C) where an arrival report will be filed.
3.10 CROSS-COUNTRY INSTRUMENT
TRAINING FLIGHTS
A cross-country instrument training flight is one in which there
are no intermediate stops and one or more instrument approaches
are made en route. For example, an aircraft departs Airport A, completes a practice approach at Airport B, and either lands at destination Airport C or returns to land at Airport A.
The following apply:
(a) A single flight plan is filed.
(b) Those en route locations at which instrument approaches
and overshoots are requested shall be listed in the “Other Information” portion of the flight plan form, together with the estimated period of time to carry out each approach. In
addition, the total en route time should be included, including
approaches and holds followed by the destination airport
(e.g. REQ NDB RWY 32 AT B-15 MIN 0230A).
(c) The estimated elapsed time (EET) of the flight plan form
is NOT to include the estimated time to carry out approaches
and holds at the en route locations.
(d) ATC will normally clear the aircraft to final destination.
(e) If it is not practicable to clear the aircraft to final destination
or to assign an operationally suitable altitude with the initial
clearance, a time or specific location for the aircraft to
expect further clearance to the destination or to a higher
altitude will be issued with the initial clearance.
(f) When an en route approach clearance is requested, a missed
approach clearance will be issued to the aircraft prior to
the commencement of the approach.
(g) If traffic does not permit an approach, holding instructions
will be issued to the aircraft if requested by the pilot.
3.11 CLOSING A FLIGHT PLAN
In order to comply with CAR 602.77, an arrival report for a flight
plan shall be submitted to an ATC unit, an FSS (or a FIC) or a CARS as soon as practicable after landing but not later than:
(a) the SAR time specified in the flight plan; or
(b) where no SAR time is specified in the flight plan, one hour after the last reported ETA.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACA pilot who terminates a flight itinerary shall ensure that an
arrival report is filed with an ATC unit, an FSS (or a FIC), a
CARS or, where the flight itinerary was filed with a responsible
person, the responsible person as soon as practicable after landing
but not later than:
(a) the SAR time specified in the flight itinerary; or
(b) where no SAR time was specified in the flight itinerary, 24
hours after the last reported ETA.
A pilot who terminates an IFR flight at an aerodrome where
there is an operating ATC unit, FSS or where RAAS is provided,
is not required to file an arrival report unless requested to do
so by the appropriate ATC unit or FSS.
When submitting an arrival report, the pilot should clearly
indicate that he/she was operating on a flight plan or flight
itinerary and wishes it to be closed. Failure to close a flight plan
or flight itinerary will initiate SAR action. It should not be
assumed that ATS personnel will automatically file arrival reports
for VFR flights at locations served by control towers and FSSs or an RCO. Toll-free calls, as outlined in the CFS, may be made to an ATS facility for this purpose.
3.11.1 Arrival Report
CAR 602.78 specifies that the contents of an arrival report for a flight plan or flight itinerary, which are listed in the CFS, shall include:
(a) the aircraft registration mark, flight number or radio call sign;
(b) the type of flight plan or flight itinerary;
(c) the departure aerodrome;
(d) the arrival aerodrome, and
(e) the date and time of arrival.
3.11.2 Closing of a Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary Prior to Landing
A pilot, who conducts a flight in respect of which a flight plan or flight itinerary has been filed with an ATC unit, FIC, FSS, or
CARS, has the option of closing the flight plan or flight itinerary
with any of these agencies prior to landing.
The closing of a flight plan or flight itinerary prior to landing
is considered as filing an arrival report, and as such, it will result
in the termination of all alerting services with respect to SAR
notification.
When flying IFR in airspace under the jurisdiction of Canadian
ATC, use of the phrase “Cancelling IFR” results in ATC
discontinuing the provision of IFR separation, but it does not
automatically close the flight plan or itinerary. Therefore, alerting
service with regard to SAR notification is still active and is based
on the information submitted in the original flight plan or
itinerary. Because the pilot is now flying in accordance with
VFR, the flight plan or itinerary must either be closed prior to
landing, or an arrival report filed after landing, with an ATC
unit, a FIC, a FSS or a CARS. When flying IFR in t he U.S.A. or
landing at a Canadian airport that underlies airspace delegated
to the control of the FAA, use of the phrase “Cancelling IFR” results in ATC discontinuing the provision of IFR separation
and also closes the flight plan or itinerary. Therefore, alerting
service with regard to SAR notification is also terminated, unless
the pilot files and activates a VFR flight plan.
3.12 FUEL REQUIREMENTS
The fuel requirements contained in this Section do not apply to gliders, balloons or ultra-light aeroplanes. (CAR 602.88)
In addition to VFR and IFR fuel requirements, every aircraft
shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to provide for
(a) taxiing and foreseeable delays prior to takeoff;
(b) meteorological conditions;
(c) foreseeable air traffic routings and traffic delays;
(d) landing at a suitable aerodrome in the event of loss of cabin
pressurization or, in the case of a multi-engined aircraft,
failure of any engine, at the most critical point during the flight; and
(e) any other foreseeable conditions that could delay the landing
of the aircraft.
3.12.1 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight
An aircraft operated in VFR flight shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to allow the aircraft
(a) in the case of an aircraft other than a helicopter,
(i) when operated during the day, to fly to the destination
aerodrome and then to fly for 30 minutes at normal cruising speed, or
(ii) when operated at night, to fly to the destination
aerodrome and then to fly for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed, or
(b) in the case of a helicopter, to fly to the destination aerodrome
and then to fly for 20 min. at normal cruising speed.
3.12.2 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Fli ght
An aircraft operated in IFR flight shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to allow the aircraft
(a) in the case of a propeller-driven aeroplane,
(i) where an alternate aerodrome is specified in the
flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute
an approach and a missed approach at the destination
aerodrome, to fly to and land at the alternate
aerodrome, and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes,
or
(ii) where an alternate aerodrome is not specified in the
flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute
an approach and a missed approach at the destination
aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes;
or
(b) in the case of a turbojet powered aeroplane or a helicopter,
(i) where an alternate aerodrome is specified in the
flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute
an approach and a missed approach at the destination
aerodrome, to fly to and land at the alternate
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACaerodrome, and then to fly for a period of
30 minutes, or
(ii) where an alternate aerodrome is not specified in the
flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute
an approach and a missed approach at the destination
aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 30 minutes.
3.13 REQUIREMENTS FOR ALTERNATE
AERODROME — INSTRUMENT FLIGHT
RULES (IFR) FLIGHT
Except as otherwise authorized by the Minister in an air operator
certificate (AOC) or in a private operator certificate, no pilot-
in-command shall operate an aircraft in IFR flight unless the
IFR flight plan or IFR flight itinerary that has been filed for the
flight includes an alternate aerodrome having a landing area
suitable for use by that aircraft. No pilot-in-command of an
aircraft shall include an alternate aerodrome in an IFR flight
plan or IFR flight itinerary unless available weather information
indicates that the ceiling and ground visibility at the alternate
aerodrome will, at the expected time of arrival, be at or above
the alternate aerodrome weather minima criteria specified in
the CAP. (CARs 602.122 and 602.123)
Aerodrome forecasts (TAF) that contain the terms BECMG,
TEMPO or PROB may be used to determine the weather suitability
of an aerodrome as an alternate, provided that:
(a) where conditions are forecast to improve, the forecast
BECMG condition shall be considered to be applicable as
of the end of the BECMG time period, and these conditions
shall not be below the published alternate minima
requirements for that aerodrome;
(b) where conditions are forecast to deteriorate, the forecast
BECMG condition shall be considered to be applicable as
of the start of the BECMG time period, and these conditions
shall not be below the published alternate minima
requirements for that aerodrome;
(c) the forecast TEMPO condition shall not be below the published alternate minima requirements for that
aerodrome; and
(d) the forecast PROB condition shall not be below the
appropriate landing minima for that aerodrome.
3.13.1 Alternate Aerodrome Weather Minima Requirements
Authorized weather minima for alternate aerodromes are to be
determined using the information presented in the tables below.
The “Alternate Weather Minima Requirements” table presented
in the CAP GEN (reproduced below) applies to all approach charts,
except where use as an alternate is not authorized on the chart. The
minima derived for an alternate aerodrome shall be consistent with
aircraft performance, navigation-equipment limitations, functioning
NAVAIDs, type of weather forecast and runway to be used.
Pilots may take credit for RNAV approaches at alternate aerodromes in accordance with the criteria outlined in the
“Alternate Aerodrome Weather Minima Requirements” section
of the CAP GEN. Table 3.7—Alternate Aerodrome
Weather Minima Requirements
FACILITIES AVAILABLE
AT SUITABLE
ALTERNATE WEATHER REQUIREMENTS
TWO OR MORE
USABLE PRECISION APPROACHES, each providing straight-in minima to separate suitable runways 400-1 or 200-1/2 above lowest usable HAT and visibility, whichever is greater.
ONE USABLE PRECISION APPROACH 600-2* or 300-1 above the lowest usable HAT and visibility, whichever is greater.
NON-PRECISION ONLY AVAILABLE 800-2* or 300-1 above the lowest usable HAT/HAA and visibility, whichever is greater.
NO IFR APPROACH AVAILABLE Forecast weather must be
no lower than 500 ft above a
minimum IFR altitude that will permit a VFR approach and landing.
FOR HELICOPTERS, where instrument approach procedures are available Ceiling 200 ft above the minima for the approach to be flown, and visibility at least
1 SM, but never less than
the minimum visibility for the approach to be flown.
*600-2 and 800-2, as appropriate, are considered to be STANDARD ALTERNATE
MINIMA.
Should the selected alternate weather requirements meet the
standard minima, then the following minima are also authorized:
Table 3.8—Other Authorized Minima
STANDARD
ALTERNATE MINIMA IF STANDARD IS
APPLICABLE, THEN THE
FOLLOWING MINIMA ARE
ALSO AUTHORIZED
CEILING VISIBILITY CEILING VISIBILITY
800 1 1/2
1000 1 1/2
NOTES :
1. These requirements are predicated upon the aerodrome
having a TAF available.
2. Aerodromes served with an AERODROME ADVISORY
forecast may qualify as an alternate, provided the forecast
weather is no lower than 500 ft above the lowest usable
HAT/HAA and the visibility is not less than 3 mi.
3. Aerodromes served with a GRAPHIC AREA FORECAST
(GFA) may qualify as an alternate, provided the forecast
weather contains:
(a) no cloud lower than 1 000 ft above the lowest usable
HAT/HAA;
(b) no cumulonimbus; and
(c) a visibility that is not less than 3 mi.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC4. Ceiling minima are calculated by reference to the procedure
HAA or HAT. Ceiling values in aviation forecasts are
established in 100–ft increments. Up to 20 ft, use the lower
100–ft increment; above 20 ft, use the next higher 100–ft
increment:
Examples:
HAA 620 ft = ceiling va lue of 600 ft;
HAA 621 ft = ceiling va lue of 700 ft;
HAT 420 ft = ceiling va lue of 400 ft;
HAT 421 ft = ceiling va lue of 500 ft;.
5. Calculated visibilities should not exceed 3 mi.
CAUT ION:
All heights specified in a GFA are ASL, unless otherwise indicated.
The emphasis of these criteria is placed upon the availability of
the lowest usable landing HAT/HAA and visibility for an
aerodrome. In determining the lowest usable landing HAT/
HAA and visibility, the pilot should consider:
(a) the operational availability of the ground navigational
equipment by consulting NOTAM;
(b) the compatibility of the aircraft equipment with the ground
navigational equipment;
(c) the forecast surface wind conditions could dictate the landing
runway and associated approach minima;
(d) the operational applicability of terms BECMG, TEMPO
and PROB within the forecast;
(e) all heights mentioned within a GFA are ASL heights, unless
otherwise indicated, and the terrain elevation must be
applied in order to determine the lowest forecast ceiling at a particular location; and
(f) alternate minima values determined from a previous flight
operation may not be applicable to a subsequent flight
operation.
3.14 COMPLETION OF CANADIAN FLIGHT
PLANS AND FLIGHT ITINERARIES AND INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION
ORGANIZATION (ICAO) FLIGHT PLANS
3.14.1 General
The flight plan form is to be used for Canadian flight plans or
flight itineraries and ICAO flight plans. Completion of the form
is simply a matter of inserting the requested information in the
appropriate boxes. The white boxes relate to required information
for Canadian flight plans and for flight itineraries and for ICAO
flight plans. The shaded boxes indicate the information which
is applicable only to Canadian flight plans and flight itineraries.
NOTE :
A Canadian flight plan is used for flights from Canada to the
United States.3.14.2 Canadian
A Canadian flight plan or flight itinerary shall contain such
information as is specified in the CFS, including:
(a) aircraft identification
(b) flight rules
(c) type of flight
(d) number of aircraft (if more than one)
(e) type of aircraft
(f) wake turbulence category
(g) equipment
(h) departure aerodrome
(i) time of departure (UTC)—proposed/actual
(j) cruising speed
(k) altitude/level
(l) route
(m) destination aerodrome
(n) EET en -route
(o) SAR time *
(p) destination alternate aerodrome
(q) endurance (flight time in hours and minutes)
(r) total number of persons on board
(s) type of ELT *
(t) survival equipment (type, jackets, dinghies)
(u) aircraft colour and markings
(v) remarks (regarding other survival equipment)
(w) arrival report—where it will be filed *
(x) name and number or address of person or company to be
notified if SAR action is initiated *
(y) pilot’s name
(z) pilot’s licence number (Canadian pilot licence only) *
* Not required for an ICAO flight plan
3.14.3 International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO)
Flight plans for international flights originating in, or entering, Canada shall be filed in the ICAO format, as specified in ICAO Doc 4444— Operations 5-2 PANS-RAC (DOC 4444-RAC/501
Mil GPH 204 DOC FLIGHT INFO PUBLICATION).
For the purpose of flight planning, flights between Canada and
the continental United States are not classed as
“international flights”.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC3.14.4 Instructions for Completing the Form
3.14.4.1 General
Adhere closely to the prescribed formats and manner of specifying
data.
Commence inserting data in the first space provided. Where
excess space is available, leave unused spaces blank.
All times should be indicated in UTC, using four digits.
Indicate all EETs using four digits (hours and minutes) for flight
plans.
NOTE :
Because EETs on a flight itinerary may include days as well as
hours and minutes, insert the EET using six digits, if required.
The shaded area preceding Item 3 is to be completed by ATS
and COM services, unless the responsibility for originating
flight plan messages has been delegated.
NOTE :
The term “aerodrome,” where used in the flight plan, is intended
to also cover sites other than aerodromes that may be used by
certain types of aircraft, e.g. helicopters or balloons.
3.14.4.2 Instructions for Insertion of ATS Data
Complete Items 7 to 18 as indicated hereunder.
Complete Item 19 as well to facilitate alerting of SAR services.
NOTE :
Item numbers on the form are not consecutive as they correspond
to Field Type numbers in ATS messages.
Use location indicators listed in Canadian AIPs (defined in CAR
300.01), in ICAO Doc 7910— Location Indicators , and in FAA
Order 7350.7— Location Identifiers .
3.15 CONTENTS OF A FLIGHT PLAN AND
FLIGHT ITINERARY
3.15.1 Item 7: Aircraft Identification (not
exceeding seven alphanumeric characters
and without hyphens or symbols)
Canadian:
Normally, this consists of the aircraft registration letters or the company designator followed by the flight number.
Examples:
(a) Aircraft registration: N123B, CGABC, 4XGUC
(b) Operating agency and flight number: ACA123, KLM672
(c) Tactical call sign: BRUNO12, SWIFT45, RED1 ICAO:
(a) the ICAO designator for the aircraft operating agency
followed by the flight identification (e.g. KLM511,
NGA213, JTR25) when in radiotelephony the call sign
to be used by the aircraft will consist of the ICAO
telephony designator for the operating agency followed
by the flight identification (e.g. KLM511, NIGERIA213, JESTER25); OR
(b) the nationality or common mark and registration mark of the aircraft (e.g. E1AKO, 4XBCD, N2567GA), when:
(i) in radiotelephony, the call sign to be used by the
aircraft will consist of this identification alone (e.g. CGAJS), or will be preceded by the ICAO telephony
designator for the aircraft operating agency (e.g.
BLIZZARD CGAJS); or
(ii) the aircraft is not equipped with radio.
NOTE S:
1. Standards for nationality, common and registration marks to be used are contained in ICAO Annex 7, Chapter 2.
2. Provisions for the use of radiotelephony call signs are
contained in ICAO Annex 10, Volume II, Chapter 5. ICAO
designators and telephony designators for aircraft operating
agencies are contained in ICAO Doc 8585— Designators
for Aircraft Operating Agencies, Aeronautical Authorities and Services.
3.15.2 Item 8: Flight Rules and Type of Flight
3.15.2.1 Flight Rules (one character) (Canadian and
ICAO)
INSERT one of the following letters to denote the category of
flight rules with which the pilot intends to comply:
I if it is intended that the entire flight will be operated
under IFR;
V if it is intended that the entire flight will be operated
under VFR;
Y if the flight initially will be operated under IFR, followed
by one or more subsequent changes of flight rules; or
Z if the flight initially will be operated under VFR, followed
by one or more subsequent changes of flight rules.
If “Y” or “Z” is filed, specify, in the Route section of the flight
plan (Item 15), the point(s) where a change in flight rules is
planned. Similarly, where there is more than one change in the
type of flight rules, the code to be used is to reflect the first rule, i.e. use “Z” for VFR/IFR/VFR.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC3.15.2.2 Type of Flight (up to two characters, as
applicable)
INSERT up to two of the following letters to denote the type of
flight when so required by the appropriate ATS authority:
First character (Canadian only, as applicable):
C for controlled VFR;
D for defence flight plan;
E for defence flight itinerary;
F for flight itinerary.
Second character (ICAO, as applicable):
S for scheduled air service;
N for non-scheduled air transport operation;
G for general aviation;
M for military;
X for other than the preceding categories.
Specify the status of a flight following the indicator “STS” in
Item 18, or when necessary to denote other reasons for specific
handling by ATS, indicate the reason following the indicator
“RMK/” in Item 18.
3.15.3 Item 9: Number and Type of Aircraft and
Wake Turbulence Category
3.15.3.1 Number of Aircraft (one or two characters)
INSERT the number of aircraft, if more than one.
3.15.3.2 Type of Aircraft (two to four characters)
INSERT the appropriate ICAO aircraft type designator. If no
such designator has been assigned, or in the case of formation
flights comprising more than one type, insert “ZZZZ” and
specify in Item 18 the number(s) and type(s) of aircraft preceded
by “TYP/”.
3.15.3.3 International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Wake Turbulence
Category (one character)
INSERT one of the following letters to indicate the wake
turbulence category of the aircraft:
H (HEAVY) to indicate an aircraft type with a maximum
certificated take-off mass of 136 000 kg (300 000 lbs) or more.
M (MEDIUM) to indicate an aircraft type with a maximum
certificated take-off mass of less than 136 000 kg (300 000 lbs) but more than 7 000 kg (15 500 lbs).
L (LIGHT) to indicate an aircraft type with a maximum
certificated take-off mass of 7 000 kg (15 500 lbs) or less. 3.15.4 Item 10: Equipment (Canadian and
International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO))
Capabilities comprise the following elements:
(a) presence of relevant serviceable equipment on board the
aircraft;
(b) equipment and capabilities commensurate with flight crew
qualifications; and
(c) where applicable, authorization from the appropriate
authority.
The COM, NAV, approach aid and SUR equipment on board
and its serviceability must be inserted by adding the appropriate
suffixes. The first suffixes will denote the COM, NAV and
approach aid equipment, followed by an oblique stroke, and
another suffix will denote the SUR equipment.
3.15.4.1 Radio Communication, Navigation and
Approach Aid Equipment and Capabilities
INSERT one letter as follows:
“N” if no COM, NAV or approach aid equipment for the route
to be flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable; OR
“S” if standard COM, NAV and approach aid equipment for the
route to be flown is carried and available (see NOTE 1)
Information on navigation capability is provided to ATC for
clearance and routing purposes.
AND/OR INSERT one or more of the following letters to indicate
the serviceable COM, NAV and approach aid equipment and
capabilities available.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACTable 3.9—Alphanumeric Characters to Be
Indicated in Flight Plan Item 10: Equipment
A GBAS landing
systemK MLS
B LPV (APV with SBAS)L ILS
C LORAN C M1 ATC SATVOICE (INMARSAT)
D DME M2 ATC SATVOICE (MTSAT)
E1 FMC WPR ACARS M3 ATC SATVOICE (Iridium)
E2 D-FIS ACARS O VOR
E3 PDC ACARS P1 CPDLC RCP 400
F ADF P2 CPDLC RCP 240
G GNSS (see NOTE 2)P3 SATVOICE RCP 400
H HF RTF P4–P9 Reserved for RCP
I Inertial Navigation R PBN approved (see NOTE 5)
J1 CPDLC ATN VDL Mode 2 (see
NOTE 3)T TACAN
J2 CPDLC FANS 1/A HFDLU UHF RTF
J3 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL mode AV VHF RTF
J4 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL mode 2W RVSM approved
J5 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (INMARSAT)X MNPS approved
J6 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (MTSAT)Y VHF with 8.33 kHz channel spacing capability
J7 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (Iridium) Z Other equipment carried or other capabilities
(see NOTE 6)
Any alphanumeric characters not indicated above are reserved.
NOTE S:
1. If the letter “S” is used, standard equipment is considered
to be VHF RTF, VOR and ILS, unless another combination is prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority.
2. ICAO: If the letter “G” is used, the types of external GNSS augmentation, if any, are specified in Item 18 following the indicator “NAV/” and separated by a space.
3. Canadian: When using the letter “G” on an IFR flight plan,
the GNSS receiver must be approved in accordance with
the requirements specified in AIP Canada ENR 4.3. IFR-
certified receivers are not mandatory for VFR flights. Pilots
are encouraged to use the letter “G” on VFR flight plans
when using any type of GNSS to assist VFR navigation. 4. See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements
Standard For ATN Baseline 1 (ATN B1 INTEROP
Standard—DO-280B/ED-110B) for data link services, ATC
clearance and information, ATC communications
management, and ATC microphone check.
5. If the letter “R” is used, the performance-based navigation levels that can be met are specified in Item 18 following the indicator “PBN/”. Guidance material on the application of performance-based navigation to a specific route segment,
route or area is contained in the Performance-Based
Navigation Manual (ICAO Doc 9613).
6. If the letter “Z” is used, specify in Item 18 the other equipment
carried, or other capabilities, preceded by “COM/”, “NAV/”
and/or “DAT/”, as appropriate.
3.15.4.2 Surveillance Equipment and Capabilities
INSERT “N” if no surveillance equipment for the route to be
flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable, OR INSERT
one or more of the following descriptors, to a maximum of 20 characters, to describe the serviceable surveillance equipment and/or capabilities on board:
SSR Modes A and C
A Transponder—Mode A (four digits—4096 codes);
C Transponder—Mode A (four digits—4096 codes) and Mode
C
SSR Mode S
E Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification,
pressure-altitude and extended squitter (ADS-B) capability;
H Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification,
pressure-altitude and enhanced surveillance capability;
I Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification,
but no pressure-altitude capability;
L Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification,
pressure-altitude, extended squitter (ADS-B) and enhanced
surveillance capability;
P Transponder—Mode S, including pressure-altitude
transmission, but no aircraft identification capability;
S Transponder—Mode S, including both pressure-altitude
and aircraft identification capability;
X Transponder—Mode S with neither aircraft identification
nor pressure-altitude capability.
NOTE :
Enhanced surveillance capability is the ability of the aircraft to
down-link aircraft-derived data via a Mode S transponder.
ADS-B
B1 ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-B “out” capability;
B2 ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-B “out” and “in”
capability;
U1 ADS-B “out” capability using UAT;
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACU2 ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using UAT;
V1 ADS-B “out” capability using VDL Mode 4;
V2 ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using VDL Mode 4.
In addition to the ADS-B alphanumeric characters listed above,
aircraft equipped in accordance with the Canadian ADS-B
mandate will also need to include CANMANDATE in “Other
Information” following the indicator SUR/.
Example: SUR/CANMANDATEADS-C
D1 ADS-C with FANS 1/A capabilities;
G1 ADS-C with ATN capabilities.
Alphanumeric characters not indicated above are reserved.Example: ADE3RV/HB2U2V2G1
NOTE :
Additional surveillance application should be listed in Item 18
following the indicator “SUR/.”
3.15.5 Item 13: Departure Aerodrome and Time
3.15.5.1 Departure Aerodrome (maximum four
characters)
ICAO:
INSERT the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the departure
aerodrome as specified in ICAO Doc 7910— Location Indicators ;
OR
Canadian:
INSERT the four-character location indicator of the departure
aerodrome; OR
Canadian and ICAO:
If no location indicator has been assigned:
INSERT “ZZZZ” and specify in Item 18 the name and location
of the aerodrome preceded by “DEP/”; OR
INSERT the first point of the route or the marker radio beacon
preceded by “DEP/”, if the aircraft has not taken off from
the aerodrome.
3.15.5.2 Time (maximum four characters)
Indicate the hour and minutes in UTC.
NOTE :
Pilots may file a flight plan or flight itinerary up to 24 hr in
advance of the departure time. 3.15.6 Item 15: Cruising Speed, Altitude/Level
and Route
Canadian:
NOTE S:
1. On designated airways and air routes, IFR flights may be
operated at the published MEA/MOCA, except that in winter,
when air temperatures may be much lower than those of
the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA), aircraft should be
operated at an altitude which is at least 1 000 ft higher than
the published MEA/MOCA.
2. Mandatory IFR routes, published in the CFS—Planning
section, have been established to aid in the efficient and
orderly management of air traffic between selected
aerodromes. Pilots are required to file these routes.
Canadian and ICAO:
INSERT
• the first cruising speed as described in (a),
• the first cruising level as described in (b), and
• the route description as described in (c).
(a) Cruising speed (maximum five characters)
INSERT the true airspeed for the first or the whole cruising
portion of the flight, in terms of:
(i) Kilometres per hour (ICAO only), expressed as “K” followed by four figures (e.g. K0830); OR
(ii) Knots, expressed as “N” followed by four figures
(e.g. N0485); OR
(iii) True Mach number, when so prescribed by the
appropriate ATS authority, to the nearest hundredth
of unit Mach, expressed as “M ”followed by three
figures (e.g. M082).
(b) Cruising level (maximum five characters)
INSERT the planned cruising level for the first or the whole
portion of the route to be flown, in terms of:
(i) Flight level, expressed as “F” followed by three figures
(e.g. F085, F330); OR
(ii) Standard metric level in tens of metres (ICAO only), expressed as “S” followed by four figures (e.g. S1130),
when so prescribed by the appropriate ATS authorities;
OR
(iii) Altitude in hundreds of feet, expressed as “A” followed
by three figures (e.g. A045, A100); OR
(iv) Altitude in tens of metres (ICAO only), expressed
as “M” followed by four figures (e.g. M0840); OR
(v) For uncontrolled VFR flights, the letters “VFR”
(ICAO only).
(c) Route (including changes of speed, level and/or flight rules)
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC3.15.6.1 Flights Along Designated Air Traffic
Service (ATS) Routes:
INSERT if the departure aerodrome is located on, or connected
to, the ATS route:
(a) the designator of the first ATS route (e.g. if the departure
aerodrome is Carp: T614 TUKIR, etc.); OR
(b) if the departure aerodrome is not located on, or connected to, the ATS route:
(i) (ICAO only) the letters “DCT”, followed by the
joining point of the first ATS route, followed by the
designator of the ATS route (e.g. if the departure
aerodrome is Ottawa: DCT IKLAX T634, etc.);
(ii) (Canadian only) the joining point of the first ATS route,
followed by the designator of the ATS route (e.g. if the departure aerodrome is Ottawa: YOW T616, etc.).
INSERT each point at which a change of speed or level is planned
to commence, or a change of ATS route, or a change of flight
rules is planned (e.g. AGLUK/N0200A170 IFR).
NOTE :
When a transition is planned between a lower and an upper ATS
route and the routes are oriented in the same direction, the point
of transition need not be inserted.
FOLLOWED IN EACH CASE BY
(a) the designator of the next ATS route segment, even if it is
the same as the previous one (e.g. if the departure aerodrome
is Québec: DICEN T680 LETAK T616, etc.); OR
(b) if the flight to the next point is outside a designated route:
(i) (ICAO only) the letters “DCT”, unless both points
are defined by geographical coordinates (e.g. if the
departure aerodrome is Québec: DCT YQB DCT
FLEUR DCT YYY, etc.);
(ii) (Canadian only) the next point (e.g. if the departure
aerodrome is Québec: YQB FLEUR YYY etc.). The
absence of “DCT” between points on a Canadian
flight plan or flight itinerary indicates direct flight.
3.15.6.2 Flights Outside Designated Air Traffic
Service (ATS) Routes:
ICAO :
INSERT points normally not more than 30 min flying time or 370 km (200 NM) apart, including each point at which a change of speed or level, a change of track, or a change of flight rules is planned; OR
When required by appropriate ATS authority(ies),
DEFINE the track of flights operating predominantly in an
east-west direction between 70°N and 70°S by reference to
significant points formed by the intersections of half or whole
degrees of latitude with meridians spaced at intervals of 10° of longitude. For flights operating in areas outside those latitudes, the tracks shall be defined by significant points formed by the
intersection of parallels of latitude with meridians normally spaced at 20° of longitude. The distance between significant
points shall, as far as possible, not exceed one hour’s flight time.
Additional significant points shall be established as deemed
necessary.
For flights operating predominantly in a north-south direction,
define tracks by reference to significant points formed by the
intersection of whole degrees of longitude with specified parallels
of latitude which are spaced at 5°.
INSERT “DCT” between successive points unless both points
are defined by geographical coordinates or by bearing
and distance.
Canadian:
INSERT points at which a change of speed or level, a change of track, or a change of flight rules is planned. Absence of “DCT” between points on a Canadian flight plan or itinerary indicates direct flight; OR
When required by appropriate ATS authority(ies),
Canadian and ICAO:
USE the conventions in (1) to (5), below, and SEPARATE each
sub-item by a space.
(a) ATS route (two to seven characters): The coded designator
assigned to the route or route segment including, where
appropriate, the coded designator assigned to the standard
departure or arrival route (e.g. BCN1, B1, R14, UB10,
KODAP2A).
NOTE :
Provisions for the application of route designators are contained
in ICAO Annex 11, Appendix 1.
(b) Significant point (two to eleven characters): The coded
designator (two to five characters) assigned to the point (e.g.
LN, MAY, HADDY), OR
If no coded designator has been assigned, one of the following
ways:
(i) Degrees only (seven characters): Two figures
describing latitude in degrees, followed by “N”
(North) or “S” (South), followed by three figures
describing longitude in degrees, followed by “E”
(East) or “W” (West). Make up the correct number
of figures, where necessary, by insertion of zeros,
e.g. 46N078W.
(ii) Degrees and minutes (11 characters): Four figures
describing latitude in degrees, and tens and units of
minutes followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South),
followed by five figures describing longitude in
degrees and tens and units of minutes, followed by
“E” (East) or “W” (West). Make up the correct
number of figures, where necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g. 4620N07805W.
(iii) Bearing and distance from a significant point: The
identification of the significant point followed by
the bearing from the point in the form of three figures
giving degrees magnetic followed by the distance
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACfrom the point in the form of three figures expressing
nautical miles. In areas of high latitude where it is
determined by the appropriate authority that
reference to degrees magnetic is impractical, degrees
true may be used. Make up the correct number of
figures, where necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g.
a point 180° magnetic at a distance of 40 NM from VOR “DUB” should be expressed as DUB180040.
(c) Change of speed or level (maximum 21 characters): The
point at which a change of speed (5 percent TAS or 0.01 Mach
or more) or a change of level is planned to commence,
expressed exactly as in (2), above, followed by an oblique
stroke and both the cruising speed and the cruising level, expressed exactly as in (a) and (b), above, without a space between them, even when only one of these quantities will be changed.
Examples:
LN/N0284A045
MAY/N0305F180HADDY/N0420F3304602N07805W/N0500F35046N078W/M082F330DUB180040/N0350M0840
(d) Change of flight rules (maximum three characters): The
point at which the change of flight rules is planned, expressed
exactly as in (2) or (3), above, as appropriate, followed by a
space and one of the following:
(i) VFR if from IFR to VFR
(ii) IFR if from VFR to IFR
Examples:
LN VFR
LN/N0284A050 IFR
(e) Cruise climb (maximum 28 characters): The letter “C”
followed by an oblique stroke; THEN the point at which
cruise climb is planned to start, expressed exactly as in (2),
above, followed by an oblique stroke; THEN the speed to
be maintained during cruise climb, expressed exactly as in
(a), above, followed by the two levels defining the layer to
be occupied during cruise climb, each level expressed exactly
as in (b), above, or the level above which cruise climb is
planned followed by the letters “PLUS”, without a space
between them.
Examples:
C/48N050W/M082F290F350
C/48N050W/M082F290PLUSC/52N050W/M220F580F620 3.15.7 Item 16: Destination Aerodrome, Total
Estimated Elapse Time (EET), Search And
Rescue (SAR) Time (for flights in Canada
only) and Destination Alternate
Aerodrome(s)
3.15.7.1 Destination Aerodrome and Total Estimated
Elapse Time (EET) (maxim um 10 characters )
ICAO:
INSERT the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the destination
aerodrome as specified in ICAO Doc 7910— Location Indicator s;
OR
Canadian:
INSERT the four-character location indicator of the destination
aerodrome; OR
NOTE :
In the case of a Canadian flight itinerary, as applicable, the EET
may also include the number of days. The total duration of the flight itinerary shall not exceed 30 days.
Canadian and ICAO:
If no location indicator has been assigned,
INSERT “ZZZZ” and specify in Item 18 the name and location
of the aerodrome, preceded by “DEST/”.
THEN, without a space, INSERT the total EET. NOTE :
For a flight plan received from an aircraft in flight, the total
EET is the estimated time from the first point of the route to
which the flight plan applies to the termination point of the
flight plan.
INSERT SAR time (four digits) (maximum of 24 hr)
3.15.7.2 Destination Alternate Aerodrome(s)
ICAO:
INSERT the ICAO four-letter location indicator(s) of not more than
two destination alternate aerodromes, as specified in ICAO Doc
7910— Location Indicators , separated by a space; OR
Canadian:
INSERT the four-character location indicator of not more than
two destination alternate aerodromes, separated by a space; OR
Canadian and ICAO:
If no location indicator has been assigned to the destination
alternate aerodrome(s),
INSERT “ZZZZ” and specify in Item 18 the name and location
of the destination alternate aerodrome(s), preceded by “ALTN/”.
NOTE S:
1. If departure alternate required insert ZZZZ for second
alternate aerodrome and SPECIFY in Item 18 the departure
alternate, i.e.: DEP ALTN/CYOW.
2. No alternate is required on a VFR flight plan or itinerary.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC3.15.8 Item 18: Other Information
NOTE :
Use of indicators not included under this item may result in data
being rejected, processed incorrectly or lost.
Hyphens or oblique strokes should only be used as prescribed below.
INSERT “0” (zero) if no other information; OR
Any other necessary information in the sequence shown
hereunder, in the form of the appropriate indicator selected from
those defined hereunder, followed by an oblique stroke and the
information to be recorded.
STS/ Reason for spe cial handling by ATS, e.g. a SAR
mission, as follows:
ALTRV: for a flight oper ated in accordance with an
altitude reservation;
ATFMX: for a flight app roved for exemption from ATFM
measures by the appropriate ATS authority;
FFR: for fire-fi ghting;
FLTCK: for a flight check for calibration of NAVAIDs;
HAZMAT: for a flight carrying hazardous material;
HEAD: for a flight with Head of State status;
HOSP: for a medical flight declared by medical authorities;
HUM: for a flight oper ating on a humanitarian mission;
MARSA: for a flight for w hich a military entity assumes
responsibility for separation of military aircraft;
MEDEVAC: for a life cr itical medical emergency evacuation;
NONRVSM: for a non-RVSM c apable flight intending to operate
in RVSM airspace;
SAR: for a flight engag ed in a search and rescue mission;
and
STATE: for a flight engag ed in military, customs or
police services.
Other reasons for special handling by ATS shall be denoted
under the designator “RMK/.”
PBN/ Indication o f RNAV and/or RNP capabilities:
Include as many of the descriptors below as possible
that apply to the flight, up to a maximum of eight entries, i.e. no more than 16 characters.Table 3.10—RNAV Specifications to Be Indicated
in Flight Plan Item 18: Other Information
A1 RNAV 10 (RNP 10)
B1 RNAV 5 all permitted sensors
B2 RNAV 5 GNSS
B3 RNAV 5 DME/DME
B4 RNAV 5 VOR/DME
B5 RNAV 5 INS or IRS
B6 RNAV 5 LORAN C
C1 RNAV 2 all permitted sensors
C2 RNAV 2 GNSS
C3 RNAV 2 DME/DME
C4 RNAV 2 DME/DME/IRU
D1 RNAV 1 all permitted sensors
D2 RNAV 1 GNSS
D3 RNAV 1 DME/DME
D4 RNAV 1 DME/DME/IRU
Table 3.11—RNP Specifications to Be Indicated
in Flight Plan Item 18: Other Information
L1 RNP 4
O1 Basic RNP 1 all permitted sensors
O2 Basic RNP 1 GNSS
O3 Basic RNP 1 DME/DME
O4 Basic RNP 1 DME/DME/IRU
S1 RNP APCH
S2 RNP APCH with baro -VNAV
T1 RNP AR APCH with RF (special authorization
required)
T2 RNP AR APCH without RF (special
authorization required)
Combinations of alphanumeric characters not indicated above are reserved.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACICAO has not yet allocated a two-digit alphanumeric character
to describe RNP 2 under the PBN/ indicator. For an RNP 2
capable flight, enter a Z in item 10 and spell out “RNP2” after
NAV/ in item 18: NAV/RNP2.
NAV/ Significa nt data related to navigation equipment
other than that specified in PBN/, as required by
the appropriate ATS authority. Indicate GNSS
augmentation under this indicator, with a space
between two or more methods of augmentation,
e.g. NAV/GBAS SBAS.
COM/ Indicate com munications applications or
capabilities not specified in Item 10(a).
DAT/ Indicate dat a applications or capabilities not
specified in 10(a).
SUR/ Include sur veillance applications or
capabilities not specified in Item 10(b),
e.g., SUR/CANMANDATE (see section 3.15.4.2
of the RAC chapter).
DEP/ Name and loca tion of departure aerodrome, if
“ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 13, or the ATS unit
from which supplementary flight plan data can
be obtained, if “AFIL” (airfile) is inserted in Item 13.
For aerodromes not listed in the relevant AIP,
indicate location as follows:
(a) With four figures describing latitude in degrees and tens
and units of minutes followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South),
followed by five figures describing longitude in degrees and
tens and units of minutes, followed by “E” (East) or “W”
(West). Make up the correct number of figures, where necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g. 4620N07805W
(11 characters); OR
(b) Bearing and distance from the nearest significant point,
as follows:
(i) The identification of the significant point followed by the bearing from the point in the form of three
figures giving degrees magnetic, followed by the
distance from the point in the form of three figures expressing nautical miles. In areas of high latitude where it is determined by the appropriate authority
that reference to degrees magnetic is impractical,
degrees true may be used. Make up the correct
number of figures, where necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g. a point of 180° magnetic at a distance of
40 NM from VOR “DUB” should be expressed as
DUB180040; OR
(ii) The first point of the route (name or LAT/LONG)
or the marker radio beacon, if the aircraft has not
taken off from an aerodrome.
DEST/ Name and loca tion of the destination aerodrome,
if “ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 16. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant AIP, indicate location in
LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as described under
DEP/, above.DOF/ The date of fli ght departure in a six-figure format
(YYMMDD, where YY equals the year, MM equals
the month and DD equals the day).
REG/ The natio nality or common mark and registration
mark of the aircraft, if different from the aircraft identification in Item 7.
EET/ Significa nt points or FIR boundary designators and
accumulated EETs from takeoff to such points or
FIR boundaries, when so prescribed on the basis of
regional air navigation agreements, or by the
appropriate ATS authority.
Examples:
EET/CAP0745 XYZ0830/
EET/EINN0204
SEL/ SELCAL Cod e, for aircraft so equipped.
TYP/ Type(s) of ai rcraft, preceded if necessary without
a space by number(s) of aircraft and separated by
one space, if “ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 9.
Example:
TYP/2F15 5F5 3B2
DLE/ En-route de lay or holding, insert the significant
point(s) on the route where a delay is planned to occur, followed by the length of delay using four-figure time in hours and minutes (hhmm).
Example:
DLE/MDG0030
OPR/ ICAO design ator or name of the aircraft operating
agency, if different from the aircraft identification in Item 7.
ORGN/ The origina tor’s eight-letter AFTN address or other
appropriate contact details, in cases where the
originator of the flight plan may not be readily
identified, as required by the appropriate ATS
authority.
NOTE :
In some areas, flight plan reception centres may insert the
“ORGN/” identifier and originator’s AFTN address automatically.
PER/ Aircraft p erformance data, indicated by a single
letter as specified in the P rocedures for Air
Navigation Services—Aircraft Operations (PANS-
OPS, ICAO Doc 8168), Volume I — Flight
Procedures , if so prescribed by the appropriate
ATS authority.
ALTN/ Name of desti nation alternate aerodrome(s), if
“ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 16. For aerodromes not
listed in the relevant AIP, indicate location in LAT/
LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as described in DEP/, above.
RALT/ ICAO four-l etter indicator(s) for en-route alternate(s),
as specified in ICAO Doc 7910— Location Indicators ,
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACor name(s) of en-route alternate aerodrome(s), if no
indicator is allocated. For aerodromes not listed in
the relevant AIP, indicate location in LAT/LONG or
bearing and distance from the nearest significant
point, as described in DEP/, above.
TALT/ ICAO four-l etter indicator(s) for takeoff alternate,
as specified in ICAO Doc 7910— Location Indicators ,
or name of takeoff alternate aerodrome, if no
indicator is allocated. For aerodromes not listed in
the relevant AIP, indicate location in LAT/LONG
or bearing and distance from the nearest significant
point, as described in DEP/, above.
RIF/ The route det ails to the revised destination
aerodrome, following by the ICAO four-letter
location indicator of the aerodrome. The revised
route is subject to reclearance in flight.
Examples:
RIF/DTA HEC KLAX
RIF/ESP G94 CLA YPPH
RMK/ Any other plai n-language remarks when required
by the appropriate ATS authority or deemed
necessary, e.g. TCAS- equipped—ICAO only.
3.15.9 Item 19: Supplementary Information
3.15.9.1 Endurance
AFTER “E/”
INSERT a four-figure group giving the fuel endurance in hours
and minutes.
3.15.9.2 Persons On Board
AFTER “P/”
INSERT the total number of persons (passengers and crew) on
board, when required by the appropriate ATS authority. INSERT
“TBN” (to be notified) if the total number of persons is not
known at the time of filing.
3.15.9.3 Emergency and Survival Equipment
R/(RADIO) CROSS OUT indicator “U” if UHF on frequency 243.0 MHz is
not available. CROSS OUT indicator “V” if VHF on frequency
121.5 MHz is not available. CROSS OUT indicator “E” if an ELT
is not available. Canadian use only: ELT categories should be
entered in the “ELT TYPE” box on the flight plan and flight
itinerary forms.
S/(SURVIV AL EQUIPMENT) CROSS OUT all indicators if survival equipment is not carried.
CROSS OUT indicator “P” if polar survival equipment is not
carried. CROSS OUT indicator “D” if desert survival equipment
is not carried. CROSS OUT indicator “M” if maritime survival
equipment is not carried. CROSS OUT indicator “J” if jungle
survival equipment is not carried. J/(JACKETS) CROSS OUT all indicators if life jackets are not carried. CROSS
OUT indicator “L” if life jackets are not equipped with lights.
CROSS OUT indicator “F” if life jackets are not equipped with
fluorescein. CROSS OUT indicator “U” or “V” or both (as in R/, above) to indicate radio capability of jackets, if any.
D/(DINGHIES) (NUMBER) CROSS OUT indicators “D” and “C” if no dinghies are carried,
or INSERT number of dinghies carried; and
(CAPACITY) INSERT total capacity, in persons, of all dinghies carried; and (COVER) CROSS OUT indicator “C” if dinghies are not covered; and (COLOUR) INSERT colour of dinghies, if carried. A/(AIRCRAFT COLOUR AND MARKINGS) INSERT colour of aircraft and significant markings. Canadian
use only: Tick appropriate box for wheels, skis, etc.
N/(REMARKS)
CROSS OUT indicator “N” if no remarks, or INDICATE any
other survival equipment carried and any other remarks regarding
survival equipment. INDICATE if aircraft is equipped with a
ballistic parachute system.
ARRIV AL REPORT Canadian use only: Fill in the required information. AIRCRAFT
Canadian use only: Indicate the aircraft owner, person(s) or
company to be notified if SAR action is initiated. C/(PILOT) INSERT name of pilot-in-command. Canadian use only: INSERT pilot’s licence number.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACFigure 3.1—Composite IFR/VFR/IFR Flight Itinerary
Explanation of Figure 3.1—Compo site IFR/VFR/IFR
Flight Itinerary
Item 7:
Aircraft identification
Item 8:
“Y” indicates that the flight will be initially operated under the
IFR, followed by one or more subsequent changes of flight rules.
“F” indicates that it is a flight itinerary.
Item 9:
Aircraft is a Beechcraft 100.
Item 10:
“S” indicates standard COM/NAV equipment of VHF, RTF,
VOR and ILS.
“D” indicates DME equipped.
“/C” indicates transponder Mode A (four digits—4096 codes)
and Mode C.
Item 13:
Departure aerodrome is Saskatoon at 0900 UTC.Item 15:
Speed is 170 kt. Altitude is 5 000 ft. Route is V306 to the Lumsden VOR. “VFR” indicates a change in flight rules to VFR at Lumsden.
“JQ3” indicates direct flight from Lumsden to the aerodrome
at Carlyle. “(5200)” indicates a stopover at Carlyle in hours and minutes. Second “JQ3” indicates there will be a stopover at Carlyle. “VLN” indicates direct flight from Carlyle to the Lumsden VOR. “N0170A060IFR” indicates that the altitude is changed to 6 000
ft and the next leg will be IFR (although the speed did not change;
if there is a change to either speed or altitude, both have to be
indicated).
Route is V306 from Lumsden to the Saskatoon VOR.
Item 16:
Destination aerodrome is Saskatoon. EET from takeoff to landing at Saskatoon is 2 days and 6 hours
(this includes the flight time and the stopover time at Carlyle).
SAR time of 6 hours indicates the pilot’s desire to have SAR
action initiated at 6 hours after the total EET of the trip; in other
words, 2 days and 12 hours after takeoff from Saskatoon (if there
is no entry in this block the SAR activation time would be 24
hours after the EET).
Alternate aerodrome is Prince Albert.
Item 18:
Although no other information is provided in this example, this
section is for listing any other information as previously described.
Item 19:
Flying time endurance is 5 hr. There are two people in the aircraft
(including crew).
“X” over “U” indicates there is no UHF emergency radio. Unaltered “V” indicates there is VHF emergency radio.
Unaltered “E” under ELT indicates there is an emergency locator
transmitter. “AP” under ELT TYPE indicates an automatic portable ELT.
Unaltered “P” under POLAR indicates polar equipment is carried.
Unaltered “J” and “L” indicates that life jackets with lights are
carried.
“Xs” on “D” and “C” indicate there are no dinghies. Aircraft colour and markings are self explanatory.
“X” on “N” indicates there are no additional remarks on survival
gear. Example indicates closure with Saskatoon tower. Contact name and number is self explanatory. Pilot’s licence number assists SAR specialists in their search.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACFigure 3.2—IFR Flight Plan (ICAO)
PRIORITY / PRIORIT… ADDRESSEE(S) / DESTINATAIRE(S)
WAKE TURBULENCE CAT.
CAT. DE TURBULENCE DE SILLAGE TYPE OF AIRCRAFT / TYPE D'A…RONEF
SPACE RESERVED FOR ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS / ESPACE R…SERV… ¿ DES FINS SUPPL…MENTAIRES FILED BY/ D…POS… PARSPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRESSEE(S) AND/OR ORIGINATOR / IDENTIFICATION PR…CISE DU(DES) DESTINATAIRE(S) ET/OU DE L'EXP…DITEUR
ALTITUDE/ LEVEL / NIVEAU
HRS. MINS. HRS. MINS.TOTAL EET / DUR…E TOTALE ESTIM…EFF
(FPL3 7 8FILING TIME / HEURE DE D…P‘T ORIGINATOR / EXP…DITEUR
MESSAGE TYPE
TYPE DE MESSAGEAIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATIONIDENTIFICATION DE L'A…RONEFFLIGHT RULESR»GLES DE VOLTYPE OF FLIGHTTYPE DE VOL3 7 8
18DESTINATION AERODROMEA…RODROME DE DESTINATION
DAYS/JOURSALTN AERODROME
A…RODROME DE D…GAGEMENT2ND. ALTN. AERODROME
2»ME AERODROME DE D…GAGEMENT16
OTHER INFORMATION / RENSEIGNEMENTS DIVERS 18EQUIPMENT / …QUIPEMENT 10
TIME / HEURE DEPARTURE AERODROME / A…RODROME DE D…PARTNUMBER / NOMBRE9
CRUISING SPEEDVITESSE DE CROISI»RE ROUTE / ROUTE 13
15CANADIAN FLIGHT PLAN / ITINERARY
PLAN DE VOL / ITIN…RAIRE DE VOL CANADIENICAO FLIGHT PLAN
PLAN DE VOL OACI
SAR
LIGHT
LAMPESFLUORESFLUORESJACKETS / GILETS DE SAUVETAGEHR. MINPERSONS ON BOARD / PERSONNES ¿ BORD
CUHF VHF ELT TYPE ELT
VHF
PILOT -IN-COMMAND / PILOTE COMMANDANT DE BORD PILOT'S LICENCE No./No DE LICENCE DU PILOTENUMBER
NOMBRECAPACITY
CAPACIT…COVER
COUVERTURECOLOUR
COULEURPOLAR
POLAIREDESERT
D…SERTMARITIMEMARITIMEJUNGLEJUNGLE
DINGHIES / CANOTSSURVIVAL EQUIPMENT / …QUIPEMENT DE SURVIEEMERGENCY RADIO / RADIO DE SECOURS
)R P E19 ENDURANCE / AUTONOMIE
HR. MIN19
S P D M J J L F U VU V E
CUHF
D
A
REMARKS / REMARQUESAIRCRAFT COLOUR AND MARKINGS / COULEUR ET MARQUES DE L'A…RONEFWHEELS
ROUESSEAPLANE
HYDRAVIONAMPHIBIAN
AMPHIBIESKIS
N
AN ARRIVAL REPORT WILL BE FILED WITH - UN COMPTE RENDU D'ARRIV…E SERA NOTIFI… ¿:
NAME AND PHONE NUMBER OR ADDRESS OF PERSON(S) OR COMPANY TO BE NOTIFIED IF SEARCH AND RESCURE ACTION INITIATED
NOM ET NUM…RO DE T…L…PHONE OU ADRESSE DE LA (DES) PERSONNE(S) OU COMPAGNIE ¿ AVISER SI DES R…CHERCHES SONT ENTREPRISES)
Figure 3.3—VFR Flight Plan4.0 AIRPORT OPERATIONS
4.1 GENERAL
Pilots must be particularly alert when operating in the vicinity
of an airport. Increased traffic congestion, aircraft in climb and
descent attitudes, and pilots preoccupied with cockpit duties are
some of the factors that increase the accident potential near
airports. The situation is further compounded when the weather
only just meets VFR requirements.
Several operators have, for some time, been using their landing
lights when flying at lower altitudes and within terminal areas,
both during daylight hours and at night. Pilot comment has
confirmed that the use of landing lights greatly increases the
probability of the aircraft being seen. An important side benefit for improved safety is that birds appear to see aircraft showing
lights in time to take avoiding action. In view of this, it is
recommended that, when so equipped, all aircraft use landing
lights during the take off and landing p hases and when flying
below 2 000 ft AGL within terminal areas and aerodrome traffic
patterns.
ATC towers equipped with ATS surveillance have the capability
of providing an increased level of service to the aviation
community. The class of airspace determines the controller’s
responsibilities vis-à-vis separation between IFR and VFR
aircraft, and between VFR and VFR aircraft. Control staff in
certain towers will be able to assist aircraft in establishing visual
separation through the provision of vectors, ATS surveillance
monitoring and altitude assignments. Use of the surveillance
will also result in more efficient control of VFR aircraft.
While aircraft shall not be operated at speeds greater than
200 KIAS below 3 000 ft AGL and within 10 NM of a controlled
aerodrome (CAR 602.32), there is no mandatory speed restriction
when operating in the vicinity of an uncontrolled aerodrome. As traffic levels at some of these aerodromes may be high from time to time, the risk of a possible mid-air collision is somewhat
elevated during these periods. For this reason, it is recommended
that pilots reduce their aircraft speed to the maximum extent
possible when operating below 3 000 ft AGL and within 10 NM of an uncontrolled aerodrome.
Incidents have occurred when aircraft are being operated VFR
within control zones, when the flight visibility is less than
three miles due to local smoke, haze, rain, snow, fog or other
condition. CAR 602.114 requires a minimum of three miles
ground visibility for VFR flight within a control zone. This
visibility is, of course, taken by a person on the ground and does
not preclude the possibility that the visibility aloft may be less.
Good airmanship requires that a pilot encountering less than
three miles flight visibility within a control zone will either:
(a) take action to avoid the area of reduced visibility; or
(b) remain clear of the area of reduced visibility and request a special VFR clearance from ATC.
Pilots shall maintain a listening watch on the appropriate tower frequency while under control of the tower. Whenever possible, requests for radio checks and taxi instructions should be made
on the appropriate ground control frequency. After establishing
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACinitial contact with the control tower, pilots will be advised of
any frequency changes required.
4.1.1 Wake Turbulence
Wake turbulence has its greatest impact on departure and arrival
procedures; however, pilots should not assume that it will only be encountered in the vicinity of aerodromes. Caution should
be exercised whenever a flight is conducted anywhere behind
and at less than 1 000 ft below a large aircraft.
Vectoring
Controllers apply the following wake turbulence ATS surveillance
separation minima between a preceding IFR/VFR aircraft and an aircraft vectored directly behind it and at less than 1 000 ft during any phase of flight.
Categories, weight limits, aircraft examples and separation criteria
are indicated in the table below.
Table 4.1—Separation per Aircraft Category for Wake Turbulence Purposes
Category Limits Examples Separation (NM)
SUPER HEAVY (S) This category currently
only applies to Airbus A380 aircraft with a maximum takeoff mass of 560 000 kg.A380-800 Super Heavy behind a Super Heavy - 4 mi.
HEAVY (H) Aircraft types weighing less than 560 000 kg but more than 136 000 kg B747/B777/B767
A340A330/MD11Heavy behind a Super Heavy - 6 mi. Heavy behind a Heavy - 4 mi.
MEDIUM (M) Aircraft types weighing less than 136 000 kg but more than 7 000 kgB757/B737/A320 ERJ145/TU154Medium behind a Super Heavy - 7 mi. Medium behind a Heavy - 5 mi.
LIGHT (L) Aircraft types weighing 7 000 kg or lessC150/C152 C172/C182/PA38/PA2Light behind a Super Heavy - 8 mi.
Light behind a Heavy -
6 mi.
Light behind a Medium -
4 mi.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACNon-Surveillance Departures
Controllers will apply a two-minute separation interval to any
aircraft that takes off into the wake of a known heavy aircraft if:
(a) the aircraft concerned commences the takeoff from the
threshold of the same runway; or
(b) any following aircraft departs from the threshold of a parallel
runway that is located less than 2 500 ft away from the
runway used by the preceding heavy aircraft.
NOTE :
ATC does not apply this two-minute spacing interval between a
light following a medium aircraft in the above circumstances, but
will issue wake turbulence advisories to light aircraft. Controller s
will apply a three-minute separation interval to any aircraft that
takes off into the wake of a known heavy aircraft, or a light aircraft
that takes off into the wake of a known medium aircraft if:
(a) the following aircraft starts its takeoff roll from an
intersection or from a point further along the runway than the preceding aircraft; or
(b) the controller has reason to believe that the following aircraft
will require more runway length for takeoff than the
preceding aircraft.
ATC will also apply separation intervals of up to three minutes
when the projected flight paths of any following aircraft will
cross that of a preceding heavy aircraft.
In spite of these measures, ATC cannot guarantee that wake
turbulence will not be encountered.
Pilot Waivers
ATC tower controllers are required to advise pilots whenever a
requested take-off clearance is denied solely because of wake
turbulence requirements. The intention of this advisory is to
make pilots aware of the reason for the clearance denial so that
they may consider waiving the wake turbulence requirement.
To aid in the pilot’s decision, the tower controller will advise the type and position of the wake-creating aircraft. The following
phraseologies will be used by the controller in response to a
request for take-off clearance when wake turbulence is a
consideration:
Tower: NEGATIVE, HOLD SHORT WAKE TURBULENCE.
HEAVY BOEING 747, ROTATING AT 6 000 FT ; or
Tower: LINE UP AND WAIT, WAKE TURBULENCE, HEAVY
DC10 AIRBORNE AT 2 MI .
Pilots are reminded that there are some circumstances where
wake turbulence separation cannot be waived. There may be departure situations, such as with a steady crosswind
component, where the full wake turbulence separation minima
is not required. The pilot is in the best position to make an
assessment of the need for wake turbulence separation. Although
controllers are not permitted to initiate waivers to wake turbulence
separation minima, they will issue takeoff clearance to pilots
who have waived wake turbulence requirements on their own initiative, with the following exceptions:
(a) a light or medium aircraft taking off behind a heavy aircraft
and takeoff is started from an intersection or a point
significantly further along the runway, in the direction of takeoff; or
(b) a light or medium aircraft departing after a heavy aircraft takes off or makes a low or missed approach in the opposite direction on the same runway; or
(c) a light or medium aircraft departing after a heavy aircraft makes a low or missed approach in the same direction on the same runway.
A pilot-initiated waiver for a VFR departure indicates to the
controller that the pilot accepts responsibility for wake turbulence
separation. The controller will still issue a wake turbulence
cautionary with the takeoff clearance. Controllers are responsible
for ensuring wake turbulence minima are met for IFR departures.
More information on wake turbulence can be found in the
AIR section of this manual.
4.1.2 Noise Abatement
Pilots and operators must conform to the applicable provisions
of CAR 602.105— Noise Operating Criteria , and CAR 602.106—
Noise Restricted Runways (see RAC Annex) and the applicable noise abatement procedures published in the CAP.
Noise operating restrictions may be applied at any aerodrome
where there is an identified requirement. When applied at an
aerodrome, the procedures and restrictions will be set out in the
CFS, and shall include procedures and requirements relating to:
(a) preferential runways;
(b) minimum noise routes;
(c) hours when aircraft operations are prohibited or restricted;
(d) arrival procedures;
(e) departure procedures;
(f) duration of flights;
(g) the prohibition or restriction of training flights;
(h) VFR or visual approaches;
(i) simulated approach procedures; and
(j) the minimum altitude for the operation of aircraft in the
vicinity of the aerodrome.
Transport Canada recognizes the need for analysis and
consultation in the implementation of proposed new or amended
noise abatement procedures or restrictions at airports and
aerodromes. A process has been developed that includes
consultation with all concerned parties before new or amended noise abatement procedures or restrictions can be published in
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACthe CAP or the CFS. When the following checklist has been
completed for the proposed noise abatement procedures or
restrictions, and the resulting analysis has been completed and
approved by Transport Canada, the noise abatement procedure or restriction will be published in the appropriate aeronautical publication.
(a) Description of the problem
(b) Proposed solution (including possible exceptions)
(c) Alternatives (such as alternative procedures or land uses in the community)
(d) Costs (such as revenue impact, direct and indirect costs to the community, airport operator and airport users)
(e) Noise impacts of the proposed solution
(f) Effects on aircraft emissions
(g) Effect on current and future airport capacity
(h) Implications of not proceeding with the proposal
(i) Implementation issues (e.g. aircraft technology, availability
of replacement aircraft, ground facilities)
(j) Impact on the aviation system
(k) Safety implications
(l) Air traffic management
(m) Fleet impact
A complete description of the process involved is available on
the Internet at: <https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/reference-
centre/advisory-circulars/advisory-circular-ac-no-302-002 >
4.1.3 Preferential Runway Assignments
At controlled airports, when selecting preferential runways for
noise abatement or for other reasons, air traffic controllers
consider the runway condition, the effective crosswind component
and the effective tailwind component.
The maximum effective crosswind component considered in
determining runway selection is 25 kt for arrivals and departures
on DRY runways, and 15 kt on WET runways. The maximum effective tailwind component is 5 kt.
During consultation between NAV CANADA, aviation
stakeholders and Transport Canada, it was decided that operations
on the preferential runway should be allowed to continue when more than 25 percent of the runway is contaminated, provided:
(a) The contamination is only TRACE depth.
(b) The maximum crosswind component does not exceed 15 kt.
(c) The CRFI reported by the airport operator for all segments of the preferential runway is greater than 0.40.
(d) There are no braking action reports received from pilots
that are less than “good.”
If these conditions are not met, the runway most nearly aligned into the wind must be selected.Although air traffic controllers may select a preferential runway
in accordance with the foregoing criteria, pilots are not obligated
to accept the runway for taking off or landing. It remains the
pilot’s responsibility to decide if the assigned runway is
operationally acceptable.
4.1.4 Runway Protected Area
Runway protected area procedures aim to ensure the runway
protected area will be free of objects, which will provide a safe
environment during aircraft operations in the event of a runway
excursion, arrival undershoot, or departure overrun by an
aircraft.
ATC and FSS will hold vehicles and pedestrians and ATC will
hold taxiing aircraft at published holding positions or at least
200 ft from the runway edge until an aircraft taking off or landing
has passed the holding traffic.
The airport operator may designate an alternate holding position
at a distance from the runway edge that ensures no hazard is
created for arriving or departing aircraft. The airport operator
may also permit pedestrians to operate within the runway
protected area when an aircraft is taking off or landing.
Controlled Airports
ATC will not clear an aircraft to take off or land if a holding
position is transgressed. If a holding position is transgressed
after a takeoff or landing clearance has been issued, ATC will
cancel the clearance, unless doing so would create a hazardous situation for the aircraft.
Uncontrolled Airports
FSS will inform pilots of aircraft taking off or landing of runway
protected area transgressions and seek the pilots’ intentions.
4.2 DEPARTURE PROCEDURES —
CONTROLLED AIRPORTS
The following departure procedures are based on those applicable
for an aerodrome that have all available services, and are listed in the order that they would be used. At smaller, less equipped airports, some services will be combined, e.g. the IFR clearance
would be obtained from ground control where there is no separate
clearance delivery frequency. Procedures solely applicable to
IFR flight are briefly introduced here to establish their sequence.
An elaboration thereof may be found in RAC 7.0, Instrument
Flight Rules –Departure Procedures.
4.2.1 Automatic Terminal Information
Service (ATIS) Broadcasts
If ATIS is available, a pilot should obtain the ATIS information
prior to contacting either the ground control or tower. See RAC 1.3
for information on ATIS broadcasts.
4.2.2 Clearance Delivery
At locations where a “clearance delivery” frequency is listed, IFR
departures should call on this frequency, prior to requesting
taxi authorization, normally no more than 5 minutes prior to
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACengine start. Where a clearance delivery frequency is not listed,
the IFR clearance will normally be given after taxi authorization
has been received. At several major aerodromes, departing VFR
aircraft are required to contact “clearance delivery” before taxiing.
These frequencies, where applicable, are found in the COMM
Section of the CFS, for the appropriate aerodrome.
4.2.3 Radio Checks
If required, radio checks should, wherever possible, be requested
on frequencies other than ATC frequencies. Normally, the
establishment of two-way contact with an agency is sufficient
to confirm that the radios are functioning properly.
4.2.4 Requests for Push-back or Power-back
Since controllers may not be in a position to see all obstructions
an aircraft may encounter during push-back or power-back,
clearance for this manoeuvre will not be issued by the tower.
Pilots are cautioned that it is their responsibility to ensure that
push-back or power-back can be accomplished safely prior to
initiating aircraft movement.
4.2.5 Taxi Information
Taxi authorization should be requested on the ground control
frequency. At locations where a “Clearance Delivery” frequency
is listed, pilots should obtain their IFR clearance or a VFR code
where applicable on this frequency prior to contacting ground control. Where no “Clearance Delivery” frequency is listed, the
IFR clearance will normally be relayed by ground control before
or after taxi authorization has been issued. If no flight plan has
been filed, the pilot should inform the tower “Clearance Delivery”,
where available, or ground control of the nature of the flight on
initial contact, such as “local VFR” or “proceeding VFR to
(destination)”.
Pilot: WINNIPEG GROUND, AZTEC GOLF JULIETT
VICTOR HOTEL AT HANGAR NUMBER THREE,
REQUEST TAXI–IFR EDMONTON EIGHT
THOUSAND.
Ground control: AZTEC GOLF JULIETT VICTOR HOTEL,
WINNIPEG GROUND, RUNWAY
(number), WIND (in magnetic degrees
and knots), ALTIMETER (four ‑digit grou p
giving the altimeter in inches of mercury), TAXI VIA (runway or other specific point, route), (other information, such as traffic, airport conditions), (CRFI, RSC, or RVR
when applicable), CLEARANCE ON
REQUEST.
Pilot: GOLF JULIETT VICTOR HOTEL.
Under no circumstances may a taxiing aircraft, whether
proceeding to or from the active runway, taxi onto an active
runway unless specifically authorized to do so.
Upon receipt of a normal taxi authorization, a pilot is expected
to proceed to the taxi-holding position for the runway assigned
for takeoff. If a pilot is required to cross any runway while taxiing towards the departure runway, the ground or airport controller
will issue a specific instruction to cross or hold short. If a specific
authorization to cross was not received, pilots should hold short
and request authorization to cross the runway. Pilots may be
instructed to monitor the tower frequency while taxiing or until
a specific point, or they may be advised to “contact tower holding
short.” The term “holding short,” when used during the
communications transfer, is considered as a location and does not require a readback.
In an effort to increase aviation safety by protecting active
runways and reducing runway incursions, ATS personnel will
request a readback for all HOLD and HOLD SHORT instructions
or requests that have not been read back. Pilots are requested to
acknowledge and read back such instructions or requests to
confirm their intentions with ATS personnel.
Examples of HOLD and HOLD SHORT instructions or requests
that should be read back:
HOLD SHORT (runway or taxiway)
HOLD (hold instructions)REQUEST YOU HOLD SHORT (runway or taxiway)REQUEST YOU HOLD (hold instructions)
Hold instructions or requests may pertain to a position on a
maneuvering area, a direction and point related to a runway or
taxiway, or a specific position on a runway or taxiway.
Reminder: In order to reduce frequency congestion, readback
of ATC taxi instructions, other than those listed above, is not
required in accordance with CAR 602.31(1) (a); such instructions
are simply acknowledged. With the increased simultaneous use of more than one runway, however, instructions to enter, cross,
backtrack or line up on any runway should also, as a good
operating practice, be acknowledged by a readback.
Example:
An aircraft is authorized to backtrack a runway to the holding
bay and to report clear when in the holding bay.
Pilot: CHARLIE FOXTROT ALFA BACKTRACKING
RUNWAY TWO FIVE AND WILL REPORT IN
THE HOLDING BAY.
NOTE :
To avoid causing clutter on controllers’ situation displays, pilots should adjust their transponders to “STANDBY” while taxiing
and should not switch them to “ON” (or “NORMAL”) until
immediately before takeoff.
The tower may instruct aircraft to “line up and wait.” Controllers
will issue the name of the runway intersection or taxiway with the authorization if the line-up position is not at the threshold of the departing runway. When more than one entry point for
the same runway is in use, ATC will also specify the runway
entry point with the instruction to line up at the threshold.
4.2.5.1 Oblique Angle Intersection Use
To mitigate the risk of runway incursions, tower controllers will not permit aircraft to use oblique angle intersections (including
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACtaxiways or intersecting runways) to access an active runway if
the departure threshold and final approach are not visible to the
flight crew, except under the following circumstances:
(a) There are no other routes to access the runway without
having to taxi or backtrack onto an active runway; or
(b) There is a non-routine situation that requires the use of
oblique angle intersections because no practical alternative
exists. This may include a MEDEVAC flight, a closed taxiway,
a disabled aircraft, or disabled vehicles.
4.2.5.2 Best Practices for Pilots
A collaborative approach by the aviation industry will help
mitigate the risk of collisions from runway incursions.
At uncontrolled aerodromes, pilots are encouraged to avoid
using oblique angle intersections that limit their ability to see
the active runway threshold and final approach. At controlled
aerodromes, pilots are encouraged to avoid requesting to use
oblique angle intersections, except when such use can be permitted
by tower controllers.
4.2.6 Taxi Holding Positions
Authorization must be obtained before leaving a taxi holding
position, or where a holding position marking is not visible or
has not been established, before proceeding closer than 200 feet from the edge of the runway in use. At airports where it is not
possible to comply with this provision, taxiing aircraft are to
remain at a sufficient distance from the runway in use to ensure that a hazard is not created to arriving or departing aircraft.
4.2.7 Taxiway Holding Positions During
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Operations
It is imperative that aircraft do not proceed beyond taxiway
holding signs at controlled airports until cleared by ATC. Aircraft
proceeding beyond the taxiway holding position signs may enter
electronically sensitive areas and cause dangerous interference
to the glide path or localizer signals. In Canada, holding position
signs and holding position markings normally indicate the
boundaries of electronically sensitive areas, and provide safe
obstruction clearance distances from landing runways.
When a controlled airport is operating under CAT II/III weather
conditions, or its CAT II/III operations plan is in effect, pilots are to observe CAT II or III mandatory holding position signs.
When a controlled airport is not operating under CAT II/III
weather conditions, or its LVOP is not in effect, pilots need not
abide by the CAT II or III taxiway holding positions and are
expected to taxi to the normal taxiway holding position markings,
unless advised otherwise by ATC.
At uncontrolled aerodromes, pilots awaiting takeoff should not
proceed beyond the holding position signs or holding position markings until there is no risk of collision with landing, taxiing or departing aircraft. 4.2.7.1 Glide Path Signal Protection Procedures
The ILS signal will only be protected under the conditions
described below.
A controller will protect the glide path signal when:
(a) The ceiling is less than 1 000 ft or visibility is less than
three miles, or both; and
(b) The arriving aircraft is inside the FAF on an ILS approach.
NOTE :
At uncontrolled aerodromes, aircraft manoeuvring on the ground
may enter ILS critical areas during taxi, takeoff or landing.
4.2.8 Take-off Clearance
When ready for takeoff, the pilot shall request a take-off clearance
and should include the runway number. Upon receipt of the
take-off clearance, the pilot shall acknowledge it and take off
without delay, or inform ATC if unable to do so. Example:
Pilot: TOWER, JULIETT GOLF TANGO READY FOR
DEPARTURE, RUNWAY THREE SIX.
Tower: JULIETT GOLF TANGO, (any special information
such as hazards, obstructions, turn after takeoff,
wind information if required, etc.), CLEARED FOR
TAKEOFF RUNWAY THREE SIX (or JULIETT
GOLF TANGO, FROM GOLF, CLEARED FOR
TAKEOFF RUNWAY THREE SIX).
Pilot: JULIETT GOLF TANGO.
Pilots may request to use the full length of the runway for takeoff
at any time. If the runway is to be entered at an intersection and
back tracking is required, pilots should indicate their intentions
and obtain a clearance for the manoeuvre before entering the
runway.
Pilots may request, or the controller may suggest, takeoff using
only part of a runway. The pilot’s request will be approved,
provided noise abatement procedures, traffic, and other conditions
permit. If suggested by the controller, the available length of the
runway will be stated. It is the pilot’s responsibility to ensure
that the portion of the runway to be used will be adequate for
the take-off run.
To expedite movement of airport traffic and achieve spacing
between arriving and departing aircraft, take-off clearance may
include the word “immediate.” In such cases, “immediate” is
used for the purpose of air traffic separation. On acceptance of the clearance, the aircraft shall taxi onto the runway and take
off in one continuous movement. If, in the pilot’s opinion,
compliance would adversely affect their operations, the pilot
should refuse the clearance. Pilots planning a static takeoff (i.e. a full stop after “lined up” on the runway), or a delay in takeoff,
should indicate this when requesting take-off clearance. ATC
will specify the name of the taxiway or intersection with the
clearance for takeoff from a taxiway or runway intersection.
When more than one entry point for the same runway is in use, ATC will also specify the threshold as the point from which the
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACtake-off run will commence for those aircraft departing from
the threshold. A controller may not issue a clearance that would
result in a deviation from established noise abatement procedures
or wake turbulence separation minima.
4.2.8.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Phraseology When a
Runway Is Temporarily Shortened Due to
Construction
Whenever the length of a runway has been temporarily shortened
due to construction, tower controllers will use the word
“shortened” immediately following the runway number for all
line-up and take-off clearances.
NOTE :
These changes do not transfer pilot responsibility to the controller,
but they do ensure that changes in runway length due to
construction are communicated as an additional layer of safety.
Example:
Tower Line up Clearance: GOLF JULIET ECHO TANGO
LINE UP RUNWAY ONE ‑SIX
SHORTENED
4.2.8.2 Clearance for Aborting a Takeoff
Aborting a takeoff is an emergency procedure used by a pilot
when continuing the takeoff would present a grave hazard to
the aircraft. A controller-initiated aborted takeoff is an extreme
measure used only where no clear alternative exists.
Example:
Tower: ALPHA BRAVO CHARLIE, ABORT ABORT.
ALPHA BRAVO CHARLIE, ABORT ABORT
(reason)
4.2.9 Release from Tower Frequency
Unless otherwise advised by ATC, pilots do not require permission
to change from tower frequency once clear of the control zone
and should not request release from this frequency or report
clear of the zone when there is considerable frequency congestion.
When practicable, it is recommended that a pilot of a departing
aircraft monitor tower frequency until 10 NM from the control zone.
VFR flights will not normally be released from tower frequency
while operating within the control zone. Once outside control
zones, or when departing from an uncontrolled aerodrome
where an MF has been assigned, beyond the range within which
MF procedures apply, pilots should monitor frequency 126.7 MHz.4.2.10 Departure Procedures - No Radio (NORDO)
Aircraft
Before proceeding to any portion of the manoeuvring area of a
controlled airport, it is the pilot’s responsibility to inform the
control tower of his/her intentions and make appropriate
arrangements for visual signals.
NOTE :
Before operating within a control zone with Class C airspace, a
clearance shall be obtained from the control tower.
A pilot should remain continuously alert for visual signals from
the control tower.
An aircraft should remain at least 200 ft from the edge of any
runway where holding position markings or signs are not visible
or have not been established unless a clearance for takeoff or to
cross the runway has been received.
When stopped by a red light, a pilot must wait for a further
clearance before proceeding.
When ready for takeoff by day, the pilot may attract the attention
of the airport controller by turning the aircraft toward the tower.
Acknowledgement of Visual Signals – pilot shall, where practical,
acknowledge all clearances and instructions received by visual
signals by day, by full movement of rudder or ailerons, whichever
can be seen most easily (such movement should be repeated at least three times in succession), or by taxiing the aircraft to the authorized position.
4.2.11 Visual Signals
Visual signals used by the tower and their meanings are as follows:
Table 4.2—Visuals Signals to Aircraft on the Ground
1 SERIES OF GREEN
FLASHES Cleared to taxi.
2 STEADY GREEN LIGHT Cleared for takeoff.
3 SERIES OF RED FLASHES Taxi clear of landing area in use.
4 STEADY RED LIGHT Stop.
5 FLASHING WHITE LIGHT Return to starting point on airport.
6 BLINKING RUNWAY LIGHTS Advises vehicles and pedestrians to vacate runways immediately.
4.2.12 Departure Procedures – Receiver
Only (RONLY) Aircraft
The procedures which apply to aircraft without radio also apply
to aircraft equipped with receiver only, except that an airport
controller may request the pilot to acknowledge a transmission
in a specific manner. After the initial acknowledgement, no
further acknowledgement, other than compliance with clearances
and instructions, is necessary, unless otherwise requested by
the controller.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC4.3 TRAFFIC CIRCUITS —
CONTROLLED AERODROMES
The following procedures apply to all aerodromes at which a
control tower is in operation.
The traffic circuit consists of the crosswind leg, downwind leg,
base leg and final approach leg.
Figure 4.1—Standard Left-Hand Traffic Circuit
Joining circuit on a downwind legDownwind leg
Joining circuit on a base leg
Crosswind legJoining for straight-in approach Joining circuit at (midfield) crosswind
Final legBase legUpwind leg
Active sideNon-active side
Departure
Joining at 45°
NOTES :
1. Circuit normally flown by aeroplanes at 1 000 ft AAE.
2. Pilots of large and turbine-powered aeroplanes may fly the
circuit at 500 ft above the established circuit altitude, if
authorized by the air traffic control unit. These aircraft
usually operate at a higher speed than piston and electric
engine light aeroplanes, have greater turning distances and
fly larger circuits.
3. Pilots of rotorcraft will either fly the circuit normally flown by aeroplanes or fly a circuit similar to that flown by aeroplanes but at a lower altitude and closer to the runway, as authorized by the air traffic control unit. Pilots of both helicopters and gyroplanes can be expected to practice power-off landings (autorotation), which involve a very steep approach angle and high descent rate (1 500 to 2 000 ft per minute). This circuit may be on the opposite side of the runway from fixed-wing traffic when airspeed requires it or for practice autorotation landings, if authorized by the air traffic control unit.
Helicopters may depart or arrive directly from the helipad
on the airfield, the apron or a taxiway, avoiding the fixed
wing circuit altogether, if authorized by the air traffic control
unit.
4. Pilots of slower, lower-performing aircraft, such as some
ultra-light aeroplanes, fly the circuit at lower altitudes and
inside the standard traffic circuit established for the
aerodrome, if authorized by the air traffic control unit. The
pilot may vary the size of the traffic pattern depending on
their aircraft’s performance characteristics. An aerodrome
with a dedicated landing area for ultra-light aeroplanes may
have a lower traffic pattern parallel to the standard circuit,
with turns in the opposite direction. Some of these ultra-
light aeroplanes fly significantly slower than many other
aircraft, exhibit steep takeoff and approach angles and make
turns near the end of the runway to clear the area expediently.5. Glider circuits typically have entry points that differ from
the standard circuit. Gliders typically operate on the
downwind leg between 500 and 1 000 ft AAE and fly a
diagonal leg between the downwind and base leg.
This circuit may be on the opposite side of the runway from
powered aircraft traffic, if authorized by the air traffic
control unit. Pilots of powered aircraft are reminded that gliders are usually unable to maintain altitude in a circuit
and that, in accordance with the Canadian Aviation
Regulations (CAR) 602.19, power-driven, heavier-than-air
aircraft must give way to gliders. Gliders typically fly a
steeper final approach glidepath (approximately 8 degrees).
6. Balloons have the right of way over all other aircraft
categories and do not follow a standard circuit.
7. Where a right-hand circuit is required in accordance with
CAR 602.96(3)(c), the opposite of this diagram is applicable.
Entry to the circuit shall be made in such a manner so as to avoid
cutting off other aircraft, conforming as closely as possible to
the altitude, speed and size of the circuit being flown by other aircraft of similar performance.
To increase safety by reducing the possibility of conflicting with
departing traffic and if authorized by the air traffic control unit,
aircraft approaching the active runway from the non-active side
are to join the downwind leg abeam a point approximately midway
between each end of the runway, taking into account aircraft
performance, wind and/or runway length.
Pilots are responsible to see and avoid other aircraft and to help
others see and avoid their aircraft, even when operating under an air traffic control clearance. Keep landing lights and strobes on. It is a best practice to operate the transponder at all times,
even outside of transponder airspace, as some aircraft have
collision avoidance systems that alert them of conflicting
air traffic.
Pilots of no radio (NORDO) and receiver only (RONLY) aircraft
who have made specific arrangements to operate within the
control zone (RAC 4.4.5 and RAC 4.4.6) should approach the
circuit from the non-active side, join crosswind at circuit height and, taking due account of other traffic, join the circuit on the
downwind leg. Pilots are cautioned to remain clear of the approach
and/or departure path of the active runway when joining the
circuit (see Figure 4.1). Flights which are not in communication
with the air traffic control tower shall, at all times, be on the
alert for visual signals. Pilots are reminded that below 3 000 ft
AGL and within 10 NM of a controlled aerodrome, aircraft shall
not be operated at speeds greater than 200 KIAS. However, where
the minimum safe speed of the aircraft is greater than 200 KIAS,
the aircraft may be operated at the minimum safe
speed (CAR 602.32).
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC4.4 ARRIVAL PROCEDURES —
CONTROLLED AIRPORTS
If ATIS is available, all arrivals shall monitor this frequency to
obtain the basic aerodrome information prior to contacting the tower. (See RAC 1.3 for ATIS information and refer to RAC 5.8
for arrival procedures in Class C airspace, other than a
control zone.)
4.4.1 Initial Contact
Pilots must establish and maintain radio communications with
the appropriate control tower prior to operating within any
control zone served by an operational control tower. Also, if the control zone is Class B or C airspace, the appropriate clearance must be received from the controlling agency prior to entry.
When practical, it is recommended that the pilot make initial
contact at least 5 minutes prior to requiring clearance or entering
the zone.
4.4.2 Initial Clearance
On initial contact with the tower, unless the pilot advises receipt
of ATIS, the airport controller will inform the pilot of runway
in use, wind direction and speed, altimeter setting and any other
pertinent information. Following this, the pilot will receive
clearance to proceed, including any necessary restrictions. The
shortest routing to the runway may be expected if traffic permits.
Pilots of VFR aircraft should check the CFS (or a VTA chart if applicable) for special procedures at the time of flight planning.
When a pilot is given a clearance “to the circuit” by ATC, it is
expected that the aircraft will join the circuit on the downwind leg at circuit height. Depending on the direction of approach to
the airport and the runway in use, it may be necessary to proceed
crosswind prior to joining the circuit on the downwind leg.
The ATC phraseology “cleared to the circuit” authorizes a pilot
to make a right turn in order to join crosswind, or partial right
turn to join a left-hand circuit provided that the right turn or
partial right turn can be carried out safely.
A straight-in approach is an approach where an aircraft joins
the traffic circuit on the final leg without having executed any other portion of the circuit.
When an aircraft is cleared for a right-hand approach while a
left-hand circuit is in effect, it shall be flown so as to join the
circuit on the right-hand downwind leg, or join directly into the
right-hand base leg, as cleared by the airport controller.
Pilot: KELOWNA TOWER, CESSNA FOXTROT ALFA
BRAVO CHARLIE, ONE FIVE MILES NORTH,
SIX THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED FEET VFR,
REQUEST LANDING INSTRUCTIONS.
Tower: CESSNA FOXTROT ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE,
KELOWNA TOWER, RUNWAY (number), WIND
(direction in degrees magnetic, speed in knots),
ALTIMETER (4 ‑digit group in inches), ( other
pertinent instructions or information if deemed
necessary), CLEARED TO THE CIRCUIT or
CLEARED TO LEFT BASE LEG or CLEARED STRAIGHT ‑IN APPROACH .
Pilot: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE.
When a pilot has received current landing information from
the tower or the ATIS broadcast, initial clearance may be requested
as follows:
Pilot: VICTORIA TOWER, CESSNA FOXTROT ALFA
BRAVO CHARLIE (aircraft position), ALTITUDE,
CHECK LANDING INFORMATION (or) WITH INFORMATION (ATIS code). REQUEST
CLEARANCE TO THE CIRCUIT (or other type of approach).
Once established in the circuit as cleared, the pilot is to advise the tower accordingly.
Pilot: TOWER, ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE DOWNWIND.
Tower: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE NUMBER (approach
sequence number). If not Number 1, the tower will
give the type, position and colour if significant, of
aircraft to follow and other instructions or
information.
Pilot : ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE.
Common ATC Phraseologies:
FOLLOW (aircraft type) NOW ON BASE LEG.
EXTEND DOWNWIND.WIDEN APPROACH.
VFR Holding Procedures
When it is required by traffic, VFR flights may be asked to
ORBIT visually over a geographic location, VFR checkpoint
(when these are published in the CFS or VTA charts) until they
can be cleared to the airport. If the request is not acceptable,
pilots should inform ATC and state their intentions.
Pilot: TORONTO TOWER, CESSNA FOXTROT ALFA
BRAVO CHARLIE, OVER PORT CREDIT AT
THREE THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED FEET WITH
INFORMATION ROMEO.
Tower: CESSNA FOXTROT ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE,
TORONTO TOWER, ORBIT THE FOUR STACKS,
ANTICIPATE A FIVE MINUTE DELAY, TRAFFIC
IS A CESSNA ONE SEVEN TWO OVER THE
FOUR STACKS, LAST REPORTED AT TWO
THOUSAND FEET.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACThe pilot is expected to proceed to the FOUR STACKS, orbit
within visual contact of the checkpoint and be prepared to proceed
to the airport immediately upon receipt of a further clearance.
Left turns are recommended as terrain and collision avoidance are the pilot’s responsibilities.
Tower: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, REPORT LEFT BASE
FOR RUNWAY TWO FOUR LE FT. CLEARED TO
THE CIRCUIT.
Pilot: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE DEPARTING THE FOUR
STACKS AT THIS TIME, WILL REPORT LEFT
BASE TO RUNWAY TWO FOUR LEFT; or
Pilot: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE
4.4.3 Landing Clearance
At controlled airports, a pilot must obtain landing clearance
prior to landing. Normally, the airport controller will initiate
landing clearance without having first received the request from
the aircraft; however, should this not occur, the onus remains
upon the pilot to request such clearance in sufficient time to
accommodate the operating characteristics of the aircraft being
flown. NORDO and RONLY aircraft should be considered as
intending to land when they join and conform to the traffic
circuit. Landing clearance will normally be given when an aircraft
is on final approach. If landing clearance is not received, the
pilot should, except in case of emergency, pull up and make
another circuit.
Pilot: TOWER, ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE LANDING
CLEARANCE RUNWAY TWO SIX.
Tower: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, CLEARED TO LAND
RUNWAY TWO SIX.
Pilot: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE.
Controllers may, on occasion, authorize ground traffic to cross the landing runway after a landing clearance has been issued. Any such authorization by ATC is given with the assurance that
the runway will be clear of conflicting traffic at the time the
arriving aircraft crosses the landing threshold. When it appears
that the runway may not be clear for landing, the pilot will be advised to “CONTINUE APPROACH, POSSIBLE PULL-UP.”
When a “pull-up” is necessary (before or after the landing
clearance has been issued), the pilot shall abandon the approach
and make another circuit.
Tower: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, TRAFFIC STILL ON
RUNWAY, PULL UP AND GO AROUND.
Common ATC Phraseologies:
CAUTION, POSSIBLE TURBULENCE FROM
LANDING (aircraft type and position).
MAKE LEFT/RIGHT THREE SIX ZERO.
MAKE FULL ‑STOP LANDI NG.
CONTACT TOWER/GROUND ON (frequency)
WHEN OFF RUNWAY/ NOW. The “cleared for the option” procedure has been introduced to
give a pilot the option to make touch-and-gos, low approach,
missed approach, stop-and-go, or a full stop landing. This
procedure will normally be used during light traffic conditions.
Pilot: TOWER, ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, DOWNWIND
RUNWAY TWO SEVEN, REQUEST THE OPTIO n.
Tower: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, CLEARED FOR THE
OPTION RUNWAY TWO SEVEN.
A clearance for multiple touch-and-gos permits the pilot to
perform more than one touch-and-go during a single pass along
the runway without stopping. The procedure is intended for
student pilots training with an instructor and will only be
authorized during light traffic conditions.
Pilot: TOWER, ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, DOWNWIND
RUNWAY TWO SEVEN, REQUEST MULTIPLE
TOUCH ‑AND ‑GOS.
Tower: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, CLEARED MULTIPLE
TOUCH ‑AND ‑GOS, RUNWAY TWO SEVEN.
4.4.3.1 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Phraseology When a
Runway Is Temporarily Shortened Due to
Construction
Whenever the length of a runway has been temporarily shortened
due to construction, tower controllers will use the word
“shortened” immediately after the runway number on initial
contact with arrivals and for all landing clearances.
NOTES :
1. These changes do not transfer pilot responsibility to the
controller, but they do ensure that changes in runway length
due to construction are communicated as an additional
layer of safety.
2. For repetitive operations (ex. circuits), ATC will use the
term “shortened” only for the first arrival/departure
clearance.
Example:
Tower landing clearance: GOLF JULIET ECHO TANGO
CLEARED TO LAND RUNWAY
ONE ‑SIX SHORTENED
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC4.4.4 Taxiing
A pilot must obtain an ATC authorization to taxi on the
manoeuvring area at a controlled airport. Unless otherwise
instructed by the airport controller, aircraft are expected to
continue in the landing direction to the nearest suitable taxiway,
exit the runway without delay and obtain further authorization
to taxi. No aircraft shall exit a runway onto another runway
unless instructed or authorized to do so by ATC. When required,
ATC will provide the pilot with instructions for leaving the
runway. These instructions will normally be given to the pilot
prior to landing or during the landing roll. When an aircraft is instructed to exit onto another runway, the pilot must:
(a) obtain further authorization to taxi; and
(b) remain on tower frequency until clear of that runway or
until communication is transferred to ground control.
After landing on a dead-end runway, the pilot will normally be
given instructions to backtrack. In all cases, after leaving the
runway, unless otherwise instructed by ATC, pilots should
continue to taxi forward across the taxi holding position lines or to a point at least 200 ft from the edge of the runway where a taxi holding position line is not available. The aircraft is not considered clear of the runway until all parts of the aircraft are
past the taxi holding position line or the 200-ft point. When
clearing landing runways onto taxiways or other runways, pilots
should exercise good airmanship by continuing to taxi well clear
of the hold position while contacting ground control to obtain
taxi clearance. This is to prevent aircraft from blocking a runway
exit to following aircraft. If unable to establish contact with
ground control, pilots should stop and not cross any runway
without receiving ATC authorization.
Tower: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE (instructions for leaving
runway), CONTACT GROUND (specific frequency).
Towers will normally provide the aircraft down time only when requested by the pilot.
Normally, aircraft will not be changed to ground control until
off the active runway or runways.
Tower: ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE, TAXI TO (apron or parking
area)(any special instructions such as routing,
traffic, cautionary or warning regarding construction
or repair on the manoeuvring areas).4.4.5 Arrival Procedures – No Radio (NORDO)
Aircraft
Before operating into a controlled aerodrome, pilots shall contact
the control tower, inform the tower of their intentions and make
arrangements for clearance through visual signals.
NOTE :
Before operating within a control zone with Class C airspace, a
clearance shall be obtained from the control tower.
Pilots should remain continuously alert for visual signals from
the control tower.
Traffic Circuit – The pilot should approach the traffic circuit
from the upwind side of the runway, join crosswind at circuit
height abeam a point approximately midway between each end of the runway and join the circuit on the downwind leg. While
within the circuit the pilot should conform to the speed and size
of the circuit, maintaining a separation from aircraft ahead so
that a landing can be made without overtaking it. If it is necessary
for a flight to cross the airport prior to joining crosswind, this
should be done at least 500 feet above circuit height, and descent
to circuit height should be made in the upwind area of the
active runway.
Final Approach – Before turning on final approach, a pilot shall
check for any aircraft on a straight-in approach.
Landing Clearance – Landing clearance will be given on final
approach. If landing clearance is not received, the pilot shall,
except in case of emergency, pull up and make another circuit.
(Landing clearance may be withheld by the tower when there
are preceding aircraft which have not landed or if the runway
is occupied.)
Taxiing – No taxi clearance is required after landing, except to
cross any runway or to taxi back to a turn-off point. When an
aircraft’s landing run carries it past the last available turn-off
point, it should proceed to the end of the runway and taxi to one
side, waiting there until instruction is received to taxi back to the nearest turn-off point.
4.4.6 Arrival Procedures – Receiver
Only (RONLY) Aircraft
The procedures which apply to aircraft without radio also apply
to aircraft equipped with receiver only, except that an airport
controller may request the pilot to acknowledge a transmission
in a specified manner. After initial acknowledgement, no further
acknowledgement other than compliance with clearances and
instructions is necessary, unless otherwise requested by the
controller.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC4.4.7 Visual Signals
Visual signals used by the tower and their meanings are as follows:
Table 4.3—Visuals Signals to Aircraft in Flight
1 STEADY GREEN
LIGHT Cleared to land.
2 STEADY RED LIGHT Give way to other aircraft and continue circling.
3 SERIES OF GREEN FLASHES Return for landing.
(This shall be followed at the proper time by a steady green light.)
4 SERIES OF RED FLASHES Airport unsafe; do not land.
5 THE FIRING OF A RED PYROTECHNICAL LIGHT (see NOTE)
Whether by day or night and
not withstanding previous
instructions, means do not land for the time being.
NOTE :
Military control towers only.
Acknowledgement of Visual Signals – A pilot shall, where
practicable, acknowledge all clearances and instructions received.
Signals may be acknowledged as follows:
(a) distinct rocking of aircraft in flight;
(b) at night, by a single flash of a landing light.
4.4.8 Communications Failure - Visual Flight
Rules (VFR)
(a) CAR 602.138 specifies that where there is a two-way radio
communication failure between the controlling air traffic control unit and a VFR aircraft while operating in Class B, Class C or Class D airspace, the pilot-in-command shall:
(i) leave the airspace
(A) where the airspace is a control zone, by landing
at the aerodrome for which the control zone is established, and
(B) in any other case, by the shortest route;
(ii) where the aircraft is equipped with a transponder, set the transponder to Code 7600; and
(iii) inform an air traffic control unit as soon as possible of the actions taken pursuant to (i).
(b) Should the communications failure occur while operating
outside of Class B, C, or D airspace precluding the pilot
from obtaining the appropriate clearance to enter or establishing radio contact, and if no nearby suitable
aerodrome is available, the pilot may enter the Class B, C
or D airspace, continue under VFR, and shall carry out the remaining procedures listed in (a).
(c) Should the communications failure occur and there is a
suitable aerodrome nearby at which the pilot wishes to land,
it is recommended that the pilot comply with the established
NORDO arrival procedure outlined in RAC 4.4.5.(d) Pilots operating VFR in either Class E or G airspace may
follow the procedures in (a) even though there is no intention
to enter Class B, C, or D airspace.
4.4.9 Operations on Intersecting Runways
ATC procedures allow for sequential and/or simultaneous
operations on intersecting runways. Their intent is to increase
airport traffic capacity, thus reducing delays and saving fuel.
These operations differ only in the controllers’ application of
ATC procedures; ATC advisories will specify the type of
operation(s) in progress.
(a) Sequential Operations : Sequential operations do not permit
controllers to allow either an arriving aircraft to cross the
arrival threshold or a departing aircraft to commence its
takeoff roll until certain conditions are met.
For an arriving aircraft (Figure 4.2) the conditions are as follows:
(i) the preceding departing aircraft has:
(A) passed the intersection, or
(B) is airborne and has turned to avoid any conflict;
(ii) the preceding arriving aircraft has:
(A) passed the intersection, or
(B) completed its landing roll and will hold short
of the intersection (i.e. stopped or at taxi
speed), or
(C) completed its landing roll and turned off
the runway.
Figure 4.2—Arriving Aircraft
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACFor a departing aircraft (Figure 4.3) the sequential conditions
are listed below:
(i) the preceding departing aircraft
(A) has passed the intersection; or
(B) is airborne and has turned to avoid any conflict.
(ii) the preceding arriving aircraft has
(A) passed the intersection;
(B) completed its landing roll and will hold short
of the intersection (i.e. is stopped or at taxi
speed); or
(C) completed its landing roll and turned off the
runway.
Figure 4.3—Departing Aircraft
(b) Simultaneous Operations : Simultaneous operations differ
from sequential operations in the application of ATC procedures. The procedures for simultaneous use of
intersecting runways are applied only between two arrivals
or an arrival and a departure. Air traffic controllers will
permit an arriving aircraft to cross the runway threshold
or a departing aircraft to begin its takeoff roll provided one
of the aircraft has accepted a clearance to land and hold
short of the intersecting runways (Figure 4.6). These
operations are known as land and hold short operations
(LAHSO).
General
LAHSO is an air traffic control procedure that requires pilot
participation. At an airport with a control tower, ATC may clear
a pilot to land and hold short of an intersecting runway. A pilot may only accept a LAHSO clearance if they determine that the
aircraft can safely land and stop within the available landing
distance.
The PIC has complete authority to accept or decline a LAHSO
clearance. The PIC must decline a LAHSO clearance if they
believe it would compromise safety.
(a) runway must be dry (no wet conditions or contaminants
are visible from the tower or reported by a competent person)
for LAHSO to be carried out. LAHSO will not be authorized on wet runways if the tailwinds
are 5 kt or more.
Conditions for Conduct of LAHSO
LAHSO will no be authorized:
(a) if thunderstorms, turbulence, wind shear or other conditions
exist that would adversely affect the restricted aircraft’s
ability to hold short after landing;
(b) when an RSC NOTAM indicates that a runway is wet or
has contamination present;
(c) when weather reports indicate that precipitation is occurring;
or
(d) any time precipitation is observed by ATS personnel or
reported by an aircraft.
LAHSO may be carried out under the following conditions:
(a) the LDA, measured from the threshold or displaced threshold
to 200 ft short of the nearest edge of the runway being
intersected must be published in the CAP and in the CFS.
ATC shall also broadcast LAHSO advisories, including
LDAs, through an ATIS or voice advisory, well in advance of the final approach descent;
(b) the weather minima of no less than:
(i) 1000-ft ceiling, and
(ii) 3 SM visibility.
(c) a maximum of:
(i) 25 kt crosswind, and
(ii) 5 kt tailwind.
(d) runway must be dry for LAHSO to be carried out.
When conducting LAHSO, pilots need to ensure that their aircraft
can be stopped prior to the hold line of the intersecting runway specified by ATC, as depicted in Figure 4.4. The hold point for an intersecting runway is indicated by:
(a) hold lines, which are perpendicular to the landing runway’s
centreline, 200 ft prior to the nearest edge of the intersecting
runway, as shown in Figure 4.5;
(b) red and white mandatory instruction signs, as shown in
Figure 4.5; and
(c) where provided, flashing land and hold short lights, as
shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.4—Landing Distance Available
and Hold Lines for LAHSO
LDA
LDA
LDA
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACFigure 4.5—LAHSO Visual Aid Configuration
intersected
runwayLAHSO lights
PAPIintersected runway
Additional details on runway markings and signage for LAHSO
can be found in Aerodrome Standards and Recommended
Practices—Land Aerodromes (TP 312, 5th edition);
For tactical ATC reasons, controllers may offer or approve a
pilot request for the use of a runway for landing with a tailwind
not exceeding 10 kt. Pilots should exercise caution and consider the impact of the tailwind on their OLD. If no allowance for the
tailwind has been made in the calculation of the OLD, pilots
should not accept the LAHSO clearance. For more information on the calculation of OLD, see AC 700-057— Global Reporting
Format (GRF) for Runway Surface Conditions: Guidance for
Flight Operations, Appendix E.
NOTE :
LAHSO are not not authorized if thunderstorms, turbulence,
wind shear or other conditions exist that would adversely affect the restricted aircraft’s ability to hold short after landing.Figure 4.6—Aircraft with Hold-short Clearance
For simultaneous operations involving helicopters (Figure 4.7),
if the arriving helicopter has a hold-short clearance, its point of landing is at least 700 ft from the centreline of the other runway.
Figure 4.7—Helicopter with Hold-short Clearance
Aircraft Stop Groups
In order to facilitate ATC management of LAHSO, aircraft are
categorized into groups according to their required stopping
distances. ATC cannot clear an aircraft for LAHSO if the stopping
distance required for the aircraft’s stop group is greater than the
landing distance available (LDA).
The stopping distances for aircraft stop groups are indicated in
Table 4.4.
Table 4.4—Stopping Distances on Dry per Aircraft Group
— Dry Runway
Group 1 1 650 ft
Group 2 3 000 ft
Group 3 4 500 ft
Group 4 6 000 ft
Group 5 8 000 ft
Group 6 8 400 ft
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACThese stopping distances are based on ISA conditions for sea-
level runways. For higher airport elevations, the distances are
adjusted for pressure altitude. An aircraft’s grouping is such that
its normal stopping distance is approximately 50% of the available
stopping distance.
NOTE :
Pilots remain responsible for ensuring that the LDA is sufficient
for the aircraft to safely come to a stop. For more information
on the calculation of operational landing distance,
see AC 700-057— Global Reporting Format for Runway Surface
Conditions: Guidance for Flight Operations, Appendix E.
General Provisions
All pilots will be advised that simultaneous LAHSO are in
progress.
Controllers will issue appropriate traffic information.
ATC must include specific directions to hold short of an
intersecting runway (e.g. “Cleared to land Runway 27, hold short
of Runway 36.”). Pilots, in accepting the clearance, must read
back “Cleared to land Runway 27, hold short of Runway 36.”
Having accepted the hold-short clearance, pilots are obligated
to remain 200 ft short of the closest edge of the runway being intersected.
If, for any reason, a pilot is unsure of being able to comply with
a hold-short clearance, the pilot must advise ATC immediately that they cannot accept the clearance; it is far better to be safe than sorry.
If a rejected landing becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO
clearance, the pilot must maintain safe separation from other
aircraft and vehicles and notify ATC as soon as possible.
4.4.10 High Intensity Runway Operations (HIRO)
Several of Canada’s airports rank among North America’s busiest
in total aircraft movements. HIRO, as a concept, have evolved from procedures developed by high density terminals in North
America and Europe. It is intended to increase operational
efficiency and maximize the capacity at those airports where it is employed through the use of disciplined procedures applied
by both pilots and air traffic controllers. HIRO is intended to
minimize the occurrence of overshoots that result from slow-
rolling and/or slow-clearing aircraft and offers the prospective of reducing delays overall, both on the ground and in the air. In
its fullest application, HIRO enables ATC to apply minimum
spacing to aircraft on final approach to achieve maximum runway
utilization.
The tactical objective of HIRO is to minimize runway occupancy
times (ROT) for both arriving and departing aircraft, consistent
with both safety and passenger comfort. Effective participation in HIRO results when the pilot of an arriving aircraft exits the runway expeditiously, allowing the following arriving aircraft
to cross the threshold with a minimum time interval. In the
case of an arrival and a subsequent departure, the arriving pilot clears the runway in a minimum ROT, permitting a departure
before the next arrival crosses the threshold. The air traffic
controller’s objective in HIRO is to optimize approach spacing. This can be best achieved when pilots reach and adhere to assigned
speeds as soon as practicable.
Effective participation in HIRO is achieved by satisfying the
following key elements.
Key elements for arrivals:
(a) The pilot’s objective should be to achieve minimum ROT,
within the normally accepted landing and braking
performance of the aircraft, by targeting the earliest suitable
exit point and applying the right deceleration rate so that the aircraft leaves the runway as expeditiously as possible at the nominated exit.
(b) The expected runway exit point to achieve minimum ROT should be nominated during approach briefing. It is better, in terms of ROT, to select an exit you know you can make,
rather than choose an earlier one, miss it, and then roll
slowly to the next available exit.
(c) Upon landing, pilots should exit the runway without delay.
(d) High-speed exits have specific maximum design speeds.
These speeds may be available through the appropriate
airport authority.
Key elements for departures:
(a) On receipt of a line-up clearance, pilots should ensure that
they are able to line up on the runway as soon as the preceding
aircraft has commenced its takeoff roll.
(b) ATC will expect aircraft to enter the runway at a suitable
angle to quickly line-up on the centreline and, when possible,
continue in to a rolling takeoff when cleared. Pilots should
ensure that they are able to commence the takeoff roll
immediately when a takeoff clearance is issued.
(c) Aircraft that need to enter the runway at right angles, to
backtrack, or to use the full length of the runway will require extra time on the runway. Therefore, pilots should notify ATC
before arriving at the holding area so that the controller can
re-sequence departures to provide the extra time.
(d) Cockpit checks should be completed prior to line-up, and any checks requiring completion on the runway should be
kept to a minimum. If extra time is required on the runway,
ATC should be informed before the aircraft arrives at the
holding area so that the controller can re-sequence departures
to provide the extra time.
4.5 AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS—
UNCONTROLLED AERODROMES
4.5.1 General
An uncontrolled aerodrome is an aerodrome without a control
tower, or one where the tower is not in operation. There is no
substitute for alertness while in the vicinity of an uncontrolled
aerodrome. It is essential that pilots be aware of, and look out
for, other traffic, and exchange traffic information when
approaching or departing from an uncontrolled aerodrome,
particularly since some aircraft may not have communication capability. To achieve the greatest degree of safety, it is essential
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACthat all radio-equipped aircraft monitor a common designated
frequency, such as the published MF or ATF, and follow the
reporting procedures specified for use in an MF area, while
operating on the manoeuvring area or flying within an MF area
surrounding an uncontrolled aerodrome.
MF area means an area in the vicinity of an uncontrolled
aerodrome for which an MF has been designated. The area
within which MF procedures apply at a particular aerodrome
is defined in the Aerodrome/Facility Directory section of the
CFS, under the heading COMM. Normally, the MF area is a
circle with a 5-NM radius capped at 3 000 ft above a erodrome
elevation (AAE).
Pilots should revert to aerodrome traffic frequency (ATF)
procedures when operating within an MF area outside of the
specified hours of operations published in the CFS or by NOTAM.
At uncontrolled aerodromes without a published MF or ATF,
the common frequency for the broadcast of aircraft position
and the intentions of pilots flying in the vicinity of that aerodrome
is 123.2 MHz.
At aerodromes within an MF area, traffic information may be
exchanged by communicating with an FSS, CARS, UNICOM
operator, vehicle operator, or by a broadcast transmission. The
VCS in conjunction with AAS is normally provided at aerodromes
served by an FSS. Some uncontrolled aerodromes are indirectly
served by an FSS through an RCO and may provide RAAS. As flight service specialists may be located some distance from an
aerodrome, it is essential that they be kept fully informed of
both aircraft and vehicle activity.
Other aerodromes are designated as having an ATF. At some
aerodromes with a control tower or FSS, an ATF is designated for use when the air traffic facility is closed. If a radio-equipped
vehicle is present at ATF aerodromes, pilots can contact the
vehicle operator directly on the ATF to ascertain that no vehicle-
aircraft conflict exists. Operators of such radio-equipped vehicles
will also provide pilots with any other available information on runway status and presence of other aircraft or vehicles on the runway.
There are some remote airports where a voice generator module
(VGM) connected to an AWOS (or LWIS) continuously broadcasts
weather information. An AWOS (or LWIS) broadcasts weather
information that may differ from the aerodrome routine
meteorological report (METAR) or aviation selected special
weather report (SPECI) issued for the location. There may also
be significant differences between broadcasts only a few minutes
apart. Transport Canada recognizes that for any given site at
any given time there can be only one official weather observation
(METAR or SPECI), whether from a human observer or an
automated station. As a result, it has been determined that
although an AWOS (or LWIS) broadcast constitutes an additional
source of accurate, up-to-the-minute weather information, it
does not constitute an official weather observation (METAR
or SPECI).
The wind and altimeter data obtained from an AWOS (or LWIS)
via a VGM broadcast can be used to conduct an instrument
approach. Therefore, at aerodromes where RAAS is provided and where AWOS (or LWIS) weather information is also available
via a VGM broadcast, the wind and altimeter data may be omitted
from the RAAS if the pilot indicates in the initial call to the FSS
that the weather information has already been obtained from
the VGM broadcast. To avoid unnecessary frequency changes
and to assist in reducing frequency congestion, it is desirable
that pilots acquire this weather information prior to entering
either the MF or ATF area and inform the flight service specialist
that they have the wind and altimeter information. On start-up
at such an aerodrome, it would be desirable to listen to the VGM
broadcast prior to taxiing.
The flight service specialist will advise pilots of below-minima
conditions reported in the current official METAR or SPECI.
This will ensure a common reference for pilots and ATS personnel
since IFR or SVFR authorization would then be required to
operate within the control zone. Pilots will also be advised of
any other significant weather conditions reported in current
METAR, SPECI, SIGMET, AIRMET or PIREP, as appropriate,
which may affect the safety of the flight. The flight service
specialist will provide, upon request, the complete current
METAR or SPECI for the location.
4.5.2 Traffic Circuit Procedures —
Uncontrolled Aerodrome s
The Canadian Aviation Regulations (CAR), which are applicable
to operations at or in the vicinity of an aerodrome, are aligned
with ICAO’s International Standards and Recommended
Practices (SARPs) documented in Annex 2. CAR 602.96(3) aligns
with ICAO Annex 2, subchapter 3.2.5 by requiring the pilot-in-
command of an aircraft operating at or in the vicinity of an
uncontrolled aerodrome to:
• observe aerodrome traffic for the purpose of avoiding
a collision;
• conform to or avoid the pattern of traffic formed by other
aircraft in operation;
• make all turns to the left when operating within the
aerodrome traffic circuit, except where right turns are
specified by the Minister in the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS) or where otherwise authorized by the
appropriate air traffic control unit; and
• where practicable, land and take off into the wind
unless otherwise authorized by the appropriate air traffic
control unit.
Additionally, CAR 602.96(3) requires the pilot-in-command to:
• if the aerodrome is an airport or heliport, comply with
any airport or heliport operating restrictions specified
by the Minister in the CFS or in a NOTAM.
CAR 602.96(4) requires pilots-in-command to not operate an
aircraft at an altitude of less than 2,000 ft over an aerodrome
except for the purpose of taking off or landing, unless otherwise
authorized by the appropriate air traffic control unit or if the
aircraft is operated pursuant to CAR 602.96(5). The traffic circuit
consists of the crosswind leg, downwind leg, base leg and final
approach leg. An aircraft operating in a traffic circuit, including
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACthe midfield crosswind leg, immediately before joining the
downwind leg or the 45˚ angle entry to the downwind leg, is
considered to be an aircraft approaching to land at the aerodrome.
CAR 602.96(2) requires pilots to ensure that there is no likelihood
of a collision with another aircraft or vehicle and that the
aerodrome is suitable for their intended operation. Pilots are
expected to observe other aircraft in the circuit and to conform
to or avoid the pattern in use. The ICAO SARPs do not prescribe,
nor does Transport Canada regulate, circuit entry. Furthermore,
neither the ICAO SARPs nor the CARs address operating altitudes
or the dimensions of the traffic circuit. Canadian aerodromes
experience operations by a wide variety of aircraft categories
and with a wide variety of performance capabilities including
safe operating speeds, climb capabilities or other safety
considerations, such as gliding distance. This complex mix may
preclude some aircraft from operating at the same speed and
over the same ground track as other aircraft established in the
circuit pattern. All pilots are equally responsible for deconflicting
with other aircraft at uncontrolled aerodromes. In planning
how to fly the traffic circuit, pilots are reminded that CAR 602.01.1
requires that no person operate an aircraft in such a reckless or
negligent manner as to endanger or be likely to endanger the
life or property of any person.
The following recommendations apply to all aircraft operating
at aerodromes where airport control service is not provided,
except those aircraft following a standard instrument approach
procedure. For procedures that apply to aircraft on a standard instrument approach, refer to RAC 9.0. Prior to joining a traffic
circuit, all pilots should announce their intentions (see RAC 4.5.6).
All turns shall be to the left while operating in the circuit, unless
a right-hand circuit has been specified in the CFS.
Pilots operating aircraft under IFR or VFR are expected to
approach and land on the active runway. The active runway is
a runway that other aircraft are using or are intending to use
for the purpose of landing or taking off. Should it be necessary
for aircraft to approach to, land on or take off from a runway
other than the active runway, it is expected that the appropriate
communication between pilots and the ground station, as
applicable, will take place to ensure there is no conflict with
other traffic. Some pilots operating under VFR at many sites
prefer to give commercial IFR and larger type of aircraft priority.
This practice, however, is a personal airmanship courtesy, and
it should be noted that these aircraft do not establish any priority
over other aircraft operating VFR at that aerodrome.
Pilots are responsible to see and avoid other aircraft and to help
others see and avoid their aircraft. Keep landing lights and
strobes on. It is a best practice to always operate the transponder,
even outside of transponder airspace, as some aircraft have
collision avoidance systems that alert them of conflicting
air traffic.
Clear and concise communications using standard phraseology
are an important contributing factor to safety and an effective
way to reduce the risk of incidents and occurrences. Pilots are
reminded that the use of phrases such as “ANY TRAFFIC IN
THE AREA, PLEASE ADVISE” are not standard phraseology and should not be used. Any traffic that is present at the time
of a report should reply without prompting. Phraseology guides are available through NAV CANADA at < https://www.navcanada.
ca/en/aeronautical-information/operational-guides.aspx >. Pilots
of aircraft flying the downwind leg at a different altitude than that flown by aeroplanes (normally 1 000 ft AAE), and pilots of
aircraft flying a smaller or a larger circuit are encouraged to
report their altitude in the circuit to the ground station associated
with the MF (e.g., an FSS, an RCO through which RAAS is
provided, a CARS or an Approach Unicom) or to broadcast their
position and intentions for aerodromes without an MF or with an MF but without a ground station. Pilots should be aware that
aerodromes without a MF do not require the use of two-way
radio. Pilots must be especially vigilant for other aircraft while operating in the vicinity of uncontrolled aerodromes.
Figure 4.8—Standard Left-Hand Circuit Pattern
Joining circuit on a downwind legDownwind leg
Joining at 45°Joining circuit on a base leg
Crosswind legJoining circuit at (midfield) crosswind
Final legBase legJoining for straight-in approachnot less than3 NMUpwind leg
Active sideDeparture> Recommended circuit join
Overflying at not less than 500 ft above the highest circuit height
in use to observe conditionsDescend to
circuit height
Non-active side
Overflying at not less than 500 ft above the highest circuit
height in use
Unless a specific traffic circuit altitude is published in the CFS
entry for the aerodrome or meteorological conditions dictate
otherwise, it is recommended that:
1. Pilots of propeller-driven aeroplanes fly the circuit at
1 000 ft AAE.
2. Pilots of large and turbine-powered aeroplanes fly the circuit
at 500 ft above the established circuit altitude (usually
1 500 ft AAE). All pilots should be aware that these aircraft
usually operate at a higher speed than piston and electric
engine light aeroplanes, have greater turning distances and
fly larger circuits.
3. Pilots of rotorcraft either fly the circuit normally flown by
aeroplanes or fly a circuit similar to aeroplanes, but at a
lower altitude (500 ft AAE) and closer to the runway. Pilots
of both helicopters and gyroplanes can be expected to
practice power-off landings (autorotation), which involve
a very steep approach angle and high descent
rate (1 500 to 2 000 ft per minute). If specified in the CFS, this circuit may be on the opposite side of the runway from fixed-wing traffic when airspeed requires it or for practice autorotation landings.
Helicopters could choose to depart or arrive directly from
the helipad on the airfield, the apron or a taxiway to avoid
the fixed-wing circuit altogether. In such cases, the helicopter
pilots must make clear radio calls describing their intentions
and ensure they remain well clear of the circuit patterns
altogether for either departure or arrival.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC4. Pilots of slower, lower-performing aircraft, such as ultra-
light aeroplanes, that are unable to conform to the pattern
of traffic established by aircraft at the 1 000 ft AAE circuit fly a circuit at an altitude no higher than 500 ft below and inside the standard circuit established for the aerodrome. The pilot may vary the size of the traffic pattern depending
on their aircraft’s performance characteristics. If established
in the CFS, an aerodrome with a dedicated landing area for
ultra-light aeroplanes may have a lower traffic pattern parallel
to the standard circuit, with turns in the opposite direction.
All pilots should be aware that some ultra-light aeroplanes
fly significantly slower than many other aircraft, exhibit
steep takeoff and approach angles and make turns near the end of the runway to clear the area expediently.
5. Glider pilots typically join the circuit on the downwind leg
but may be modified to suit conditions. Gliders typically
operate on the downwind leg between 500 to 1 000 ft AAE, and fly a diagonal leg between the downwind and base leg. If specified in the CFS, this circuit may be on the opposite side of the runway from powered aircraft traffic. Pilots of
powered aircraft are reminded that gliders are usually unable
to maintain altitude in a circuit and that, in accordance
with CAR 602.19, power-driven, heavier-than-air aircraft
must give way to gliders. Gliders typically fly a steeper final
approach glidepath (approximately 8 degrees). If a glider
operating area is established to one side of a powered-aircraft
runway, this operating area will usually be on the same side
as the glider circuit.
6. Balloons have the right of way over all other aircraft
categories and do not follow a standard circuit.
7. If a right-hand circuit is required in accordance with
CAR 602.96, perform circuit procedures opposite to the
depiction in the standard left-hand circuit diagram.
Figure 4.9—Standard Circuit heights
1500 FT — Large and turbine-powered aeroplanes1000 FT — Aeroplanes and RotorcraftNo higher than 500 FT
Rotorcraft and slow or low performing aircraft
1000 to 500 FT — GlidersJoining the Circuit
(a) Landing and takeoff should be accomplished on the runway
most aligned into the wind as possible or on a runway parallel
to it. However, the pilot has the final authority and is
responsible for the safe operation of the aircraft, and another
runway may be used if it is determined to be necessary in the interest of safety.
(b) Unless otherwise specified or required by the applicable
distance-from-cloud criteria, powered aircraft should approach the traffic circuit from the non-active side.
Alternatively, if the pilot has ascertained that there will be
no conflict with other traffic entering the circuit or
established within it, the pilot could also join the circuit on
the downwind leg (Figure 4.8). When joining from the non-
active side, the pilot should plan the descent to cross the
runway in level flight at circuit altitude and maintain that
altitude until further descent is required for landing.
Straight-in approaches are discouraged whenever there are
other aircraft in the traffic circuit, as it may cause a conflict
with other aircraft in the circuit and increase the risk of a mid-air collision.
(c) If it is necessary for an aircraft to cross the aerodrome before
joining the circuit, it is recommended that the crossover be
accomplished at least 500 ft above the highest circuit altitude
in use.
(d) All descents should be made on the non-active side or well clear of the circuit pattern.
Figure 4.10—Recommended circuit
join from the active side
CROSSWIND LEG
1500 ft circuitUPWIND LEG
CROSSWIND LEG (MIDFIELD)
NON-ACTIVE SIDE
ACTIVE SIDE
DOWNWIND LEGFINAL LEG
BASE LEG1000 ft circuit500 ft circuit
Overfly not below500 ft above the highestcircuit height in use(2000 ft in this case)2000 ft1000 ftDescend tocircuit height
Maintain circuit height
(e) For aerodromes not within an MF area: Where no MF
procedures are in effect, powered aircraft should approach
the traffic circuit from the non-active side. Alternatively,
once the pilot has ascertained that there will be no conflict with other traffic entering the circuit or established within
it, the pilot could join the circuit on the downwind
leg (Figure 4.8). Straight-in approaches are discouraged
whenever there are other aircraft in the traffic circuit, as it may cause a conflict with other aircraft in the circuit and increase the risk of a mid-air collision.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC(f) For aerodromes within an MF area when airport advisory
information is available: Aircraft could join the circuit
pattern straight-in or at a 45˚ angle to the downwind leg or
straight-in to the base or final legs (Figure 4.1). Pilots must
be alert both to other VFR traffic entering the circuit at
these positions and to IFR straight-in or circling approaches.
(g) For aerodromes within an MF area when airport advisory
information is not available: Powered aircraft should
normally approach the traffic circuit from the non-active
side. Alternatively, once the pilot has ascertained that there will be no conflict with other traffic entering the circuit or established within it, the pilot could join the circuit on the
downwind leg (Figure 4.8), or as in subparagraph (f) above.
Straight-in approaches are discouraged whenever there are
other aircraft in the traffic circuit, as it may cause a conflict
with other aircraft in the circuit and increase the risk of a
mid-air collision.
NOTE :
When an uncontrolled aerodrome lies within an MF area, the
pilot must follow the MF reporting procedures set out in
CARs 602.97 to 602.103, inclusive (see RAC 4.5.4 and 4.5.7.)
Continuous Circuits : Aircraft performing a series of circuits
and landings should, after each takeoff, commence the turn to the crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway and
within 300 ft of the circuit altitude and reach circuit altitude
before joining the downwind leg.
Departing the Circuit or Aerodrome : Aircraft departing the
circuit or aerodrome should climb straight ahead on the runway
heading up to the circuit traffic altitude before commencing a
turn in any direction to an en route heading. A turn back toward
the circuit or aerodrome should not be initiated until the aircraft
is at least 500 ft above the highest circuit altitude in use.
NOTE :
Aircraft towing gliders will often have unusual or varied
departure tracks to keep the gliders they are towing within
gliding distance of the departure aerodrome in the event of a
tow rope break. Pilots of other power-driven aircraft are
reminded that CAR 602.19 requires them to give way to aircraft
that are seen to be towing gliders or other objects or carrying a
slung load.
NOTE :
ATS sites without tower control services differ slightly in the
United States and may differ in other countries. Canadian pilots
are recommended to consult the U.S. Aeronautical Information
Manual before operating at U.S. non-towered airports.
4.5.3 Helicopter Operations
Pilots of helicopters at uncontrolled aerodromes are urged to avoid
air taxiing or low flying across runways and taxiway areas where risk of collision with unseen aircraft or vehicles exists.
In addition to maintaining a sharp look-out and practising good
airmanship, pilots should avoid ground or air taxiing and
hovering where blown dust, sand, gravel or wake turbulence
could prove hazardous to other aircraft, or when debris could be blown onto paved surfaces.4.5.4 Mandatory Frequency (MF)
Transport Canada has designated a Mandatory Frequency (MF)
for use at selected uncontrolled aerodromes, or aerodromes that
are uncontrolled between certain hours. Aircraft operating
within the area in which the MF is applicable (MF area), on the ground or in the air, shall be equipped with a functioning radio
capable of maintaining two-way communication. Reporting
procedures shall be followed, as specified in CARs 602.97 to
602.103 inclusive.
An MF area will be established at an aerodrome if the traffic
volume and mix of aircraft traffic at that aerodrome is such that there would be a safety benefit derived from implementing MF
procedures. There may or may not be a ground station in operation
at the aerodrome for which the MF area has been established. When a ground station is in operation, for example, an FSS, an
RCO through which RAAS is provided, a CARS, or an Approach
UNICOM, then all aircraft reports that are required for operating
within, and prior to entering an MF area, shall be directed to
the ground station. However, when the ground station is not in
operation, then all aircraft reports that are required for operating
within and prior to entering an MF area shall be broadcast. The MF will normally be the frequency of the ground station which provides the air traffic advisory services for the aerodrome. For
the aerodromes with an MF, the specific frequency, distance
and altitude within which MF procedures apply will be published
in the CFS.
Examples:
MF—rdo 122.2 5 NM 3100 ASL
MF—UNICOM (AU) ltd hrs O/T tfc 122.75 5 NM
3100 ASL
4.5.5 Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF)
An Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF) is normally designated
for active uncontrolled aerodromes that do not meet the criteria
listed in RAC 4.5.4 for an MF. The ATF is established to ensure
that all radio-equipped aircraft operating on the ground or
within the area are listening on a common frequency and
following common reporting procedures. The ATF will normally
be the frequency of the UNICOM where one exists or 123.2 MHz
where a UNICOM does not exist. Trained vehicle operators who
possess a valid radio telephone li cence and authorized to do so,
can communicate with pilots using two-way communication
on the ATF and provide information such as:
(a) position of vehicles on the manoeuvring area;
(b) position of other aircraft on the manoeuvring area; and
(c) runway condition, if known.
The specific frequency, distance and altitude within which use
of the ATF is required will be published in the CFS.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACExample:
ATF – tfc 123.2 5 NM 5500 ASL
Personnel providing Approach UNICOM service, can also advise
pilots on the ATF of the runway condition and position of vehicles
or aircraft on the manoeuvring area.
NOTE :
Pilots may be able to communicate with either the UNICOM or
the vehicle operator if radio-equipped, and coordinate their
arrival or departure while using normal vigilance to ensure safe
operations. When communications cannot be established (no
reply or NORDO) or the status of the runway is unknown, it is
the pilot’s responsibility to visually ascertain the runway condition
before landing or taking off.
The designation of an ATF is not limited to aerodromes only.
An ATF may also be designated for use in certain areas—other
than the area immediately surrounding an aerodrome—where
VFR traffic activity is high, and there is a safety benefit to ensuring
that all traffic monitor the same frequency. For example, an ATF
area could be established along a frequently flown corridor
between two uncontrolled aerodromes. All aircraft operating
within the area, below a certain altitude, would be requested to monitor and report intentions on one frequency. When such an
area is designated, it will be specified in an AIP Canada
Supplement or in the CFS.
4.5.6 Use of Mandatory Frequency (MF) and
Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF)
When operating in accordance with VFR, or in accordance with
IFR but in VMC, pilots have sole responsibility for seeing and avoiding other aircraft. Aural and visual alertness are required
to enhance safety of flight in the vicinity of uncontrolled
aerodromes. At uncontrolled aerodromes for which an MF or
ATF has been designated, certain reports shall be made by all radio-equipped aircraft.
NOTE :
Pilots operating VFR en route in uncontrolled airspace or VFR
on an airway should continuously monitor 126.7 MHz when
not communicating on the MF or ATF. Reports on either the MF or ATF have three formats:
(a) a directed transmission made to a ground station;
(b) a directed transmission made to a vehicle operator on the
ATF; or
(c) a broadcast transmission that is not directed to any particular
receiving station.
Whenever the CFS indicates that reports are to be made to a
ground station, the initial transmission should be made to the
station. To assist in reducing frequency congestion, pilots are
encouraged to use the phrase “HAVE NUMBERS” on the initial
call to a ground station (arrival or departure) to indicate that
they have received runway, wind and altimeter information from
the previous aerodrome advisory. When operating outside an
MF area, and when frequency congestion prevents pilots from
making their mandatory calls, it is their responsibility to remain
clear of the MF area until contact can be established with the
FSS. If operating inside an MF area, the pilot should continue as stated in previous radio transmissions.
Pilot: FREDERICTON RADIO, PIPER FOXTROT X ‑RAY
YANKEE ZULU. WE HAVE THE NUMBERS, SIX
MILES SOUTHWEST AT THREE THOUSAND
FIVE HUNDRED VFR. INBOUND FOR LANDING.
Should there be no acknowledgement of a directed transmission to a ground station or a vehicle operator, reports shall be made in the broadcast format unless the ground station or vehicle operator
subsequently establishes two-way contact, in which case pilots
shall resume communicating by directed transmission.
Examples:
Directed: FREDERICTON RADIO, THIS IS PIPER
FOXTROT X ‑RAY YANKEE ZU LU BEACON
INBOUND LANDING RUNWAY EIGHTEEN.
or,
FREDERICTION VEHICLES, THIS IS PIPER
FOXTROT X ‑RAY YANKEE ZULU…
Broadcast: FREDERICTON TRAFFIC, THIS IS PIPER
FOXTROT X ‑RAY YANKEE ZULU…
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC4.5.7 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Communication
Procedures at Uncontrolled Aerodromes
with Mandatory Frequency (MF) and
Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF) Areas
(a) Radio-equipped Aircraft : The following reporting
procedures shall be followed by the pilot-in-command of
radio-equipped aircraft at uncontrolled aerodromes within
an MF area and should also be followed by the pilot-in-
command at aerodromes with an ATF:
(i) Listening Watch and Local Flying [CAR 602.97 (2)]
Maintain a listening watch on the mandatory
frequency specified for use in the MF area. This
should apply to ATF areas as well.
(ii) Before Entering Manoeuvring Area [(CAR 602.99)]
Report the pilot-in-command’s intentions before
entering the manoeuvring area.
(iii) Departure (CAR 602.100)
(A) Before moving onto the take-off surface, report
the pilot-in-command’s departure intentions
on the MF or ATF frequency. If a delay is
encountered, broadcast intentions and expected
length of delay, then rebroadcast departure
intentions prior to moving onto the take-off
surface;
(B) Before takeoff, ascertain by radio on the MF
or ATF frequency and by visual observation
that there is no likelihood of collision with
another aircraft or a vehicle during takeoff;
and,
(C) After takeoff, report departing from the
aerodrome traffic circuit, and maintain a
listening watch on the MF or ATF frequency
until clear of the area.
(iv) Arrival (CAR 602.101)
(A) Report before entering the MF area and, where
circumstances permit, shall do so at least
five minutes before entering the area, giving
the aircraft’s position, altitude and estimated
time of landing and the pilot-in-command’s
arrival procedure intentions;
(B) Report when joining the aerodrome traffic circuit, giving the aircraft’s position in the
circuit;
(C) Report when on downwind leg, if applicable;
(D) Report when on final approach; and
(E) Report when clear of the surface on which the aircraft has landed.
(v) Continuous Circuits (CAR 602.102)
(A) Report when joining the downwind leg of
the circuit;
(B) Report when on final approach; stating the
pilot-in-command’s intentions; and,
(C) Report when clear of the surface on which the aircraft has landed. (vi) Flying Through an MF Area (CAR 602.103)
(A) Report before entering the MF or ATF area
and, where circumstances permit, shall do so
at least five minutes before entering the area,
giving the aircraft’s position and altitude and the pilot-in-command’s intentions; and,
(B) Report when clear of the MF or ATF area.
NOTE :
In the interest of minimizing possible conflict with local traffic and minimizing radio congestion on the MF or ATF, pilots of
en-route VFR aircraft should avoid passing through MF or
ATF areas.
(b) NORDO : NORDO aircraft will only be included as traffic
to other aircraft and ground traffic as follows:
(i) Arrival : from five minutes before the ETA until ten
minutes after the ETA, and
(ii) Departure : from just prior to the aircraft departing
until ten minutes after the departure, or until the
aircraft is observed/reported clear of the MF area.
4.5.8 Aircraft Without Two-Way Radio (No
Radio [NORDO]/ Receiver Only [RONLY])
4.5.8.1 Prior Arrangements
Aircraft without a functioning two-way radio may operate on the manoeuvring area or within the MF area associated with an uncontrolled aerodrome, provided:
(a) an FSS, a CARS, or an RCO through which RAAS is provided,
is located at the aerodrome and is operating at the time
proposed for the operation; and
(b) prior arrangements have been made, by telephone or in
person, with the appropriate agency, FSS, CARS, or in the case of a RAAS, the FSS.
NOTES :
1. Prior arrangements for an AAS location: phone the “emergency
only” number listed in the CFS under COMM / RADIO for the FSS serving the AAS location.
2. Prior arrangements for a RAAS location: the FSS or FIC
serving a RAAS location is shown in the CFS under COMM
/ RCO for the RAAS location.
(a) If an FSS serves the RAAS location: phone the
“emergency only” number listed in the CFS under
COMM / RADIO for the FSS serving the RAAS
location; or
(b) If a FIC serves the RAAS location: phone the number
listed in the CFS under FLT PLAN / FIC for the RAAS
location.
When a pilot-in-command intends to operate at an uncontrolled
aerodrome for which an MF has been designated, the pilot-in-command shall ascertain by visual observations that no other
aircraft or vehicle is likely to come into conflict with the aircraft
during takeoff or landing.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACPilots of NORDO/RONLY aircraft must be extremely vigilant
when operating at either controlled or uncontrolled aerodromes
and ensure through prior arrangements that other aircraft and
vehicles will be informed of their presence within the area.
4.5.8.2 Traffic Circuits - No Radio [NORDO]/Receiver
Only [RONLY]
When approaching an aerodrome, pilots of NORDO/RONLY
aircraft shall enter the circuit as illustrated in Figure 4.8 and
ensure that the aircraft completes at least two sides of a rectangular
circuit before turning on to the final approach path.
4.5.8.3 Receiver Only (RONLY)
When operating an aircraft equipped with a VHF receiver capable
of receiving transmissions on the MF, pilots shall maintain a
listening watch on the MF when operating on the manoeuvring area or within the MF area.
4.6 HELICOPTER OPERATIONS AT
CONTROLLED AIRPORTS
Two modes of helicopter airborne taxiing operations have been
defined to accommodate the movement of helicopters at
aerodromes: these are HOVER TAXI and AIR TAXI.
In addition to maintaining a sharp lookout and practising good
airmanship, pilots should avoid hover or air taxiing and hovering
where blown dust, sand, gravel, or wake turbulence could prove
hazardous to other aircraft or when debris could be blown onto paved surfaces.
Hover taxi is the movement of a helicopter above the surface of
an aerodrome, in ground effect, and at airspeeds less than
approximately 20 knots of indicated airspeed (KIAS). The actual
height may vary; some helicopters require hover taxi above 25 ft
above ground level (AGL) to reduce ground effect turbulence or up to approximately 125 ft AGL to provide clearance for cargo sling loads.
Air taxi is the movement of a helicopter above the surface of an
aerodrome normally below 100 ft AGL. The pilot is solely
responsible for selecting an appropriate height and airspeed for
the operation being conducted and consistent with existing
traffic and weather conditions. Pilots are cautioned of the
possibility of the loss of visual references when conducting air
taxi operations. Because of the greater operating flexibility, an
air taxi clearance at controlled aerodromes is to be expected
unless traffic conditions will not permit this mode of operation.
When a helicopter is wheel-equipped and the pilot wishes to
taxi on the ground, air traffic control (ATC) should be informed
when clearance is requested.
NOTE :
Helicopter pilots are reminded that aircraft, vehicle and personnel
movements are not controlled on airport aprons, and that caution
must be exercised at all times during any surface movement,
hover or air taxiing. 5.0 VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)
EN ROUTE PROCEDURES
5.1 MONITORING, BROADCASTING ON
126.7 MHZ AND POSITION REPORTING
EN ROUTE
Pilots operating VFR en route in uncontrolled airspace when
not communicating on an MF, or an ATF, or VFR on an airway
should continuously monitor 126.7 MHz and whenever
practicable, broadcast their identification, position, altitude and
intentions on this frequency to alert other VFR or IFR aircraft
that may be in the vicinity. Although it is not mandatory to
monitor 126.7 MHz and broadcast reports during VFR or VFR-
OTT flights, pilots are encouraged to do so for their own
protection. Pilots are en couraged to make position reports on
the appropriate FISE frequency to a FIC where they are recorded
by the flight service specialist and are immediately available in
the event of SAR action. The following reporting format
is recommended:
1. Identification 4. Altitude
2. Position 5. VFR / VFR- OTT
3. Time over 6. Destinat ion
Example:
Pilot: QUEBEC RADIO, THIS IS CESSNA GOLF INDIA
GOLF BRAVO ON THE GATINEAU R ‑C‑O, VFR
(or VFR OVER ‑THE‑TOP) POSITI ON REPORT.
Radio: CESSNA GOLF INDIA GOLF BRAVO, QUEBEC
RADIO, GO AHEAD.
Pilot: QUEBEC RADIO, GOLF INDIA GOLF BRAVO, BY
OTTAWA AT FIVE EIGHT, FOUR THOUSAND FIVE
HUNDRED, VFR (or VFR OVER ‑THE ‑TOP),
DESTINATION SUDBURY.
NOTE S:
1. As shown in the example, it is important on initial contact
that the pilot alerts the FIC to the fact that it is a VFR or
VFR-OTT position report and indicates the name of the
location of the RCO followed by the letters R-C-O in a non-
phonetic form.
2. The ETA destination or next reporting point may be
included.
3. Under certain conditions position reports are required prior
to entering the ADIZ when operating on a DVFR flight
plan or a defence flight itinerary.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC5.2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF
CLEARANCES
Pilots of VFR flights shall read back the text of an ATC clearance
when requested by an ATC unit.
5.3 ALTITUDES AND FLIGHT LEVELS —
VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)
Aircraft shall be operated at altitudes or flight levels appropriate
to the direction of flight when in level cruising flight above
3 000 feet AGL.
5.4 MINIMUM ALTITUDES—VISUAL FLIGHT
RULES (VFR) ( CANADIAN AVIATION
REGULATIONS [CARS] 602.14 AND
602.15)
Minimum Altitudes and Distances
(1) [Repealed, SOR/2002-447, s. 2]
(2) Except where conducting a takeoff, approach or landing or
where permitted under Section 602.15, no person shall
operate an aircraft
(a) over a built-up area or over an open-air assembly of
persons unless the aircraft is operated at an altitude
from which, in the event of an emergency necessitating
an immediate landing, it would be possible to land the
aircraft without creating a hazard to persons or property
on the surface, and, in any case, at an altitude that is
not lower than
(i) for aeroplanes, 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle
located within a horizontal distance of 2,000 feet
from the aeroplane,
(ii) for balloons, 500 feet abov e the highest obstacle
located within a horizontal distance of 500 feet
from the balloon, or
(iii) for an aircraft other than an aeroplane or a balloon,
1,000 feet above the highest obstacle located within
a horizontal distance of 500 feet from the aircraft;
and
(b) in circumstances other than those referred to in
paragraph (a), at a distance less than 500 feet from any
person, vessel, vehicle or structure. Permissible Low-Altitude Flight
(1) A person may operate an aircraft at altitudes and distances
less than those specified in subsection 602.14(2 ) where the
aircraft is operated at altitudes and distances that are no
less than necessary for the purposes of the operation in
which the aircraft is engaged, the aircraft is operated without
creating a hazard to persons or property on the surface and the aircraft is operated
(a) for the purpose of a police operation that is conducted in the service of a police authority;
(b) for the purpose of saving human life;
(c) for fire-fighting or air ambulance operations;
(d) for the purpose of the administration of the Fisheries Act or the Coastal Fisheries Protection Act;
(e) for the purpose of the administration of the national or provincial parks; or
(f ) for the purpose of flight inspection.
(2) A person may operate an aircraft, to the extent necessary for the purpose of the operation in which the aircraft is engaged,
at altitudes and distances less than those set out in
(a) paragraph 602.14(2)(a), where operation of the aircraft
is authorized under Subpart 3 or Section 702.22; or
(b) paragraph 602.14(2)(b), where the aircraft is operated
without creating a hazard to persons or property on
the surface and the aircraft is operated for the purpose
of
(i) aerial application or aerial inspection,
(ii) aerial photography conducted by the holder of an air operator certificate,
(iii) helicopter external load operations, or
(iv) flight training conducted by or under the supervision
of a qualified flight instructor.
NOTE :
The hazards of low flying cannot be overemphasized. Refer to
AIR 2.4 for more information on the risks and hazards of
low flying.
5.5 MINIMUM ALTITUDES — OVERFLYING
AERODROMES [ CANADIAN AVIATION
REGULATIONS [CARS] 602.96(4)
AND(5)]
(4) Unless otherwise authorized by the appropriate air traffic
control unit, no pilot-in-command shall operate an aircraft
at a height of less than 2 000 feet over an aerodrome except
for the purpose of landing or taking off or if the aircraft is
operated pursuant to subsection (5).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC602.96
(5) Where it is necessary for the purposes of the operation in
which the aircraft is engaged, a pilot-in-command may
operate an aircraft at less than 2 000 feet over an aerodrome,
where it is being operated
(a) in the service of a police authority;
(b) for the purpose of saving human life;
(c) for fire-fighting or air ambulance operations;
(d) for the purpose of the administration of the Fisheries
Act or the Fisheries Protection Act ;
(e) for the purpose of the administration of the national or
provincial parks;
(f) for the purpose of flight inspection;
(g) for the purpose of aerial application or aerial inspection;
(h) for the purpose of highway or city traffic patrol;
(i) for the purpose of aerial photography conducted by the holder of an air operator certificate;
(j) for the purpose of helicopter external load operations; or
(k) for the purpose of flight training conducted by the holder
of a flight training unit operator certificate.
5.6 CONTROLLED VISUAL FLIGHT RULES
(CVFR) PROCEDURES
Pilots intending to fly CVFR shall file a flight plan and obtain
an ATC clearance prior to entering Class B airspace. The ATC clearance will not normally be issued prior to takeoff unless the
airspace within a control zone is Class B. The ATC clearance
will normally be issued upon receipt of a position report filed
by the pilot upon reaching the last 1 000 feet altitude below the
base of Class B or before entering laterally. This procedure is
intended to ensure that the radio equipment is operating and to remind the pilots that, while outside of Class B airspace, ATC
separation is not provided and that they must maintain a vigilant
watch for other traffic. The ATC clearance will contain the
phrase “MAINTAIN (altitude) VFR”.
CVFR flights must be conducted in accordance with procedures
designed for use by IFR flights, except when IFR weather
conditions are encountered, the pilot of a CVFR flight must
avoid such weather conditions. This should be accomplished by:
(a) requesting an amended ATC clearance which will enable
the aircraft to remain in VFR weather conditions
(b) requesting an IFR clearance if the pilot has a valid instrument
rating and the aircraft is equipped for IFR flight.
(c) request special VFR if within a control zone.
If unable to comply with the preceding, ensure that the aircraft
is in VFR weather conditions at all times and leave Class B airspace
horizontally or by descending. If the airspace is a control zone,
land, at the aerodrome on which the control zone is based. In
both cases, inform ATC as soon as possible of the action taken. 5.7 EN ROUTE AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE (ATS)
SURVEILLANCE
When operating in areas where surveillance coverage exists,
visual flight rules (VFR) flights with transponder-equipped
aircraft may request air traffic service (ATS) surveillance traffic
information. Air traffic control (ATC) may provide this
information, traffic (or workload) permitting, depending on the
classification of the airspace (see RAC 2.8).
The service is provided by the area control centre (ACC) or
terminal control unit (TCU) responsible for instrument flight
rules (IFR) control service in the area(s) concerned. The
appropriate frequency for the controlling ATC unit may be found
in the Canada Flight Supplement ( CFS) (nearest controlled
airport), en route (IFR) charts or by request to a flight information
centre (FIC).
5.8 VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)
OPERATIONS WITHIN
CLASS C AIRSPACE
The following are the basic procedures for entry into, and for
operation within Class C airspace. Pilots should consult the
applicable VTA chart for any additional procedures that may
be required for that particular Class C airspace.
(a) Pilot Procedures
(i) Obtain ATIS information (when available) prior to contacting ATC.
(ii) Contact ATC on VFR advisory frequency (depicted on VTA charts) prior to entry into Class C airspace and provide the following information:
(A) aircraft type and identification,
(B) position (preferably over a VFR checkpoint
depicted on the VTA chart or a bearing and
distance from it, otherwise another prominent
reporting point or a VOR radial or VOR/DME fix),
(C) altitude,
(D) destination and route, and
(E) transponder code (if transponder equipped),
and ATIS (code) received.
(iii) Comply with ATC instructions received. Any ATC
instruction issued to VFR flights is based on the
firm understanding that a pilot will advise ATC
immediately if compliance with the instructions
would result in not being able to maintain adequate terrain or obstacle clearance, or to maintain flight
in accordance with VFR. If so advised, ATC will
issue alternate instructions.
(b) ATC Procedures
(i) Identify the aircraft with ATS surveillance. (Pilots may be required to report over additional fixes, or squawk ident on their transponder.) The provision
of an effective ATS surveillance service is dependent
upon communications equipment capabilities and
the adequacy of the surveillance-displayed
information. In the latter case, it may be difficult to
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACmaintain identification of aircraft which are not
operating on specific tracks or routes (i.e. sightseeing,
local training flights, etc.), and pilots will be advised
when ATS surveillance service cannot be provided.
(ii) Issue landing information on initial contact or shortly
thereafter unless the pilot states that the appropriate
ATIS information has been received.
(iii) Provide the aircraft with routing instructions or
vectors whenever necessary. The pilot will be
informed when vectoring is discontinued except
when transferred to a tower. Occasionally, an aircraft
may be held at established fixes within Class C
airspace to await a position in the landing sequence.
(iv) Issue traffic information when two or more aircraft
are held at the same fix, or whenever in the controller’s
judgement an ATS surveillance-observed target
might constitute a hazard to the aircraft concerned.
(v) When required, conflict resolution will be provided
between IFR and VFR aircraft, and upon request,
between VFR aircraft.
(vi) Visual separation may be effected when the pilot
reports sighting a preceding aircraft and is instructed
to follow it.
(vii) Inform the pilot when ATS surveillance service is
terminated, except when the aircraft has been
transferred to a tower.
6.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT
RULES (IFR) — GENERAL
6.1 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)
CLEARANCE
Air traffic control (ATC) clearance shall be obtained before
takeoff from any point within controlled airspace or before
entering controlled airspace for flight under instrument flight
rules (IFR) or during instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
According to Canadian Aviation Regulation (CAR) 602.31,
clearance received by a pilot must be read back to the controller,
except in certain circumstances. When clearance is received on the ground before departure from a controlled aerodrome and
a standard instrument departure (SID) is included in the
clearance, the pilot only needs to acknowledge receipt of the
clearance by repeating the aircraft call sign and the transponder
code that was assigned. If there is an amendment to the altitude
contained in the SID, that altitude shall also be read back.
Whenever the controller requests a full readback, the pilot shall comply. Also, the pilot may, at any time, read back a clearance in full to seek clarification.
Whenever clearance is received and accepted by the pilot, the
pilot shall comply with it. If the clearance cannot be accepted,
the pilot shall immediately notify ATC because simple
acknowledgement of the clearance will be interpreted by the
controller as acceptance. Pilots shall not deviate from a clearance except in an emergency
that necessitates immediate action, or in order to respond to an
airborne collision avoidance system/traffic alert and collision
avoidance system (ACAS/TCAS) resolution advisory (RA), a
warning from a ground proximity warning system (GPWS), or
a warning from an aircraft wind shear (WS) detection and
warning system (see MET 2.3). In these cases, the pilot shall
inform ATC as soon as possible and obtain an amended clearance
(as per CAR 602.31).
6.2 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
FLIGHTS IN VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL
CONDITIONS (VMC)
A pilot may elect to conduct a flight in accordance with IFR in VMC. Flights operating in accordance with IFR shall continue
in accordance with IFR, regardless of weather conditions. An
IFR clearance provides separation between IFR aircraft in
controlled airspace only. Pilots operating IFR must be aware of
the need to provide their own visual separation from VFR aircraft
when operating in VMC and from any other aircraft when
operating in uncontrolled airspace.
A pilot may cancel IFR, or close the IFR flight plan, provided
the aircraft is operating in VMC, is outside Class A or B airspace,
and it is expected that the flight will not return to IMC. If the
pilot closes the IFR flight plan or cancels IFR, ATC will discontinue
the provision of IFR control service.
Refer to RAC Closing a Flight Plan, for information on the
requirement to submit an arrival report and on the provision of alerting service upon closure or cancellation of IFR. Provided
the destination remains the same, a pilot may change an IFR
fight plan to a VFR fight plan without having to file a new flight plan. ATS will, however, confirm the aircraft’s destination and ETA and obtain a search and rescue time from the pilot.
6.2.1 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Clearance
with Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Restrictions
ATC may issue an IFR clearance for an aircraft to depart, climb
or descend VFR until a specified time, altitude, or location
provided
(a) the pilot requests it;
(b) the aircraft is outside Class A airspace;
(c) the aircraft is within Class B airspace at or below 12 500 ft ASL or within Class C, D or E airspace; and
(d) the weather conditions permit.
Pilots are reminded that during such a VFR restriction they
must provide their own separation, including wake turbulence
separation, from other IFR aircraft as well as from the VFR
traffic. Controllers normally issue traffic information concerning
other IFR aircraft, particularly in marginal weather conditions.
If compliance with the restriction is not possible, the pilot should
immediately advise ATC and request an amended clearance.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC6.2.2 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Release of an
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Aircraft
When a delay is experienced in receiving an IFR departure
clearance, a pilot may request approval to depart and maintain
VFR until an IFR clearance can be received. The conditions in the subsection above also apply in this situation. If the request for a VFR departure is approved, the pilot will be given a time,
altitude or location at which to contact ATC for an IFR clearance.
Depending upon the reasons for the IFR departure clearance
delay, a VFR departure of an IFR flight may not be approved by the IFR unit. In situations such as these, it may be desirable for the pilot to wait for the IFR departure clearance.
6.3 EMERGENCIES AND EQUIPMENT
FAILURES — INSTRUMENT FLIGHT
RULES (IFR)
6.3.1 Declaration of Emergency
Whenever pilots are faced with an emergency situation, ATC
expects the pilot to take whatever action is considered necessary.
ATC will assist pilots in any way possible whenever an emergency
is declared. Pilots are requested to advise ATC of any deviations
from IFR altitudes or routes necessitated by an emergency
situation as soon as it is practicable in order that every effort
can be made to minimize conflicts with other aircraft.
Pilots of transponder-equipped aircraft, when experiencing an
emergency and unable to establish communications immediately
with an ATC unit, may indicate “Emergency” to ATC by adjusting
the transponder to reply to Mode A/3 Code 7700. Thereafter,
radio communications should be established with ATC as soon
as possible.
It should be pointed out, however, that when Code 7700 is used,
the signal may not be detected because the aircraft may not be within the range of SSR coverage.
6.3.2 Two-Way Communications Failure
It is impossible to provide regulations and procedures applicable
to all possible situations associated with a two-way communications
failure. During a communications failure, when confronted by a situation not covered in the regulations, pilots are expected to
exercise good judgment in whatever action they elect to take.
The following procedures are the standard communications
failure procedures; however, they may be superseded by specific
procedures that take precedence. For example, some missed
approach and SID procedures may have specific published
communications failure procedures.
6.3.2.1 General
Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, the pilot-in-command of an aircraft that experiences a two-way communications failure when operating in or cleared to enter controlled airspace under
IFR, or when operating in or cleared to enter Class B or C airspace
under VFR shall:
(a) select the transponder to reply to Mode A/3 Code 7600
interrogations, if the aircraft is transponder-equipped; (b) maintain a listening watch on appropriate frequencies for
control messages or further clearances; acknowledge receipt
of any such messages by any means available, including the
use of approved satellite voice equipment or the selective
use of the normal/standby functions of transponders;
(c) attempt to contact any ATC facility or another aircraft,
inform them of the difficulty, and request they relay the
information to the ATC facility with whom communications
are intended;
(d) comply with the procedures specified by the Minister in
the CAP and the CFS, except where specific instructions
to cover an anticipated communications failure have been received from an ATC unit; and
(e) attempt to contact the appropriate NAV CANADA ATS
unit by means of a conventional cell or satellite phone, when
all of the above attempts have failed.
NOTE :
Approved SATCOM voice equipment refers to on-board
embedded equipment. Permanent satellite voice equipment is
installed and tested in accordance with appropriate certification
and airworthiness standards.
6.3.2.2 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight Plan
(a) Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) : If the failure
occurs in VMC, or if VMC are encountered after the failure,
the pilot-in-command shall continue the flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable.
NOTE :
This procedure applies in any class of airspace. The primary
purpose is to preclude extended IFR operation in controlled
airspace in VMC. However, it is not intended that the requirement
to “land as soon as practicable” be construed to mean “land as soon as possible.” The pilot retains the prerogative of exercising
his/her best judgment and is not required to land at an
unauthorized airport, at an airport unsuitable for the type of
aircraft flown, or to land only minutes short of destination.
(b) Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) : If the failure
occurs in IMC, or if the flight cannot be continued under
VMC, the pilot-in-command shall continue the flight
according to the following:
(i) Route
(A) by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance
received and acknowledged;
(B) if being vectored, by the direct route from the
point of communications failure to the fix, route,
or airway specified in the vector clearance;
(C) in the absence of an assigned route, by the route
that ATC has advised may be expected in a
further clearance; or
(D) in the absence of an assigned route or route
that ATC has advised may be expected in a
further clearance, by the route filed in the
flight plan.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC(ii) Altitude : At the highest of the following altitudes
or FLs for the route segment being flown :
(A) the altitude(s) or FLs assigned in the last ATC
clearance received and acknowledged;
(B) the minimum IFR altitude; or
(C) the altitude or FL ATC has advised may be
expected in a further clearance. (The pilot shall
commence climb to this altitude/FL at the time
or point specified by ATC to expect further
clearance/ altitude change.)
NOTES :
1. The intent of this is that an aircraft that has experienced a
communications failure will, during any segment of a flight,
be flown at an altitude that provides the required obstacle clearance.
2. If the failure occurs while being vectored at a vectoring
altitude that is lower than a published IFR altitude, the pilot
shall immediately climb to and maintain the appropriate
minimum IFR altitude until arrival at the fix, route or airway
specified in the clearance.
(iii) Descent for Approach : Maintain en route altitude
to the navigation facility or the approach fix to be
used for the IAP selected and commence an
appropriate descent procedure at whichever of the following times is the most recent:
(A) the ETA (ETA as calculated from take-off time
plus the estimated time en route filed or
amended [with ATC]);
(B) the ETA last notified to and acknowledged by ATC; or
(C) the EAT last received and acknowledged.
If failure occurs after you have received and acknowledged a
holding instruction, hold as directed and commence an
instrument approach at the EAT or expected further clearance time (EFC), whichever has been issued.
NOTES :
1. If the holding fix is not a fix from which an approach begins,
leave the fix at the expected further clearance time if one
has been received. If none has been received, proceed to a
fix from which an approach begins upon arrival over the
clearance limit. Commence descent and/or approach as
close as possible to the ETA as calculated from the filed
estimated time en route or as amended with ATC.
2. If cleared for a STAR, maintain the appropriate altitude
described above and proceed to the final approach fix (FAF):
(a) via the published routing;
(b) via the published routing to the segment where vectors are depicted to commence, then direct to the facility or fix serving the runway advised by ATIS or specified in the ATC clearance, for a straight-in approach, if able, or for the full procedure if one is published;
(c) for a CLOSED RNAV STAR, by flying the arrival as published, including any vertical and speed restraints
depicted in the procedure, and intercepting the final
approach course for a straight-in approach; or (d) for an OPEN RNAV STAR, by flying the arrival as
published, including any vertical and speed restraints
depicted in the procedure. The pilot is expected to
delete the heading leg at the DTW, to initiate an auto-turn at the DTW and FACF and to intercept the final approach course for a straight-in approach.
For flights to the United States, communications failure procedures are essentially the same, but it is the pilot’s
responsibility to consult the appropriate American publications.
Some instrument procedures do not include a procedure turn
but include the statement “ATS SURVEILLANCE REQUIRED”
as part of the procedure. The initial approach segment of these
instrument procedures is being provided by ATC vectors. Without
ATC vectoring, the instrument procedure may not have a
published initial approach segment.
Should an aircraft communications failure occur while the
aircraft is being vectored on one of these approaches, separately
or as part of a STAR, the pilot is expected to comply with the
communications failure procedure by selecting the transponder
to Mode A/3 Code 7600 immediately. Pilots should always be
aware of the traffic situation. For example, ATC may have indicated that your aircraft was second for an approach to
Runway 06L; under these circumstances, the flight should be
continued along the route that normally would have been expected
under vectoring. In some cases of communications failure, pilots
may need to revert to dead reckoning navigation (DR) to the
final approach course. It is important to other aircraft and ATC
for the aircraft experiencing a communications failure to continue
the flight along a route that would permit the aircraft to conduct
a straight-in approach and landing without unexpected
manoeuvring. Pilots are expected to exercise good judgment in these cases. Unexpected manoeuvres, such as turns away from
the final approach course, may cause traffic disruptions and
conflicts.
If the communications failure occurs while being vectored at a
vectoring altitude that is lower than a published IFR altitude
(e.g. minimum sector altitude 25 NM), the pilot shall immediately
climb to and maintain the appropriate minimum IFR altitude
until arrival at a fix associated with the instrument procedure.
Modern technology has introduced new on-board communications
capabilities, such as airborne telephone communications. Pilots
who are confronted with an aircraft communications failure
may, if circumstances permit, use this new on-board technology
to establish communications with the appropriate ATC units.
NAV CANADA publishes the phone numbers of ACCs, control towers, FICs and FSSs in the CFS.
6.3.3 Reporting Malfunctions of Navigation and Communications Equipment
The pilot-in-command of an aircraft in IFR flight within
controlled airspace should report immediately to the appropriate
ATC unit any malfunction of navigation or air-ground
communications equipment.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACExamples:
Loss of VOR, ADF or low frequency navigation capability.
Complete or partial loss of ILS capability. Impairment of air-ground communications capability. Impairment of transponder serviceability.
Having received this information, ATC will take into account
any limitations in navigation or air-ground communications
equipment in further clearances to the aircraft.
6.3.4 Fuel Dumping
Whenever it is necessary to jettison fuel, the pilot should
immediately notify ATC and provide information such as the
course to be flown, the period of time and weather conditions.
To allow for adequate vaporization, fuel dumping should be
carried out at least 2 000 feet above the highest obstacle within
5 NM of the track to be flown. ATC may suggest an alternate
area where fuel should be dumped; aircraft will be encouraged
to dump fuel on a constant heading over unpopulated areas and
clear of heavy traffic. When necessary information has been
obtained, ATC will broadcast on appropriate frequencies a “fuel
dumping” advisory. Pilots should advise ATC immediately when
fuel dumping has been completed.
6.4 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
SEPARATION
6.4.1 General
The following information is intended to acquaint pilots with
some of the basic non-ATS surveillance separation standards
applied by ATC and so facilitate flight planning and understanding
of ATC techniques.
6.4.2 Vertical Separation — General
The standard vertical separation minima is as follows:
FL 290 and below – 1 000 ft;
above FL 290 – 2 000 ft.
6.4.3 Vertical Separation Between Flight Levels
and Altitudes Above Sea Level (ASL)
When the altimeter setting is less than 29.92 in. Hg, there will
be less than 1 000 ft vertical separation between an aircraft flying
at 17 000 ft ASL with that altimeter setting and an aircraft flying
at FL 180, (with altimeter set at 29.92 in. Hg); therefore, the
lowest usable flight level will be assigned or approved in
accordance with the following table:
Altimeter Setting Lowest Usable Flight Level
29.92 in. or higher FL 180
29.91 in. to 28.92 in. FL 190
28.91 in. to 27.92 in. FL 2006.4.4 Longitudinal Separation—Distance-Based
Longitudinal separation of IFR flights based on distance is
established by ATC on the basis of position reports, expressed in units of distance, from the concerned aircraft determined in
relation to a common point. To account for the effect of slant
range, controllers must know when distance reports are derived
from DME when establishing longitudinal separation between a mix of RNAV/GNSS- and DME-equipped aircraft.
To this end, pilots should report distances based on RNAV and
GNSS in miles, e.g. 30 mi. from “Someplace.” When distance
reports are based on DME, pilots should state DME, e.g. 30 DME
from “Someplace.”
NOTE :
RNAV position reports derived from DME-DME computations
are not affected by slant range.
6.4.5 Lateral Separation — General
Lateral separation of IFR flights is provided by ATC in the form
of “airspace to be protected” in relation to a holding procedure,
instrument approach procedure or the approved track. The
dimensions of protected airspace for a particular track take into
account the accuracy of navigation that can be reasonably
expected. For track segments within signal coverage of NDB,
VOR or TACAN stations and along bearings/courses/radials of
such facilities, protected airspace takes into account the accuracy
of available track guidance, accuracy of airborne receiver and
indicator equipment, and a small pilotage tolerance. Separation is considered to exist provided the airspaces protected for each
aircraft do not overlap. It is essential, therefore, that accuracy
capability of navigation equipment be maintained.
Pilots of IFR or controlled VFR flights must adhere as closely
as practicable to the centreline of their approved airway or track.
If the aircraft inadvertently deviates from the approved track,
immediate action must be taken to regain the centreline as soon
as practicable. Pilots realizing that they are outside the airspace protected for their approved track must notify the appropriate ATC unit immediately.
6.4.6 Lateral Separation — Airways and Tracks
In the low-level airspace, the airspace to be protected is the full width of the airway as illustrated in RAC Low-Level Airways.
In the high-level airspace, all airspace is controlled within the
Southern, Northern, and Arctic Control Areas. As a result, a
high-level airway is “a prescribed track between specified radio
aids to navigation” and, thus, has no defined lateral dimensions.
Therefore, the airspace to be protected for airways and/or tracks
in the high-level airspace is the same as that for low-level airways.
Along off-airway tracks the “airspace to be protected” is 45 NM
each side of that portion of the track which is beyond navigational
and signal coverage range.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACFigure 6.1—Airspace to be Protected
Along Off-Airway Tracks
Additional airspace will be protected at and above FL 180 on
the manoeuvring side of tracks that change direction by more
than 15˚ overhead navigation aids or intersections. It is expected
that pilots of aircraft operating below FL 180 will make turns
so as to remain within the normal width of airways or airspace
protected for off-airway tracks.
Figure 6.2—Additional Airspace
to be Protected for Turns
Normally, the airspace to be protected for an approved track
will be based on the premise that the changeover from one
navigation reference to another will take place approximately
midway between facilities. Where this is not possible due to a
difference in the signal coverage provided by two adjacent
navigation aids, the equal signal point on an airway segment
will be shown.
To remain clear of restricted areas, active danger or alert areas,
or active areas such as the Churchill Rocket Range, pilots should
file a flight plan so that the airspace-to-be-protected for the
intended track do not overlap the area of concern.
6.4.7 Lateral Separation
— Instrument Approach Procedure
Air traffic controllers have been authorized to consider the basic
horizontal dimensions of intermediate approach areas, final
approach areas and missed approach areas, for obstacle clearance
purposes, as the airspace-to-be-protected for aircraft conducting
standard instrument approach procedures. Adequate horizontal
separation is then deemed to exist when the airspace-to-be-
protected for such aircraft do not overlap the
airspace-to-be-protected for aircraft en route, holding or conducting simultaneous adjacent instrument approaches. As
with other separation standards based on the airspace-to-be-
protected concept, it will be the pilot’s responsibility to remain
within the limits of airspace-to-be-protected. This can be
accomplished by following the procedures published in CAP or
approved for company use. If a pilot who is operating in controlled
airspace anticipates being unable to conduct the approach as
published, the pilot should inform ATC so that separation from other aircraft concerned can be increased as necessary.
6.5 VISUAL SEPARATION
6.5.1 General
Visual separation is a means of separating IFR aircraft using
visual observation and is performed by an airport controller or by a pilot, when a pilot is assigned responsibility for separation.
Visual separation may be applied in a CZ or TCA at 12 500 ft
ASL and below.
6.5.2 Speed Control Instructions on Departure
Visual departure separation procedures require airport controllers
to consider aircraft performance, wake turbulence, closure rate,
routes of flight and known weather conditions. Airport controllers
do not issue speed control instructions coincident with takeoff clearances. In addition, there is no increase in the incidence of speed control instructions issued by the departure controller.
6.5.3 Controller-Applied Visual Separation
The airport controller ensures separation through visual
observation of the aircraft involved. This type of visual separation
cannot be applied if departure routes or aircraft performance
preclude maintaining separation. ATC does not use visual
separation between successive departing IFR aircraft if wake
turbulence separation is required. Controller-applied visual
separation is normally seamless to pilots.
6.5.4 Pilot-Applied Visual Separation
Pilot-applied visual departure separation procedures require a
pilot to see the other aircraft involved and, upon instructions
from the controller, maintain visual separation from the other aircraft.
Pilots who accept responsibility for visual separation must
maintain constant visual contact, without referring to an airborne
surveillance system, with the other aircraft involved until visual
separation is discontinued. This responsibility does not eliminate
the pilot’s regulatory responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft;
meet noise abatement requirements; or meet obstacle clearance
requirements and is not intended to restrict pilots from completing
other necessary tasks.
ATC does not use pilot-applied visual separation between
successive departing IFR aircraft if wake turbulence separation
is required. If, for any reason, the pilot refuses pilot-applied
visual separation, ATC will separate departures using another form of IFR separation.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACExample phraseology for pilot-applied visual departure
separation:
Tower: AIRLINE ONE TWO THREE, TRAFFIC [position,
type of aircraft, intentions, etc.] CONFIRM TRAFFIC
IN SIGHT?
Pilot: AIRLINE ONE TWO THREE, TRAFFIC IN SIGHT.
Tower: AIRLINE ONE TWO THREE, MAINTAIN VISUAL
SEPARATION [other information or instructions, as
required] CLEARED FOR TAKE-OFF.
Pilot: AIRLINE ONE TWO THREE, MAINTAINING
VISUAL SEPARATION [read back additional
instructions, as appropriate].
Visual separation is discontinued when either aircraft is observed
on a diverging heading, unless otherwise advised by ATC.
Pilots must notify ATC as soon as possible if:
(a) they anticipate losing sight of the other aircraft;
(b) course deviations are required to maintain visual separation
with preceding traffic; or
(c) they suspect they will be unable to maintain visual separation
for any reason.
In these cases, another form of IFR separation will be applied
by ATC.
6.6 DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENT
PROCEDURES
Instrument procedure development worldwide follows one of
two existing standards: ICAO Procedures for Air Navigation
Services—Aircraft Operations , Volume II— Construction of Visual
and Instrument Flight Procedures (Doc 8168); or the United States
Standard for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS).
Instrument procedures in CDA are developed in accordance
with a document entitled Criteria for the Development of
Instrument Procedures (TP 308). This document is a joint TC/
DND publication and prescribes standardized methods for use
in designing both civil and military instrument flight procedures.
In order to achieve ICAO regional commonality, the instrument
procedure design standards and criteria contained in TP 308
are modeled after the standards and criteria contained in the
TERPS.
Strict adherence by pilots to the published instrument procedures
will ensure an acceptable level of safety in flight operations.
7.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES
– DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
7.1 AERODROME OPERATIONS
Pilots should read the subsections above, in conjunction with
the IFR departure procedures listed in this section. 7.2 AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION
SERVICE (ATIS) BROADCASTS
If available, the basic aerodrome information should be obtained
from ATIS prior to requesting taxi clearance.
7.3 INITIAL CONTACT
On initial contact with ATC (clearance delivery or ground
control), a pilot departing IFR should state the destination and
planned initial cruising altitude.
7.4 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
CLEARANCES
At locations where a “Clearance Delivery” frequency is listed,
pilots should obtain their IFR clearance on this frequency prior
to contacting ground control. Where no clearance delivery
frequency is listed, the IFR clearance will normally be relayed
by ground control after taxi authorization has been issued.
However, due to high fuel consumption during ground running
time, some pilots of turbojet aircraft may wish to obtain their
IFR clearance prior to starting engines. Pilots using this procedure
should call ATC, using a phrase such as READY TO START
NOW or READY TO START AT (TIME). Normally this request
should be made within 5 minutes of the planned engine start time.
7.5 PRE-TAXI CLEARANCE (PTC)
PROCEDURES AT STAFFED FLIGHT
SERVICE STATION (FSS) SITES
At published FSS across Canada, pilots can receive pre-taxi
instrument flight rules (IFR) clearance (PTC) information well
ahead of their proposed departure time, which allows them to
enter this information into their flight management system (FMS).
Reports indicate aviation safety is increased when pilots are
allowed to exercise “heads up” operations during taxi operations
instead of their being preoccupied entering information in their
FMS. Pre-taxi clearances are not available for IFR itineraries as
they cannot be electronically formatted for pre-taxi clearance
delivery.
Pre-taxi clearances relayed to pilots will contain the following
restriction:
“DO NOT DEPART UNTIL DEPARTURE VALIDATION IS
RECEIVED”
When the pilot is ready to taxi for departure, they will request
validation from the flight service specialist who will advise the
responsible controller. The controller will provide PTC validation
or an amended IFR clearance to the flight service specialist who
will relay this information to the pilot. Pilots must ensure they have received IFR clearance validation prior to take off. If pilots
request a visual flight rule (VFR) departure after receiving a
PTC, the area control center (ACC) can authorize a VFR departure
on the current clearance or cancel the PTC and issue the VFR departure and a new clearance.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC7.6 STANDARD INSTRUMENT
DEPARTURE (SID)
At certain airports, an instrument flight rules (IFR) departure
clearance may include departure instructions known as a
standard instrument departure (SID). A SID is a planned IFR
air traffic control (ATC) departure procedure, published in the
Canada Air Pilot (CAP), for pilot and controller use in graphic and textual form. SIDs provide a transition from the terminal to the appropriate en route structure, and may be either:
(a) pilot navigation SIDs —established where the pilot is required
to use the chart as reference for navigation to the en route phase; or
(b) vector SIDs —established where ATC will provide
navigational guidance to a filed/assigned route or to a fix
depicted on the chart. Pilots are expected to use the SID
chart as reference for navigation until vectoring
has commenced.
SIDs incorporate obstacle and terrain clearance within the
procedure. Pilots should note, however, that SIDs for military
aerodromes that are only available in textual form do not
incorporate obstacle and terrain clearance. At these aerodromes,
it is the pilot’s responsibility to ensure appropriate obstacle and terrain clearance on departure.
Pilots of aircraft operating at airports for which SIDs have been
published will normally be issued a SID clearance by ATC. No
pilot is required to accept a SID clearance. If any doubt exists
as to the meaning of such a clearance, the pilot should request a detailed clearance.
Routings contained in SIDs will normally be composed of
two segments:
(a) an initial segment from the departure end of the runway
to the position where the aircraft will first turn from the
initial departure heading; and
(b) a second segment, either via vectors or by pilot navigation, from the first turning point to the SID termination point.
When instructed to fly on the runway heading, or when flying
a SID for which no specific heading is published, pilots are
expected to fly or maintain the heading that corresponds with
the extended centreline of the departure runway until otherwise
instructed by ATC. Drift correction must not be applied, e.g.
Runway 04, if the actual magnetic heading of the runway
centreline is 044°, then fly a heading of 044°M.
When flying a SID for which a specific heading is published,
the pilot is expected to steer the published SID heading until
vectoring commences. This is because initial separation is based
on divergence between assigned headings until ATS surveillance
separation is established.When assigning SIDs, ATC will include the following:
(a) the name of SID;
(b) the SID termination fix, if appropriate;
(c) the transition, if necessary; and
(d) the time or location for the aircraft to expect a climb to an
operationally suitable altitude or flight level, if necessary.
(NOTE : An “expect further clearance” statement may be
included in the SID chart.)
Example:
CLEARED TO THE CALGARY AIRPORT, TORONTO ONE DEPARTURE, FLIGHT PLANNED ROUTE.
NOTE :
A SID termination fix may be a NAVAID, intersection, or DME and is normally located on an established airway where the SID
terminates and the en route phase of flight commences. The
SID, as published, contains an altitude to climb to after departure;
however, ATC may assign an altitude different from the altitude
specified in the SID, provided the altitude is stated and a readback
is obtained from the pilot prior to departure. In addition, where
vector SIDs are used, ATC may assign a different initial departure
heading. However, an ATC revision to any item of a SID does
not cancel the SID.
Example:
CLEARED TO THE CALGARY AIRPORT,
TORONTO ONE DEPARTURE, FLIGHT PLANNED ROUTE, CLIMB TO AMENDED ALTITUDE, SEVEN THOUSAND…
If an aircraft is issued a vector SID, vectors will be used, as traffic
permits, to provide navigational guidance to the filed/assigned
route and over the SID termination fix. However, if the controller
or the aircraft will gain an operational advantage, the aircraft may be vectored on a route that will not take the aircraft over the SID termination fix.
In this case, if ATC had previously specified a SID termination
fix as the location for the aircraft to expect to climb to an
operationally suitable altitude or flight level, the controller shall
cancel the SID. If, with the change of clearance, it is not practicable
for the controller to assign an operationally suitable altitude or
flight level, the controller will specify another location or time to expect the higher altitude.
Example:
SID CANCELLED, VECTORS TO (fix or airway)
(heading). EXPECT FLIGHT LEVEL THREE FIVE
ZERO AT FOUR FIVE D ‑M‑E WEST OF
EDMONTON VORTAC.
It is impossible to precisely define “operationally suitable
altitudes” to meet requirements in all circumstances.
The following are considered operationally suitable altitudes or
flight levels:
(a) piston aircraft —flight planned altitude or lower; and
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC(b) other aircraft —flight planned altitude or altitude as near
as possible to the flight planned altitude, taking into
consideration the aircraft’s route of flight. As a guideline,
an altitude not more than 4 000 ft below the flight planned flight level in the high-level structure will be considered as operationally suitable in most cases.
If it is not practicable for the controller to assign the flight planned
altitude and if the pilot has not been informed as to when they
may expect a clearance to another altitude, it is the pilot’s
responsibility to advise ATC if the currently assigned altitude
is not satisfactory to permit the aircraft to proceed to the
destination airport, should a communications failure occur.
The controller will then be required to issue an appropriate
“expect further clearance” statement or issue alternative
instructions.
Controllers are required to issue a clearance to the altitude or
flight level the pilot was told to expect prior to the time or location
specified in an “expect further clearance” statement. The pilot
must ensure that further clearance is received because the “altitude to be expected” included in the clearance is not
applicable:
(a) once the aircraft has proceeded beyond the fix specified in the “expect further clearance” statement; or
(b) once the time designated in the “expect further clearance” statement has expired.
SIDs may include specific communications failure procedures.
These specific procedures supersede the standard communication
failure procedures.
SIDs, as published, will not contravene noise abatement
procedures. ATC-assigned vectors will not normally contravene
noise abatement procedures; however, for flight safety reasons,
ATC may be required to issue a vector contrary to noise abatement
requirements.
ATC-assigned vectors shall be followed in a timely manner even
if they conflict with the published noise abatement procedures.
The initial call to departure control should contain at least:
(a) the aircraft call sign;
(b) the departure runway;
(c) the present vacating altitude (to the nearest 100-ft increment);
and
(d) the assigned (SID) altitude.
Example:
OTTAWA DEPARTURE, BEECH GOLF ALFA
BRAVO TANGO, OFF RUNWAY 25, HEADING 250,
LEAVING 1 900 FOR 4 000.
NOTE :
An altitude readout is valid if the readout value does not differ
from the aircraft reported altitude by more than 200 ft. Pilot
altitude reports should be made to the nearest 100-ft increment.7.7 NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
— DEPARTURE
7.7.1 General
These aeroplane operating procedures for the takeoff and climb
have been developed so as to ensure that the necessary safety of flight operations is maintained whilst minimizing exposure to
noise on the ground. One of the two procedures listed in the
subsections below should be applied routinely for all takeoffs
where noise abatement procedures are in effect.
Nothing in these procedures shall prevent the pilot-in-command
from exercising authority for the safe operation of the aeroplane,
except that when a climb gradient is published, it must be
maintained, or alternate procedures must be adopted.
The procedures herein describe the methods for noise abatement
when a noise problem is evident. They can comprise any one or more of the following:
(a) use of noise preferential runways to direct the initial and
final flight paths of aeroplanes away from noise-sensitive
areas;
(b) use of noise preferential routes to assist aeroplanes in avoiding
noise-sensitive areas on departure and arrival, including
the use of turns to direct aeroplanes away from noise-
sensitive areas located under or adjacent to the usual takeoff
and approach flight paths; and
(c) use of noise abatement takeoff or approach procedures,
designed to minimize the overall exposure to noise on the ground and, at the same time, maintain the required levels of flight safety.
7.7.2 Noise Preferential Runways
Preferred runway directions for takeoff are designated for noise
abatement purposes; the objective being to use, whenever possible,
those runways that permit aeroplanes to avoid noise-sensitive
areas during the initial departure and final approach phases
of flight.
Noise abatement is not the determining factor in runway
designation under the following circumstances:
(a) if the runway is not clear and dry, i.e. it is adversely affected
by snow, slush, ice, water, mud, rubber, oil or other substances;
(b) when the crosswind component, including gusts, exceeds 25 KIAS; and
(c) when the tail wind component, including gusts, exceeds 5 kt.
NOTE :
Although ATS personnel may select a preferential runway in
accordance with the foregoing criteria, pilots are not obligated
to accept the runway for taking off or landing. It remains the
pilot’s responsibility to decide if the assigned runway is
operationally acceptable.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC7.7.3 Noise Abatement Departure Procedure
(NADP)
NADPs are designed to minimize the environmental impact of
departing aircraft without compromising safety. Typically,
operators require two procedures: one to minimize close-in
noise (NADP 1) and the other to minimize noise over a more
distant noise-sensitive area (NADP 2).
Under the NADP concept, airport operators identify their noise
and emission control needs and may identify specific noise-
sensitive areas. Aircraft operators choose the departure method
that safely meets the airport operator’s objectives.
When deciding on a noise abatement strategy, it is important to
keep in mind that each procedure minimizes noise in its target
area at the expense of relatively increased noise elsewhere.
NADP 1 reduces noise immediately after takeoff but results in higher downrange noise than NADP 2, and vice versa. For each
aircraft type, powerplant and set of take-off conditions, there
is a distance at which the NADP 1 and NADP 2 noise contours
cross over. The area from the take-off to the crossover point
defines the close-in zone of NADP 1, while the area beyond the crossover point is the effective range of NADP 2.
When developing a noise abatement strategy, airports and air
operators should consider the following:
(a) All necessary obstacle data shall be made available to the
operator, and the procedure design gradient shall be
observed.
(b) The power or thrust settings specified in the aircraft
operating manual are to take account of the need for engine
anti-icing when applicable.
(c) Noise abatement procedures shall not be executed below
800 ft AAE.
(d) The level of power or thrust for the flap/slat configuration, after power/thrust reduction, shall not be less than:
(i) for aeroplanes in which derated take-off thrust and
climb thrust are computed by the flight management
system, the computed climb power/thrust; or
(ii) for other aeroplanes, normal climb power/thrust.
(e) To minimize the impact on training while maintaining
flexibility to address variations in the location of noise-
sensitive areas, the operator shall develop no more than two
noise abatement procedures for each aeroplane type. One procedure should provide noise benefits for areas close to the aerodrome, and the other for areas more distant from the aerodrome.
(f) Any difference of power/thrust reduction initiation height for noise abatement purposes constitutes a new procedure.
(g) Noise abatement departure shall not invalidate an engine-out departure procedure (EODP).
(h) Where possible, each aircraft type should base its standard departure procedure on the noise abatement strategy that minimizes its overall noise impact.
(i) Operators serving certain noise-sensitive airports may need
to follow specific, non-standard departure procedures. Crew training and departure information shall address identification
and procedural differences associated with alternate noise
abatement procedures.
(j) Where applicable, air traffic control agencies should be
involved in the development of noise abatement procedures.
In addition to the above general requirements, the following
operational limitations apply:
(a) The pilot-in-command has the authority to decide not to
execute a noise abatement departure procedure if conditions
preclude the safe execution of the procedure.
(b) NADPs requiring reduced take-off power/thrust settings
may be flown only when reduced power/thrust is permitted
by the aircraft flight manual or aircraft operating manual.
(c) Initial power or thrust reductions shall not be executed
below a height of 800 ft AAE.
(d) Aircraft limitations, including maximum body angle limits,
shall always be respected.
(e) Noise abatement procedures are not to be used when wind
shear warnings exist, or the presence of wind shear or
microburst activity is suspected.
(f) Power or thrust settings to be used after the failure or shutdown of an engine or any other apparent loss of
performance, at any stage in the take-off or noise abatement
climb, are at the discretion of the pilot-in-command, and noise abatement considerations no longer apply. An engine
failure during takeoff is a non-normal condition, and
therefore takes precedence over noise abatement, air traffic,
SIDs, departure procedures, and other normal operating
considerations.
(g) Conduct of noise abatement procedures is secondary to the
satisfaction of obstacle requirements.
NADPs start at or above 800 ft and initiate the final stage at or
below 3 000 ft AAE, allowing operators to develop specific
procedures to suit their local situations.
To illustrate the concept, two NADP-compliant procedures are
described below. Each one describes one method, but not the
only method, of providing noise reduction for noise-sensitive
areas. Operators are free to design other procedures that fit
within the NADP envelopes.
7.7.3.1 NADP 1 (Criteria for a Close-in Noise-sensitive
Area) Description
This procedure involves a power reduction at or above the
prescribed minimum altitude (no less than 800 ft) AAE and
delaying flap/slat retraction until the prescribed maximum
altitude (3 000 ft) AAE is attained. At 3 000 ft AAE, accelerate
and retract flaps/slats on schedule, while maintaining a positive
rate of climb, and complete the transition to normal en route
climb speed. The initial climbing speed to the noise abatement
initiation point is no less than V2 + 10 KIAS.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACIn summary:
(a) Initial climb to at least 800 ft AAE:
(i) power/thrust as set for takeoff;
(ii) flaps/slats in take-off configuration; and
(iii) climb speed not less than V2 + 10 kt.
(b) At or above 800 ft AAE:
(i) initiate power/thrust reduction;
(ii) maintain climb speed not less than V2 + 10 kt to
20 kt; and
(iii) maintain flaps/slats in take-off configuration.
(c) At 3 000 ft AAE:
(i) maintain positive rate of climb;
(ii) accelerate to en route climb speed; and
(iii) retract flaps/slats on schedule.
Specific example of an NADP 1 profile:
Figure 7.1—NADP 1
NOTE :
To assist in planning departure spacing, pilots intending to use
NADP 1 at Canadian airports are to notify ATC clearance delivery
or ground control. At airports where NADP 1 is the only
procedure to follow, ATC does not need to be notified.
7.7.3.2 NADP 2 (Criteria for a More Distant Noise-
sensitive Area) Description
This procedure involves the initiation of flap/slat retraction and
accelerating towards VZF at or above the prescribed minimum
altitude (800 ft) AAE but before reaching the prescribed maximum
altitude (3 000 ft) AAE. The flaps/slats are to be retracted on
schedule, while maintaining a positive rate of climb. Intermediate
flap retraction, if required for performance, may be accomplished
below the prescribed minimum altitude. The power/thrust
reduction is initiated at a point along the acceleration segment
that ensures satisfactory acceleration performance. At the
prescribed maximum altitude, complete the transition to normal
en route climb procedures. The initial climbing speed to the
noise abatement initiation point is no less than V2 + 10 KIAS
and the noise abatement procedure is not to be initiated at less
than 800 ft AAE.In summary:
(a) Initial climb to at least 800 ft AAE:
(i) power/thrust as set for takeoff;
(ii) flaps/slats in take-off configuration; and
(iii) climb speed not less than V2 + 10 kt.
(b) At or above 800 ft AAE, maintain a positive rate of climb and accelerate towards V
ZF, and:
(i) retract flaps/slats on schedule; and
(ii) reduce power/thrust at a point along the acceleration
segment that ensures satisfactory acceleration
performance.
(c) Continue the climb to 3 000 ft AAE at a climb speed of not less than V
ZF.
(d) At 3 000 ft AAE, transition to normal en route climb speed.
Specific example of an NADP 2 profile:
Figure 7.2—NADP 2
At 800 ft and while maintaining apositive rate of climb, body angle is reducedand flaps/slats are retracted on schedule as the aeroplaneis accelerated towards V
ZFPower/thrust is reduced during the flap/slatretraction sequence at a point that ensuressatisfactory acceleration performance
Take-off thrust, speed V2 + 10 to 20 kt
The use of this guidance material should be limited to acquiring
general insight into NADPs. In applying this guidance, users
should seek expert noise and emissions advice.
7.8 OBSTACLE AND TERRAIN CLEARANCE
Aerodromes that have an instrument approach procedure (IAP)
published in the Canada Air Pilot (CAP) also have an instrument
flight rules (IFR) departure procedure.
There are two types of IFR departure procedures: the standard
instrument departure (SID) and the obstacle departure
procedure (ODP). SIDs are developed to establish a traffic flow
(see RAC 7.5) while ODPs are pilot initiated. Both types meet
obstacle and terrain clearance requirements. IFR departure procedures are expressed in the form of take-off
minima on an aerodrome chart. These procedures are based on the premise that, on departure, an aircraft will
(a) cross at least 35 ft above the departure end of the runway;
(b) climb straight ahead to 400 ft above aerodrome
elevation (AAE) before turning; and
(c) maintain a climb gradient of at least 200 ft/NM throughout
the climb to a minimum IFR altitude for en route operations.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACClimb gradients greater than 200 ft/NM may be published. In
this case, the aircraft is expected to achieve and maintain the
published gradient to the specified altitude or fix, then continue
climbing at a minimum of 200 ft/NM until reaching a minimum
IFR altitude for en route operations.
For flight planning purposes, IFR departure procedures assume
normal aircraft performance in all cases.
ODPs in the take-off minima box are shown as either:
(a) 1/2—This indicates that IFR departures from the specified
runway(s) will be assured of obstacle and terrain clearance
in any direction, if the aircraft meets the previously stated
departure premise. Pilots may consider this procedure as
“takeoff, climb on course.” The minimum visibility (unless
otherwise approved by the appropriate authority) for takeoff
in these circumstances is 1/2 SM. IFR takeoffs for rotorcraft
are permitted when the take-off visibility is reduced to half the CAP value, but no less than 1/4 SM.
(b) * (asterisk) —The asterisk (*) following all or specific runways
refers the pilot to the applicable minimum take-off visibility
(1/2 or SPEC VIS) and the corresponding procedures which,
if followed, will ensure obstacle and terrain clearance.
Procedures may include specific climb gradients, routings,
visual climb requirements, locations of close-in obstacles
(see RAC 7.7.2), or combinations thereof. Where a visual
climb is stated in the departure procedure, pilots are expected
to comply with the specified takeoff minimum visibility
(SPEC VIS) corresponding to the appropriate aircraft
category listed in the following table:
Table 7.1—Aircraft Categories and
the Associated SPEC VIS
Aircraft Category A B C D
SPEC VIS in SM 1 1 1/2 2 2
NOTE
No reductions in SPEC VIS are permitted for rotorcraft. For
further information on SPEC VIS, see RAC 7.7.1.
(c) NOT ASSESSED —IFR departures have not been assessed
for obstacles. Pilots-in-command (PICs) are responsible for
determining minimum climb gradients and/or routings for
obstacle and terrain avoidance.
In the absence of a published visibility for a particular runway,
a pilot may depart IFR only if take-off visibility will allow
avoidance of obstacles and terrain on departure. In no case
should the take-off visibility be less than 1/2 SM (1/4 SM for
rotorcraft).
Where aircraft limitations or other factors preclude the pilot
from following the published procedure, it is the PIC’s
responsibility to determine alternative procedures that take into
account obstacle and terrain avoidance.
Air traffic control (ATC) terms such as “on departure, right turn
climb on course” or “on departure, left turn on course” are not to be considered specific departure instructions. It remains the
pilot’s responsibility to ensure that terrain and obstacle clearance
has been achieved by conforming to the IFR departure procedures.
7.8.1 Visual Climb Over The Airport (VCOA)
VCOA—sometimes referred to as “climb visual” or “visual climb”
in the CAP —was developed to provide an alternate IFR departure
procedure for aircraft that cannot meet the greater-than-standard
climb gradient specified in the primary instrument departure procedure.
NOTE :
Occasionally, VCOA may be the only available departure
procedure developed for an aerodrome.
VCOA differs from other instrument departure procedures in that the
pilot must maintain certain visual references with the ground and obstacles
until reaching a given altitude over the aerodrome.
NOTE :
Even though the aircraft is being operated with visual references
to the ground, it is still departing on an IFR clearance.
The VCOA text includes a SPEC VIS and a climb-to altitude in
feet above sea level. The SPEC VIS is the minimum visibility in
statute miles that a pilot requires to manoeuvre the aircraft while
climbing. The climb-to altitude is the minimum altitude above
the aerodrome that the aircraft must reach before departing
en route.
It is the pilot’s responsibility to see and avoid obstacles while
climbing visually. The pilot should be familiar with the local
terrain and the obstacles that surround the aerodrome and plan
the climb appropriately. Taking local traffic and obstacles into consideration, it is advisable that the pilot keep the aerodrome
in sight while climbing. The visual climb segment ends when
the aircraft crosses the aerodrome at or above the required
minimum altitude. From this point on, obstacles will be cleared
if the aircraft maintains a minimum climb gradient of 200 ft/NM to the en-route structure.
The PIC should ensure that the reported ceiling is above the
climb-to altitude and that the local prevailing visibility is equal to or greater than that required in the procedure. Additionally, before taxiing for departure, the PIC should inform ATC of the
intention to perform a VCOA so that the appropriate coordination
can be ensured. If ATC services are not available, then intentions
should be broadcast on the ATF (see RAC 7.9).
7.8.2 Low, Close-in Obstacles
Obstacles that penetrate the standard OCS require the publication
of a climb gradient. However, certain close-in obstacles may be exempt from this requirement. Instead, a note is published on
the departure procedure and/or on the aerodrome chart. The
note alerts the pilot to the nature of the close-in obstacle and
gives its height and location so that it may be avoided. An obstacle
is determined to be “close-in” if it is within 1 NM of the departure
end of the runway, or within 1 NM from the end of the clearway,
if a clearway exists. Either way, the charted distance to the obstacle
will be noted as being from the departure end of the runway.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACIf the obstacle(s) cannot be visually acquired during departure,
pre-flight planning should take into account the turns or other manoeuvres that may be necessary immediately after takeoff to
avoid the obstacle(s). These obstacles are especially critical to
aircraft that do not lift off until close to the departure end of
the runway or that climb at the minimum rate.
7.9 RELEASE FROM TOWER FREQUENCY
If the departure airport is located within a terminal control area,
the departing IFR flight will be cleared by the tower to contact
a specific control unit on a specified frequency once clear of
conflicting airport traffic. At certain locations, flights will be
advised prior to takeoff to change to a specified departure
frequency. In this case, the change should be made as soon as
practicable after takeoff.
If the departure airport is not located within a terminal control
area, the pilot, when requesting release from tower frequency,
should advise the tower of the agency or frequency to which he/
she will change unless directions for the change were included in the ATC clearance.
7.10 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT
RULES (IFR) DEPARTURES FROM
UNCONTROLLED AIRPORTS
Where a pilot-in-command intends to take off from an
uncontrolled aerodrome, the pilot shall:
(a) obtain an ATC clearance if in controlled airspace;
(b) report their departure procedure and intentions on the
appropriate frequency before moving on to the runway or before aligning the aircraft on the take off path; and
(c) ascertain by radio on the appropriate frequency and by
visual observation that no other aircraft or vehicle is likely to come into conflict with the aircraft during takeoff.
The pilot-in-command shall maintain a listening watch:
(a) during takeoff from an uncontrolled aerodrome; and
(b) after takeoff from an uncontrolled aerodrome for which a
MF has been designated, until the aircraft is beyond the
distance or above the altitude associated with that frequency.
As soon as possible after reaching the distance or altitude
associated with the MF, the pilot-in-command shall communicate
with the appropriate ATC unit or a ground station on the
appropriate en-route frequency.
Where IFR departures are required to contact an IFR control
unit or ground station after takeoff, it is recommended that, if
the aircraft is equipped with two radios, the pilot should also
monitor the MF during the departure. If the aerodrome is located in uncontrolled airspace, these
procedures shall be followed except that an ATC clearance is
not required. In addition to maintaining a listening watch, it is
recommended that the pilot-in-command communicate with
the appropriate ATC unit, FIC, or other ground station on the appropriate en-route frequency.
NOTE :
It is recommended that pilots inform ATC if a flight will not
commence within 60 min of the proposed departure time stipulated
in an IFR flight plan. Failure to do so will result in activating the
SAR process.
At an uncontrolled aerodrome, the initial IFR clearance may
contain a time or an event-based departure restriction or clearance
cancellation.
Examples:
ATC CLEARS AIRLINE123 (IFR clearance) DO NOT
DEPART UNTIL 1340; CLEARANCE CANCELLED IF NOT AIRBORNE BEFORE 1349.
orATC CLEARS AIRLINE123 (IFR clearance) DO NOT
DEPART UNTIL CESSNA ABC HAS LANDED; CLEARANCE CANCELLED IF NOT AIRBORNE BEFORE 1349 .
In the first example, the clearance is valid the moment the time turns 1340, and in both examples, the clearance is cancelled the moment the time turns 1349.
7.11 ALERTING SERVICE INSTRUMENT
FLIGHT RULES (IFR) DEPARTURES
FROM UNCONTROLLED AIRPORTS
At locations where communication with ATS is difficult, pilots
may elect to depart VFR and obtain their IFR clearance once
airborne. In Canada, if IFR clearance is not received prior to
departure, SAR alerting service is activated based on the ETD filed in the flight plan. However, if departing from a Canadian airport that underlies airspace delegated to FAA control, then responsibility for SAR alerting service is transferred to the FAA and FAA procedures apply. In such cases, alerting service is not
activated until the aircraft contacts ATS for IFR clearance. Therefore, if the aircraft departs before obtaining its IFR clearance, alerting service is not provided until contact is
established with ATS.
8.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) – EN ROUTE PROCEDURES
8.1 POSITION REPORTS
Pilots of instrument flight rules (IFR) and controlled VFR (CVFR)
flights are required to make position reports over compulsory
reporting points specified on IFR charts, and over any other
reporting points specified by air traffic control (ATC).
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACAs specified in Canadian Aviation Regulation (CAR) 602.125,
the position report shall include the information in the sequence
set out on page C2 of the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS), that
is:
(a) the identification;
(b) the position;
(c) the time over the reporting point in coordinated universal
time (UTC);
(d) the altitude or flight level;
(e) the type of flight plan or flight itinerary filed;
(f) the name of the next designated reporting point and
estimated time of arrival (ETA) over that point in UTC;
(g) the name only of the next reporting point along the route
of flight (see NOTE); and
(h) any additional information requested by ATC or deemed
necessary by the pilot.
NOTE :
Reporting points are indicated by a symbol on the appropriate charts. The “designated compulsory” reporting point is a solid triangle and the “on request” reporting point symbol is an open triangle. Position reports over an “on request” reporting point
are only necessary when requested by ATC. Therefore, no mention
of an “on request” reporting point needs to be made in any
position report unless it has been requested by ATC.
En route IFR and CVFR flights should establish direct controller-
pilot communications (DCPC) wherever possible. Peripheral
stations (PAL) have been established at a number of locations
to extend the communications coverage. Some PAL locations
also employ a radio re-transmit unit (RRTU). The purpose of
the RRTU is to transmit a pilot’s broadcast from one PAL location
over another frequency at a different PAL location. This allows
the pilot to know when the controller is working communications
traffic on a different PAL frequency. Controllers at an area control
centre (ACC) can disable this equipment when necessary due
to the communications workload. However, it must be remembered
that, while DCPC provides direct contact with the IFR unit at
locations where there is no VFR control and aerodrome advisory
service (AAS) or remote aerodrome advisory service (RAAS) is provided, pilots must also communicate with the flight service station (FSS) or flight information centre (FIC) for local traffic
information. Whenever DCPC cannot be established, or whenever
ATC has instructed a pilot to contact a FIC, position reports
shall be made through the assigned FIC or the nearest
communications agency en route.
When the pilot-in-command of an IFR aircraft is informed that
the aircraft has been IDENTIFIED, position reports over
compulsory reporting points are no longer required. Pilots will be informed when to resume normal position reporting.
In order that flight information and alerting service may be
provided to all IFR flights outside controlled airspace, pilots
should make position reports over all navigation aids (NAVAID)
along the route of flight to the nearest station with air-ground communications capability. If the time estimate for the next applicable reporting point differs
from the previously reported estimate by 3 min or more, a revised
estimated time should be reported to the appropriate air traffic service (ATS) unit as soon as possible.
8.2 MACH NUMBER/TRUE AIRSPEED—
CLEARANCES AND REPORTS
8.2.1 Mach Number
Clearances to turbojet aircraft equipped with a Machmeter may
include an appropriate Mach number. If the Mach number cannot
be adhered to, ATC is to be so informed when the clearance is
issued. Once accepted, the Mach number shall be adhered to
within .01 Mach, unless ATC approval is obtained to make a
change. If an immediate temporary change in Mach number is
necessary (e.g. because of turbulence), ATC must be notified as
soon as possible. When a Mach number is included in a clearance,
the flight concerned should transmit its current Mach number with each position report.
8.2.2 True Airspeed (TAS)
ATC is to be notified as soon as practicable of an intended change
to the TAS at the cruising altitude or flight level, where the
change intended is five percent or more of the TAS specified in the IFR flight plan or flight itinerary.
8.3 ALTITUDE REPORTS
Although the CARs do not specifically direct pilots to report
altitude information to ATC, pilots, if not operating in
ATS surveillance airspace (i.e. identified by ATC), should report
reaching the altitude to which the flight has been initially cleared.
When climbing or descending en route, pilots should report
when leaving a previously-assigned altitude and when reaching the assigned altitude.
On initial contact with ATC, or when changing from one ATC
frequency to another, when operating in surveillance or non-
surveillance airspace, pilots of IFR and CVFR flights should
state the assigned cruising altitude and, when applicable, the
altitude through which the aircraft is climbing or descending.
In order for ATC to use Mode C altitude information for
separation purposes, the aircraft Mode C altitude readout must
be verified. The Mode C altitude is considered valid if the readout
value does not differ from the aircraft reported altitude by more
than 200 ft. The readout is considered invalid if the difference
is 300 ft or more. Therefore, it is expected that pilot altitude
reports, especially during climbs and descents, will be made to
the nearest 100-ft increment.
Example:
EDMONTON CENTRE, AIR CANADA EIGHT ZERO
ONE HEAVY, LEAVING EIGHT THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED FEET, CLIMBING TO FLIGHT LEVEL THREE FIVE ZERO.
If the phrase “report reaching”, “report leaving” or “report
passing” is used by ATC, the pilot shall comply (CAR 602.31—
Compliance with Air Traffic Control Instructions and Clearances ).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC8.4 CLIMB OR DESCENT
8.4.1 General
During any phase of flight, pilots should adhere to the following
procedures:
(a) When an altitude clearance is issued, the pilot should begin
the climb or descent promptly on acknowledgement of the
clearance. The climb or descent should be made at an
optimum rate consistent with the operating characteristics
of the aircraft. If the above is not the case, or if it becomes
necessary to stop the climb or descent, the pilot should
advise ATC of the interruption or the delay in vacating an altitude.
(b) If the phrase “when ready” is used in conjunction with an
altitude clearance or instruction, the change of altitude may
be initiated whenever the pilot wishes. The climb or descent
should be made at an optimum rate consistent with the
operating characteristics of the aircraft. When not informed
that the aircraft has been IDENTIFIED, pilots are expected
to advise ATC when the altitude change is initiated.
Compliance with assigned or published altitude crossing
restrictions and speeds is mandatory (CAR 602.31), unless
specifically cancelled by ATC. (MEAs are not considered
restrictions; however, pilots are expected to remain at or
above MEAs.)
NOTE :
When an aircraft reports vacating an altitude, ATC may assign
the altitude to another aircraft. Control will be based on the
pilot following these procedures and on the normal operating characteristics of the aircraft.
(c) If a descending aircraft must level off at 10 000 ft ASL to
comply with CAR 602.32 while cleared to a lower level, the pilot should advise ATC of the descent interruption.
(d) ATC may authorize aircraft to employ cruise climb
techniques either between two levels or above a specified
level. A clearance or instruction to cruise climb authorizes
climb at any given rate as well as temporarily levelling at
intermediate altitudes. Pilots are expected to advise ATC
of the altitude they temporarily level off at to the nearest
100 ft. Once the aircraft has vacated an altitude during a
cruise climb, it may not return to that altitude. ATC will
use the following phraseology:
CRUISE CLIMB TO (altitude)
or
CLIMB TO (altitude) CRUISE CLIMB BETWEEN (levels) (or ABOVE [level])
8.4.2 Visual Climb and Descent
8.4.2.1 General
Application of visual climbs and descents in VMC, under certain
circumstances, provides both controllers and pilots with an
operational advantage in the conduct of safe and orderly flow
of air traffic. 8.4.2.2 Visual Separation from Other Aircraft
ATC may authorize the pilot of an IFR aircraft to conduct a
visual climb or descent while maintaining visual separation
with the appropriate traffic only if a pilot requests it. Controllers
will not initiate or suggest a visual climb/descent in this
application. During this altitude change in VMC, pilots must
provide their own separation, including wake turbulence
separation, from all other aircraft. This application may be
exercised in both ATS surveillance and non-ATS surveillance
environments.
IFR separation is required for all altitude changes in Class A
and B airspace. Accordingly, visual climbs or descents will not be approved for aircraft operating in these classes of airspace.
8.5 MINIMUM INSTRUMENT FLIGHT
RULES (IFR) ALTITUDES
Except when taking off or landing, aircraft in IFR flight shall
be operated at least 1 000 ft above the highest obstacle within a
horizontal radius of 5 NM of the aircraft (CAR 602.124).
Exceptions to this are flights within designated mountainous
regions, but outside areas for which minimum altitudes for IFR
operations have been established (see RAC 2.12 and
RAC Figure 2.10).
NOTE :
The established MOCA for IFR operations provides obstacle
clearance above the highest obstacle within the following areas:
(a) 1 000 ft :
(i) airways and air routes outside of designated
mountainous areas;
(ii) certain airway and air route segments within
designated mountainous areas, which are used in
the arrival or departure phase of flight;
(iii) Safe Altitude 100 NM outside of designated
mountainous areas;
(iv) all MSA;
(v) instrument approach transitions (including DME
arcs);
(vi) vectoring areas [except as in (c)(iii)]; and
(vii) AMA outside of designated mountainous areas as
shown on the Enroute and Terminal Area Charts.
(b) 1 500 ft :
(i) airways and air routes within designated mountainous
areas 2, 3, and 4; or
(ii) Safe Altitude 100 NM within designated mountainous
areas 2, 3, and 4.
(c) 2 000 ft :
(i) airways and air routes within designated mountainous
areas 1 and 5 with the exception of those segments described in (a)(ii);
(ii) Safe Altitude 100 NM within designated mountainous
areas 1 and 5;
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC(iii) certain vectoring areas within designated
mountainous areas; and
(iv) AMA within designated mountainous areas as shown
on the Enroute and Terminal Area Charts.
MEAs have been established for all designated low-level airways
and air routes in Canada. An MEA is defined as the published
altitude ASL between specified fixes on airways or air routes,
which assures acceptable navigational signal coverage, and which
meets IFR obstacle clearance requirements.
The minimum flight plan altitude shall be the nearest altitude
or flight level consistent with the direction of flight (CAR 602.34).
This altitude should be at or above the MEA. Unless the MEA
is one which is consistent with the direction of flight, it is not to be used in the flight plan or flight itinerary.
As different MEAs may be established for adjoining segments
of airways or air routes, aircraft are, in all cases, to cross the
specified fix at which a change in the MEA takes place, at the
higher MEA.
To ensure adequate signal coverage, many of the MEAs on low-
level airways are established at altitudes which are higher than
those required for obstacle clearance. When this occurs, a MOCA
is also published to provide the pilot with the minimum IFR
altitude for obstacle clearance. A MOCA is defined as the altitude
between radio fixes on low-level airways and air routes, which meets the IFR Air routes clearance requirements for the route segment. Where the MOCA is lower than the MEA, the MOCA
is published in addition to the MEA on the Enroute Charts.
Where the MEA and MOCA are the same, only the MEA
is published.
The MOCA, or the MEA when the MOCA is not published, is
the lowest altitude for the airway or air route segment at which
an IFR flight may be conducted under any circumstances. These
altitudes are provided so that pilots will be readily aware of the lowest safe altitude that may be used in an emergency, such as
a malfunctioning engine or icing conditions. Under ISA
conditions, they provide a minimum of 1 000 ft of clearance
above all obstacles lying within the lateral limits of all airways and
air routes and 1500/2000 ft in designated mountainous regions.
Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate true altitude under
ISA conditions, and any deviation from ISA will result in an
erroneous altimeter reading. When temperatures are extremely
cold, true altitudes will be significantly lower than indicated
altitudes. Although pilots may fly IFR at the published MEA/
MOCA, in the winter, when air temperatures are much lower
than ISA, they should operate at altitudes of at least 1 000 ft
above the MEA/MOCA.
NOTE:
When flying at a flight level in an area of low pressure, the true
altitude will always be lower than the corresponding flight level.
For example, this “pressure error,” in combination with a
temperature error, can produce errors of up to 2 000 ft while
flying in the standard pressure region at FL 100. Further, mountain
waves in combination with extremely low temperatures may
result in an altimeter over-reading by as much as 3 000 ft. For
further details, see AIR 1.5. 8.6 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)
ASSIGNMENT OF ALTITUDES
8.6.1 Minimum Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
Altitude
Within controlled airspace, ATC is not permitted to approve or
assign any IFR altitude below the minimum IFR altitude. To
ATC, the minimum IFR altitude is the lowest IFR altitude
established for use in specific airspace and, depending on the
airspace concerned, this may be:
(a) a minimum en route altitude (MEA);
(b) a minimum obstacle clearance altitude (MOCA);
(c) a minimum sector altitude (MSA);
(d) a safe altitude within a radius of 100 NM;
(e) an area minimum altitude (AMA); or
(f) a minimum vectoring altitude (MVA).
When a direct route is given, ATC is responsible for obstacle
clearance. Provided that the altitude is at or above the minimum
IFR altitude for the controlled airspace where the pilot intends to operate, ATC may use “direct” in a route clearance. ATC may clear aircraft that are traversing airways or air routes below the MEA, but not below the applicable minimum IFR altitude.
Within ATS surveillance coverage, it is common for controllers
to issue the MVA when issuing direct routes. An MVA can be lower than a published minimum IFR altitude (MSA, MOCA, MEA, or AMA).
All ATC-assigned altitudes provide obstacle clearance.
A controller is not permitted to clear an aircraft flying on an
airway at an altitude below the MEA. However, flight below the
MEA, but not below the MOCA, may be approved when
specifically requested by the pilot in the interest of flight safety
(e.g. icing/turbulence), to conduct a flight check, for MEDEVAC,
or when navigating using GNSS. Navigational signal coverage is not guaranteed below the MEA;
when navigating using NAVAIDS, the pilot should ensure that the aircraft is within, and will remain within, the lateral limits of the airway before requesting approval to fly below the MEA.
It should also be noted that flight below the MEA does not
guarantee the aircraft will remain in controlled airspace.
8.6.1.1 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Intersections on a Minimum En-Route
Altitude (MEA)
The purpose of these fixes is to develop an airway segment where
lower MEAs may be applied, thus reducing the high descent
rates that otherwise are required when the aircraft is on initial approach to destination.
Pilots without DME normally will not be able to use these lower
MEAs and may conceivably experience delays in receiving
approach and departure clearances due to other traffic operating
below the conventional MEA (i.e. the MEA required for non-
DME-equipped aircraft). However, in an ATS surveillance
environment, the non-DME-equipped aircraft may be cleared
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACat the lower MEA where it will be provided with ATS surveillance
service while operating below the conventional MEA.
8.6.2 Altitudes and Direction of Flight
Pilots will normally file flight plans and be assigned altitudes
appropriate to the airway, air route or direction of flight. There
are exceptions, and the following information is intended to
familiarize pilots with the circumstances of those exceptions.
ATC may assign an altitude that is not appropriate to the airway,
air route or direction of flight if:
(a) a pilot requests it because of icing, turbulence, or fuel
considerations, provided:
(i) the pilot informs ATC of the time or location at
which an appropriate altitude can be accepted, and
(ii) the altitude has been approved by affected units/
sectors; or
(b) an aircraft is:
(i) holding, arriving or departing;
(ii) conducting a flight inspection of a NAVAID;
(iii) operating within an altitude reservation;
(iv) engaged in an aerial survey, mapping flight or test
flight;
(v) operating on a polar route; or
(c) no alternative separation minima can be applied, provided:
(i) the altitude has been approved by affected units/
sectors, and
(ii) the aircraft is cleared to an appropriate altitude as soon as possible;
(d) the airspace is structured for a one-way traffic flow.
NOTES :
1. In situation (a), the pilot, when able to accept an appropriate
altitude, will be requested to advise ATC. In situation (c), the aircraft will be re-cleared to an appropriate altitude as soon as operationally feasible. Due to safety implications,
use of altitudes inappropriate for the direction of flight must
be limited, and requests must not be made solely for fuel
efficiency reasons. Pilots should make requests only to avoid
a fuel situation that might cause an otherwise unnecessary
refuelling stop short of the flight-planned destination. ATC
will not ask the pilot to substantiate a request; if ATC is
unable to approve the request, the controller will state the reason and request the pilot’s intention.
2. In the application of (a) or (c) in high-level ATS surveillance-
controlled airspace, aircraft at an altitude not appropriate
for the direction of flight will be issued vectors or offset
tracks to establish the aircraft at least 5 NM from the
centreline of an airway or published track displayed on the situation display. Phraseology:
VECTORS TO (direction) OF (airway, track) TURN (left/right) TO HEADING (degrees).
ADVISE IF ABLE TO PROCEED PARALLEL
OFFSET.
PROCEED OFFSET (number) MILES (right/left) OF
CENTRELINE (track/route) AT (significant point/time)
UNTIL (significant point/time).
CANCEL OFFSET.
8.7 “1 000-FT-ON-TOP” INSTRUMENT
FLIGHT RULES (IFR) FLIGHT
1 000-ft-on-top IFR flight may be conducted provided that
(a) the flight is made at least 1 000 ft above all cloud, haze,
smoke, or other formation;
(b) the flight visibility above the formation is at least three miles;
(c) the top of the formation is well defined;
(d) the altitude appropriate to the direction of flight is maintained
when cruising in level flight;
(e) the “1 000-ft-on-top” flight has been authorized by the
appropriate ATC unit; and
(f) the aircraft will operate within Class B airspace at or below 12 500 ft ASL, Class C, D, or E airspace.
NOTE :
ATC does not apply separation to aircraft operating 1 000-ft-on-top except in the following conditions:
1. at night, separation is applied between an aircraft operating
1 000-ft-on-top and other aircraft if any of the aircraft are holding; and
2. between aircraft operating 1 000-ft-on-top and an aircraft operating on an altitude reservation approval.
8.8 CLEARANCES—LEAVING OR
ENTERING CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
ATC will use the phrase “while in controlled airspace” in
conjunction with the altitude if an aircraft will be entering or
leaving controlled airspace. In addition, ATC will specify the
lateral point and altitude at which an aircraft is to leave or enter
controlled airspace if the instruction is required for separation purposes (see Note).
Example:
LEAVE/ENTER CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
(number) MILES (direction) OF (fix) AT (altitude).
LEAVE/ENTER CONTROLLED AIRSPACE AT
(altitude).
NOTE :
The altitude assigned by ATC need only reflect the minimum
safe IFR altitude within controlled airspace. A pilot should be
alert to the possibility of a higher minimum safe IFR altitude
outside of controlled airspace. If uncertain (or unable to
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACdetermine) when to enter or leave the area where the higher
minima is applied, a request for clearance to maintain an altitude
that will accommodate the higher minimum IFR altitude should
be made.
8.9 CLEARANCE LIMIT
The clearance limit, as specified in an ATC clearance, is the
point to which an aircraft is cleared. Further clearance is delivered
to a flight prior to arrival at the clearance limit. However,
occasions may arise when this may not be possible. In the event
that further clearance is not received, the pilot is to hold at the clearance limit, maintain the last assigned altitude and request
further clearance. If communications cannot be established with
ATC, the pilot should then proceed in accordance with
communications failure procedures as described in RAC 6.3.2.
The responsibility rests with the pilot to determine whether or
not a received clearance can be complied with in the event of a
communications failure. Under such circumstances, a clearance
may be refused, but such refusal should specify acceptable
alternatives.
8.10 CLASS G AIRSPACE—RECOMMENDED
OPERATING PROCEDURES—EN-
ROUTE
When aircraft are manoeuvring in the vicinity of uncontrolled
aerodromes or cruising in Class G airspace, the lack of information
on the movements of other aircraft operating in close proximity
may occasion a potential hazard to all concerned. To alleviate
this situation, all pilots are advised that:
(a) when operating in Class G airspace, they should continuously
monitor frequency 126.7 MHz whenever practicable;
(b) position reports should be made over all NAVAIDs along the route of flight to the nearest station having air-ground communications capability. These reports should be made
on frequency 126.7 MHz whenever practicable. If it is necessary to use another frequency to establish
communications with the ground station, the report should
also be broadcast on 126.7 MHz for information of other
aircraft in the area. The report should contain present
position, track, altitude, altimeter setting in use, next position
and ETA;
(c) immediately before changing altitude, commencing an
instrument approach or departing IFR, pilots should broadcast their intentions on 126.7 MHz whenever practicable. Such broadcasts should contain adequate
information to enable other pilots to be fully aware of the position and intentions so that they can determine if there will be any conflict with their flight paths;
(d) at aerodromes where an MF has been designated, arriving
pilots shall first broadcast their intentions on 126.7 MHz
before changing to the MF. If conflicting IFR traffic becomes
evident, this change should be delayed until the conflict is
resolved. Pilots departing IFR should broadcast their
intentions on 126.7 MHz, in addition to the MF, prior to
takeoff; and (e) the preceding reporting requirements are considered as the
minimum necessary. Pilots are encouraged to make
additional reports whenever the possibility of conflicting
IFR traffic is suspected. An example would be reporting
prior to overflying a facility where cross traffic is probable
or where there is a published instrument approach procedure.
NOTE :
There is no frequency comparable to 126.7 MHz for use by
aircraft equipped only with UHF; however, pertinent UHF traffic
information will be relayed on the MF by the flight service
specialist.
9.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
—ARRIVAL
PROCEDURES
9.1 AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION
SERVICE (ATIS) BROADCASTS
If ATIS is available, all pilots should use it to obtain the basic
arrival or departure and aerodrome information as soon as it is practicable.
9.2 STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL
(STAR), MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE (MSA) AND TERMINAL ARRIVAL AREA (TAA)
The objective of the standard terminal arrival (STAR), the
minimum sector altitude (MSA) and the terminal arrival
area (TAA) depictions is to provide arriving aircraft with a
seamless transition from the en route structure to the terminal environment.
Unlike the MSAs and TAAs, the STARs are developed to simplify
clearance procedures at higher density airports and are
individually depicted in the Canada Air Pilot (CAP). The MSA
and TAA depictions are also in the CAP, but are found in the
plan view of the associated approach chart.
A STAR requires the pilot to follow a predetermined route,
whereas the MSA and the TAA are less prescriptive and simply
offer safe altitudes to which the pilot can descend before
commencing the approach. Pilots are t o review each STAR
issued and to follow the procedure as published. If there is
any doubt as to what is required, clarification should be
obtained from air traffic control (ATC). Pilots are not required
to accept a STAR clearance, and, if they are unable to follow it, they should request alternate instructions.
9.2.1 Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA)
The MSA, as depicted on the approach chart (see the CAP),
provides a minimum of 1 000 ft clearance above all obstacles
within a sector of a circle having a radius of at least 25 NM
centred on a radio aid to navigation or on a waypoint located
near the aerodrome. Where required, the depiction may be
divided into several pie-shaped sectors of varying minimum
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACaltitudes. Pilots can locate their sector by superimposing their
track to the selected NAVAID onto the MSA depiction.
Unlike TAA depictions, MSA depictions do not allow the sectors
to be further partitioned into step-down arcs of varying distances.
NOTE :
MSAs are not flight-inspected. Therefore, MSAs based on
conventional NAVAIDs may not necessarily assure acceptable
navigational signal coverage throughout the 25-NM radius area.
RNAV approaches may use either an MSA or a TAA depiction. RNAV approaches that use the MSA shall depict the common minimum altitude only.
9.2.2 Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)
TAAs are developed for aircraft equipped with an FMS and/or a GNSS.
When a TAA is published, it replaces the MSA depiction on the
approach chart (see the CAP).
The main advantage of the TAA over the MSA is that it can
allow step-down arcs, based on RNAV distances, within its
divided areas. This allows the aircraft to descend to lower
minimum altitudes while still providing a minimum clearance of 1 000 ft above all obstacles.
The standard TAA consists of three areas which are defined by
the extension of the initial and intermediate approach segments.
These are called the straight-in, left-base, and right-base areas.
Figure 9.1—Basic “T” Approach with TAA Depiction
HEATR
309º
039º
30 NM TO HEATR15 NM TO HEATR
83005600219º
30 NM TO PEELS PEELS
309º5200
HEATR
(IAWP)BLOND
129º
129º
039º5.05200
219º5.0PEELS
(IAWP)(STRAIGHT-IN AREA)
(LEFT-BASE AREA)
(RIGHT-BASE AREA)JOGGS
(MAWP)LUMBR
(FAWP)BLOND
(IWP)30 NM TO BLOND
12 NM TO BLOND
084º
039º219º8300
CAP depiction may be different.
NOTE :
The standard “T” design of the approach courses may be modified
by the procedure designer where required by terrain or for ATC
considerations. For instance, the “T” design may appear more like a regularly or irregularly shaped “Y”, or may even have one
or both outboard IAWP eliminated, resulting in an upside down
“L” or an “I” configuration.
Prior to arriving at the TAA boundary, the pilot should determine
which area of the TAA the aircraft will enter by selecting the
IWP to determine the magnetic bearing TO the waypoint. That bearing should then be compared with the published bearings that define the lateral boundaries of the TAA areas.
CAUT ION:
When taking such a bearing, using the left or right IAWP (instead
of the IWP) may give a false indication of which area the aircraft
will enter. This is critical when approaching the TAA near the
extended boundary between the left- and right-base areas,
especially where these areas contain different minimum altitude
requirements.
A standard racetrack holding pattern may be provided at the
center IWP/IAWP and, if present, may be necessary for course
reversal and for altitude adjustment for entry into the procedure.
In the latter case, the pattern provides an extended distance for
the descent required by the procedure.
9.2.3 Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)
A STAR is an ATC IFR arrival procedure published in the CAP for use by aircraft with the appropriate navigation capabilities and is coded in many GNSS and FMS databases.
STARs provide the following benefits:
(a) Predictability for flight crews : As opposed to vectors,
STARs allow pilots to be aware in advance of arrival routings
and plan more optimum descent profiles.
(b) Facilitation of clearances and radiotelephony exchanges:
Published STARs reduce the need to communicate detailed
descent, speed, and track instructions.
(c) Increased predictability for ATC: Controllers observe
more consistent aircraft track-keeping and turn performance
on STARs due to published speed and altitude restrictions.
9.2.3.1 Conventional Standard Terminal
Arrival (STAR)
A conventional STAR can be flown using ground-based NAVAIDs
and/or charted headings and traditionally ends with ATC
providing vectors. Pilots who request a conventional STAR are
expected to have sufficient navigation equipment to fly the
procedure. Canadian conventional STARs are gradually being
replaced with PBN STARs.
9.2.3.2 Performance-based
Navigation (PBN) Standard T erminal
Arrival (STAR)
With the widespread deployment of PBN, even greater benefits
are now possible in STAR design. PBN STARs thus permit an
increase in flight safety as well as potential fuel savings. When used by qualified aircraft and operators, a PBN STAR can result in greater reliability, repeatability, and predictability of aircraft flight paths.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACA PBN STAR is titled “STAR (RNAV)” and is a performance-
based operation in which the performance requirements are
specified by the publication of a navigation specification (such
as RNAV 1 or RNP 1) on the chart in the PBN requirements
box. Detailed explanations of navigation specifications can be
found in COM 6.0.
In cases where a navigation specification has not yet been assigned
to a PBN STAR, the following equipment would be required:
(a) at least one RNAV system or FMS certified for terminal use
that meets either of the following standards:
(i) AC 20-130 (or later approved) A irworthiness
Approval of Navigation or Flight Management
Systems Integrating Multiple Navigation Sensors;
or
(ii) AC 20-138 (or later approved) Airworthiness Approval
of Global Positioning System (GPS) Navigation
Equipment for use as a VFR and IFR Suppleme ntal
Navigation System , and
(iii) TSO C129a, Airborne Supplemental Navigation
Equipment Using the Global Positioning System GPS) ;
(b) at least one automatic radio-updated IRU, if the RNAV system
or FMS does not use a GPS sensor;
(c) a current database containing the waypoints, for the STAR
to be flown, that can be automatically loaded into the RNAV
system or FMS active flight plan;
(d) a system capable of following the RNAV system or FMS lateral
flight path and limiting the cross-track error deviation to
+/- ½ the navigation accuracy associated with the procedure
or route; and
(e) an electronic map display.
9.2.3.3 Flight Planning
Authorized aircraft and air operators who meet the appropriate navigation specification (or the equipment list shown above for
STARs without a navigation specification) may file STARs in
their flight plan. Operators not authorized to flight plan PBN
STARs are expected to file plans that include waypoints from
the expected STAR procedure (or plans that are as close to the waypoints as possible), and include the remark in field 18 of the flight plan: RMK/NO RNAV STAR.
When included in a flight plan, the STAR will form part of the
flight-planned route in the ATC clearance.
NOTE :
Mandatory IFR Routes may include a STAR. See RAC 11.4.3.
9.2.3.4 Procedure Identification
A STAR can designate multiple lateral routes, dependent on the
runway in use, for an aircraft to fly from various points along the en route phase of flight to the approach phase with little or
no ATC intervention. These lateral routes (referred to as transitions) are listed on the STAR chart and may include
instructions for management of the vertical profile. The procedure identification on a STAR chart includes the primary procedure identification and the en route transition identification.
The primary procedure identification consists of the following
three elements:
(a) Procedure type
(b) Plain-language designator
(c) Coded designator
The procedure type is shown as one of the following:
(a) STAR: identifies the procedure as a conventional STAR
(b) STAR (RNAV): identifies the procedure as a PBN STAR
The plain-language designator is the spoken identification for the STAR procedure. It consists of a basic indicator, a validity number, and the term “ARR”. The validity number is a number between one and nine assigned sequentially after a qualifying
procedure amendment. Example: UDNOX ONE ARR. A
qualifying procedure amendment is a change in a procedure
track or another significant change affecting the database coding
of the procedure.
When a STAR procedure includes transitions from the en route
airspace structure, the en route transitions are identified in
similar fashion to the main STAR procedure. The en route
transition identification includes a plain-language designator
and a coded designator. The plain-language designator is the
spoken identification for the en route transition and, while not
always, it is usually derived from the name of the first point of
the en route transition. The coded designator is the database/
flight planning identification for the en route transition and is
derived from both the en route transition plain-language
designator and the primary procedure identification. For example,
the LETAK TRANSITION (LETAK.IMEBA3) on the IMEBA
THREE ARR into CYYZ is highlighted on the chart below.
Figure 9.2—Example of an En route Transition
on the IMEBA THREE ARR into CYYZ
9.2.3.5 Altitude Restrictions
Altitude restrictions may be included in the STAR. Although
an aircraft is expected to follow the charted lateral track of the cleared STAR without further ATC clearance, as per the flight-
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACplanned/cleared route, such is not the case with the STAR vertical
profile; ATC has to issue descent clearance, and when a lower
altitude is issued, pilots shall descend on the STAR profile to
the ATC-assigned altitude. Unless specially cancelled by ATC,
all charted restrictions above the assigned altitude on the STAR remain mandatory.
9.2.3.6 Speed Restrictions
Pilots must follow charted speed restrictions on a STAR. An
ATC-assigned speed restriction supersedes any STAR-charted
speed restrictions and must be followed until CAR 602.32
prohibits the pilot from flying at that speed.
9.2.3.7 Operating Procedures
When included in a flight plan, the STAR forms part of the
flight-planned route received in the initial ATC clearance. When
a flight plan that includes a STAR has been filed, or when the
pilot receives and acknowledges a clearance that includes a STAR,
the pilot is expected to fly the charted lateral track without
further clearance. However, descent clearance must be obtained
from ATC before commencing the vertical profile.
9.2.3.8 Top of Descent (TOD)
Sophisticated FMSs have the ability to determine precisely where
to begin a descent from cruise altitude in order to minimize fuel
usage, pollution, and noise by having the engines at their
minimum thrust setting (idle) from cruise altitude to the final
approach fix. This point is known as TOD. The most recent
Canadian STAR procedures are carefully designed to allow the
greatest benefits from idle descents while meeting the most
common ATC requirements.
In order to maintain safety and airspace capacity, ATC may have
to issue tactical instructions such as interim altitudes, speed
control, vectors, or direct routes. Tactical instructions impact
the TOD planning carried out by the FMS. For instance, delaying
the planned descent, reducing the speed, or shortcutting
STAR intermediate waypoints translate into a steeper descent
angle, requiring the use of speed brakes and/or a longer flying
distance. A premature descent clearance will translate into a
shallower descent angle, requiring the use of engine trust. To
help mitigate the impact of these tactical instructions, ATC will endeavour to cancel or assign altitude and speed restrictions as far in advance as possible to help the flight crew re-optimize the descent.
In some terminal areas, the en route controller may issue initial
descent instructions at TOD, but it may be an arrival controller who could ultimately be responsible for sequencing aircraft to
the final approach course. Pilots should always state their requested approach when making initial contact with the
controller who will be responsible for sequencing the aircraft to the final approach course, even if the initial descent clearance was issued by another controller.9.2.3.9 Descent Planning
Some PBN instrument approach procedures require fewer track
miles to be flown, necessitating STAR vertical profiles significantly
lower than those required for other approaches.
There are two main classifications of PBN approach procedures
(see COM 6.0):
(a) Required navigation performance approach (RNP APCH) procedures, bearing the chart title “RNAV (GNSS)”
(b) Required navigation performance authorization required
approach (RNP AR APCH) procedures, bearing the chart title “RNAV (RNP)”
Altitude constraints specific to RNP AR APCH are built into
STAR procedures in order to enhance RNP AR APCH
connectivity. While these constraints are a benefit for aircraft planning an RNP AR APCH, they are a drawback for aircraft
planning other approach types, as they force them below an
optimum vertical profile and may require a longer final approach
segment. For maintaining the flight efficiencies of aircraft not planning an RNP AR APCH, some STAR procedures may offer guidance for descent planning.
9.2.3.10 Closed Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)
Procedures
A closed STAR procedure provides a continuous path from the
en route structure and automatically joins up with the final
approach course. A closed STAR terminates at the FACF. On a closed STAR, when an approach clearance is received, the pilot
will continue to comply with all published altitude and speed
restrictions, fly the charted track to the FACF, intercept the final
approach course, and fly the straight-in approach. A closed
STAR procedure is normally used when the inbound track is
within plus or minus 90˚ of the final approach course to the
runway.
ATC always strives to issue approach clearances before aircraft
reach the end of closed STARs, but in very rare cases (such as a
distress call in progress on the frequency, frequency congestion,
or high ATC workload), this may not always be possible. In order
to assure obstacle clearance throughout the STAR and the
approach lateral tracks, if an aircraft were to reach the end of a closed STAR prior to the issuance of an approach clearance, the
pilot would be expected to safely intercept the final approach
course and fly inbound maintaining the last assigned altitude. In the extremely remote case in which the aircraft reaches the
end of the final approach track and further clearance has still
not been obtained, the pilot would be expected to track the lateral
position of the missed approach procedure for what would have been the anticipated approach, and maintain the last assigned altitude or climb to the anticipated missed approach altitude if the missed approach altitude is higher.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC9.2.3.11 Open Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)
Procedures
Similar to a closed STAR, an open STAR procedure also provides
a continuous path from the en route structure but does not
automatically join up with the final approach course. Open
STARs are charted with an expectation of vectors and essentially
place aircraft in a downwind to simplify approach sequencing.
A STAR can be linked to an approach once ATC has issued an approach clearance. Unless ATC issues an approach clearance, aircraft must continue on the STAR procedure while awaiting
ATC instructions. Once an approach clearance is issued, the
pilot is expected to comply with any remaining STAR charted
altitude and speed restrictions, intercept the final approach
course using the assigned transition (or the assigned vectors),
and conduct a straight-in approach. If an approach clearance is not received prior to the transition that is expected by the pilot,
the aircraft will maintain the STAR as charted, and ATC will
provide vectors to a point from which the aircraft can fly the
straight-in approach.
Figure 9.3 — Example of a Closed STAR for Rwys 24L
and 24R and an Open STAR for Rwys 06L and 06R
9.2.3.12 Transitioning from an Open Standard Terminal
Arrival (STAR) to an Approach Procedure
The open STAR procedure normally offers the pilot an option
to link the lateral profile of the STAR procedure to the lateral
profile of the approach procedure through the use of a variety
of approach transitions. A STAR can connect to some ILS
approach procedures by using “GNSS REQUIRED” transitions published on the approach procedure. A STAR can connect to
some RNP APCH (bearing the chart title “RNAV (GNSS)”)
when the approach IAWP is also published on the STAR.
Similarly, a STAR can connect to an RNP AR APCH (bearing
the chart title “RNAV (RNP)”) when the approach IWPs are
published on the STAR. When a waypoint is published on both a STAR and an approach, it is referred to as a STAR/approach interface waypoint.
NOTE :
While it may still exist at a few airports, the connection between
STAR DTW and FACF is gradually being phased out. Figure 9.4 — CYHZ ILS RWY 23 with “GNSS REQUIRED”
Left and Right IAWP to IF Transitions
Figure 9.5 — CYHZ RNAV (GNSS) Z RWY 23 with
Left and Right IAWP to IWP Transitions
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACFigure 9.6 — CYHZ RNAV (RNP) Y RWY 23 with Left
and Right “RF REQUIRED” IWP to FAWP Transitions
9.2.3.13 Approach Clearances
An approach clearance needs to be received prior to commencing
an approach procedure; otherwise, aircraft are expected to
continue flying the STAR procedure while awaiting further
instructions. ATC always strives to provide transitions and early
approach clearances, but sometimes traffic conditions necessitate
vectors to intercept the final approach course.
Below are examples of typical FMS displays when a STAR/
approach interface waypoint is used to link a STAR to an
approach, both before and after an approach clearance has been
issued. In both examples, before the approach clearance has
been received, a discontinuity appears in the FMS waypoint list,
since linking the STAR to the approach has not yet been permitted.
Linking the STAR to the approach without ATC clearance could
result in a loss of separation.
Figure 9.7 — Open STAR to RNP APPROACH
Open STAR before ATC Approach Clearance; therefore STAR not Linked to Approach
Open STAR after ATC Approach Clearance; therefore STAR Linked to ApproachAPLEX
SEBOG BASRA MILLS
STAR
RNP APPROACHAPLEX
DUDLI BEXIM
SEBOG BASRA MILLS
STAR
RNP APPROACHAPLEX
DUDLI BEXIMMILLS
BASRASEBOGAPLEXVECTORNOT LINKEDAPLEXDUDLIBEXIM
MILLS
BASRASEBOGAPLEXDUDLIBEXIMFigure 9.8 — Open STAR to RNP AR APPROACH
Open STAR before ATC Approach Clearance; therefore STAR not Linked to Approach
Open STAR after ATC Approach Clearance; therefore STAR Linked to ApproachAPLEX SEBOG
SEBOG NOTAVBASRA MILLS
STAR
RNP APPROACH
BEXIMMILLS
BASRASEBOG 210/5800APLEXVECTORNOT LINKEDSEBOG 210/5800NOTAVBEXIM
MILLSBASRASEBOG 210/5800NOTAVBEXIM5800 210 kt
5800 210 kt
SEBOG NOTAVBASRA MILLS
STAR
RNP APPROACH
BEXIM
Once the aircraft is cleared for an approach with a specified
transition, if the FMS does not link the STAR to the approach
before the STAR/approach interface waypoint, or if the aircraft is unable to execute the procedure, the pilot must advise ATC immediately upon recognizing the missed transition and wait for alternate instructions.
9.2.3.14 Vectors to Final
Sometimes, depending on traffic and options for ATC to sequence
aircraft, the published transition may not be available, and vectors
will be provided to join the final approach course. If this occurs,
and a clearance for the transition is not possible, pilots will not be expected to re-configure for a new transition or for another
approach. ATC will state that they are unable to provide a
particular transition and that the aircraft should expect vectors.
9.2.3.15 Amending Routes
ATC may amend STAR routes by clearing the aircraft direct to a waypoint depicted within the STAR. ATC will confirm what
to expect if they intend for the aircraft to rejoin the STAR procedure
when initiating vectors. When an aircraft is cleared direct to a
STAR/approach interface waypoint, unless it is cleared for an
approach, the pilot shall proceed direct to the STAR waypoint,
and not to the approach waypoint, to re-intercept the STAR profile.
9.2.3.16 Direct Routings to an Initial Approach
Waypoint (IAWP)/I ntermediate Waypoint (IWP)
An RNP AR APCH (bearing the chart title “RNAV (RNP)”)
normally offers RF leg segments to intercept the final approach course. Obstacle protection areas on these RF legs are designed
with the consideration that the aircraft be established at the
published speed and altitude, on the track centreline, and with the wings level prior to the beginning of the RF leg. The straight
segment prior to these RF legs provides adequate time for aircraft
to stabilize in this configuration. Direct routings to the beginning
of RF leg segments are not permitted. An RNP AR APCH must not begin inside of the IWP.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC9.2.3.17 Cancelling Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)
Procedures
Accepting a visual approach clearance automatically cancels the
STAR procedure. A STAR may also be cancelled by ATC if
required. If ATC cancels a STAR, the pilot should expect alternate
instructions (either vectors to the final approach course, or a
new route clearance). A STAR that has been cancelled may be
reinstated by ATC.
9.2.3.18 Communication Failures on a Standard
Terminal Arrival (STAR) Pr ocedure
See the CFS, section F (Emergency), under Two-Way
Communications Failure—IFR Flight Plan
9.3 APPROACH CLEARANCE
When using direct controller pilot communications, ATC
normally advises pilots of the ceiling, visibility, wind, runway, altimeter setting, approach aid in use, and pertinent aerodrome
conditions (CRFI, RSC, etc.) immediately prior to or shortly
after descent clearance. Upon acknowledging receipt of the
current ATIS broadcast, the pilot is advised by ATC of the current
airport conditions only if they are changing rapidly.
Aircraft destined to airports which underlie controlled low- level
airspace and for which there is a published instrument approach
procedure, will be cleared out of controlled airspace (vertically) via the published instrument approach procedure.
Example:
ATC CLEARS (aircraft identification) OUT OF
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE VIA (name, type) APPROACH.
Aircraft destined to airports which underlie controlled low-level
airspace and for which there is not a published instrument
approach procedure will be cleared to descend out of controlled
airspace and informed of the appropriate minimum IFR altitude.
Example:
ATC CLEARS (aircraft identification) TO DESCEND OUT OF CONTROLLED AIRSPACE VICINITY OF (aerodrome name). THE (minimum IFR altitude) IS
(number) feet.
The pilot may elect to cancel IFR as soon as visual conditions
permit the continuation of the flight under VFR, or remain on
the IFR flight plan until the aircraft has landed and the pilot
files an arrival report. Should the pilot anticipate that visual
conditions to permit continued flight under VFR may not be
achieved, the pilot may arrange with ATC to have the MEA
protected.
Aircraft destined to airports which underlie controlled high-level
airspace and where there is no minimum IFR altitude established
that would prohibit such a manoeuvre will be cleared out of
controlled high-level airspace.
Example:
ATC CLEARS (aircraft identification) OUT OF (type
of airspace). When an approach clearance is issued, the published name of
the approach is used to designate the type of approach if adherence
to a particular procedure is required. If visual reference to the
ground is established before completion of a specified approach,
the aircraft should continue with the entire procedure unless
further clearance is obtained.
Example:
CLEARED TO THE OTTAWA AIRPORT,
STRAIGHT ‑IN ILS RUNW AY ZERO SEVEN
APPROACH.
CLEARED TO THE TORONTO AIRPORT, ILS
RUNWAY ZERO SIX LE FT APPROACH.
The number of the runway on which the aircraft will land is
included in the approach clearance when a landing will be made
on a runway other than that aligned with the instrument approach
aid being used.
Example:
CLEARED TO THE OTTAWA AIRPORT,
STRAIGHT ‑IN ILS RUNW AY ZERO SEVEN
APPROACH/CIRCLING PROCEDURE SOUTH
FOR RUNWAY THREE TWO.
NOTE :
If the pilot begins a missed approach during a circling procedure,
the published missed approach procedure as shown for the
instrument approach just completed shall be flown. The pilot
does not use the procedure for the runway on which the landing
was planned.
At some locations during periods of light traffic, controllers may
issue clearances that do not specify the type of approach.
Example:
CLEARED TO THE LETHBRIDGE AIRPORT FOR
AN APPROACH.
When such a clearance is issued by ATC and accepted by the
pilot, the pilot has the option of conducting any published
instrument approach procedure. In addition, the pilot also has
the option of proceeding by the route so cleared by ATC in a
previous clearance, by any published transition or feeder route
associated with the selected procedure, or by a route present
position direct to a fix associated with the selected instrument
approach procedure. Pilots who choose to proceed to the
instrument procedure fix via a route that is off an airway, air
route or transition are responsible for maintaining the appropriate
obstacle clearance, complying with noise abatement procedures
and remaining clear of Class F airspace. As soon as practicable
after receipt of this type of clearance, it is the pilot’s responsibility
to advise ATC of the type of published instrument approach
procedure that will be carried out, the landing runway and the intended route to be flown.
This clearance does not constitute authority for the pilot to
execute a contact or visual approach. Should the pilot prefer to
conduct a visual approach (published or non-published) or a
contact approach, the pilot must specifically communicate that request to the controller.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACUpon changing to the tower or FSS frequency, pilots should
advise the agency of the intended route and published instrument
approach procedure being carried out.
The pilot should not deviate from the stated instrument approach
procedure or route without the concurrence of ATC because
such an act could cause dangerous conflict with another aircraft
or a vehicle on a runway.
A clearance for an approach may not include any intermediate
altitude restrictions. The pilot may receive this clearance while the aircraft is still a considerable distance from the airport, in
either an ATS surveillance or non-ATS surveillance environment.
In these cases, the pilot may descend, at his/her convenience, to whichever is the lowest of the following IFR altitudes applicable
to the position of the aircraft:
(a) minimum en route altitude (MEA);
(b) published transition or feeder route altitude;
(c) minimum sector altitude (MSA) specified on the appropriate
instrument approach chart;
(d) safe altitude 100 NM specified on the appropriate instrument
approach chart; or
(e) when in airspace for which the Minister has not specified a higher minimum, an altitude of at least 1 000 ft above the
highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 5 NM (1 500 ft
or 2 000 ft within designated mountainous regions,
depending on the zone) from the established position of the
aircraft.
NOTE :
When a pilot receives and accepts an ATC clearance which
authorizes descent to MSA or a safe altitude 100 NM during
normal IFR operations, descent below the MEA for the preceding
en route phase should not commence until the pilot can positively
establish the aircraft’s position by means of a bearing, radial,
DME, ATS surveillance or visual means.
CAUT ION:
Pilots are cautioned that descents to MSA or Safe Altitude 100 NM
may, under certain conditions, exit controlled airspace. ATC
provides IFR separation within controlled airspace only.
9.4 DESCENT OUT OF CONTROLLED
AIRSPACE
ATC may not clear an aircraft to operate below the MEA of an
airway, nor below the minimum IFR altitude in other controlled
low-level airspace. The pilot, however, may operate at the MOCA,
and ATC will approve flight at the MOCA at the pilot’s request.
If unable to cancel IFR at the MEA, the pilot may advise that
he/she intends to descend to the MOCA. By prior arrangement
with ATC, the MEA will be protected in the event that the pilot does not encounter visual conditions at the MOCA. Under this arrangement, the MEA will be protected:
(a) until the pilot files an arrival report;
(b) for 30 min; to allow descent to the MOCA and return to
the MEA when communication is restored with ATC; or
(c) if ATC does not hear from the pilot under (a) or (b), until
the aircraft is estimated to have arrived at the filed alternate
plus 30 min. 9.5 ADVANCE NOTICE OF INTENT IN
MINIMUM WEATHER CONDITIONS
ATC can handle missed approaches more efficiently if the
controller knows the pilot’s intentions in advance. They can use
the extra time to plan for the possibility of a missed approach and thus provide better service in the event of an actual missed approach.
Pilots should adopt the following procedures as the occasion arises.
On receipt of approach clearance, when the ceiling and visibility
reported at the destination airport is such that a missed approach
is probable, the pilot should advise the controller as follows:
IN THE EVENT OF MISSED APPROACH REQUEST (altitude or level) VIA (route) TO (airport).
Implementation of this procedure increases the amount of
communications, but the increase can be minimized if pilots
employ it only when there is a reasonable chance that a missed approach may occur.
9.6 CONTACT AND VISUAL APPROACHES
9.6.1 Contact Approach
A contact approach is an approach wherein an aircraft on an
IFR flight plan or flight itinerary having an ATC clearance,
operating clear of clouds with at least 1 NM flight visibility and
a reasonable expectation of continuing to the destination airport
in those conditions, may deviate from the IAP and proceed to the destination airport by visual reference to the surface of the
earth. In accordance with CAR 602.124, the aircraft shall be
flown at an altitude of at least 1 000 ft above the highest obstacle located within a horizontal radius of 5 NM from the estimated
position of the aircraft in flight until the required visual reference
is acquired in order to conduct a normal landing. Pilots are
cautioned that conducting a contact approach in minimum
visibility conditions introduces hazards to flight not experienced
when flying IFR procedures. Familiarity with the aerodrome
environment, including local area obstacles, terrain, noise sensitive areas, Class F airspace and aerodrome layout, is paramount for a successful contact approach in minimum
visibility conditions. Pilots are responsible for the adherence to
published noise abatement procedures and compliance with any
restrictions that may apply to Class F airspace when conducting a contact approach.
NOTE :
This type of approach will only be authorized by ATC when:
(a) the pilot requests it; and
(b) there is an approved functioning instrument approach or
a published GNSS approach for the airport.
An aircraft that requests a contact approach to an airport served
only by a GNSS approach is indicating to ATS that the pilot
understands that no ground-based approach is available and is confirming that it is able to conduct a GNSS approach.
ATC will ensure IFR separation from other IFR flights and will
issue specific missed approach instructions if there is any doubt
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACthat a landing will be accomplished. Pilots are cautioned that
when any missed approach is initiated while conducting a contact
approach, obstacle and terrain avoidance is the pilot’s responsibility
even though specific missed approach instructions may have
been issued by ATC. ATC only ensures appropriate IFR separation
from other IFR aircraft during contact approaches.
NOTE :
ATC will not issue an IFR approach clearance that includes
clearance for a contact approach unless there is a published and
functioning IAP or a restricted instrument approach
procedure (RIAP) authorized by TC for the airport. Where a
GNSS approach is the only available IAP or RIAP, this fulfills
the requirement for a “functioning instrument approach.”
9.6.2 Visual Approach
A visual approach is an approach wherein an aircraft on an IFR
flight plan, operating in VMC under the control of ATC and
having ATC authorization, may proceed to the destination
airport. It permits aircraft to manage their lateral and vertical flight profiles according to the runway.
To gain operational advantages in a surveillance environment,
the pilot may request a visual approach, or ATC may initiate
one, provided that:
(a) the reported ceiling at the destination airport is 500 ft or
more above the minimum IFR altitude and the ground
visibility is 3 statute miles or more;
(b) at a controlled or uncontrolled airport, the pilot reports
sighting the airport; and
(c) at a controlled airport,
(i) the pilot reports sighting the preceding aircraft and
is instructed by ATC to follow that aircraft; or
(ii) the pilot reports sighting the airport but not the
preceding aircraft, in which case ATC will ensure
separation from the preceding aircraft until:
(A) the preceding aircraft has landed; or
(B) the pilot has sighted the preceding aircraft and
has been instructed to follow or maintain visual
separation from it.
ATC considers acceptance of a visual approach clearance as
acknowledgement that the pilot should be responsible for:
(a) maintaining visual separation from the preceding aircraft that the pilot has been instructed to follow;
(b) maintaining adequate wake turbulence separation from the
preceding aircraft that the pilot has been instructed to follow;
(c) navigating to the final approach course;
(d) adhering to published noise abatement procedures and
avoiding Class F airspace; and
(e) at uncontrolled airports, maintaining appropriate separation
from VFR traffic that, in many cases, will not be known
to ATC.ATC will issue a a visual approach clearance and, as required, supplement it with additional instructions such as:
(a) Heading assignment:
(i) To ensure the aircraft stays separated from preceding
or succeeding traffic. ATC will consider the aircraft’s
altitude and remaining distance to the airport when
using this method; and
(ii) To comply with parallel runway operation rules that
require a 30-degree intercept heading to final prior to issuing the visual approach clearance.
(b) Distance to intercept the final approach course and/or
altitude to establish separation from traffic under the control
tower’s responsibility using references to:
(i) published NAVAIDs, fixes, or waypoints;
(ii) the distance from the runway; and
(iii) a prominent landmark on the final approach course.
ATC may anticipate that pilots will navigate to the final approach
course using the following methods depending on the aircraft’s altitude and distance from the airport:
(a) Flying the shortest distance to the airport while complying with ATC and noise abatement restrictions; or
(b) Using the on-board navigation guidance to follow a lateral profile reflecting any remaining portion of the STAR and
the previously planned published instrument approach
procedure. This provides the following benefits:
(i) enhanced aircraft energy management;
(ii) predictability;
(iii) reduced flight deck workload;
(iv) flexibility in meeting stabilized approach criteria;
and
(v) adherence to altitude restrictions during nighttime conditions.
As both methods differ in terms of flying distance, it is good
airmanship for pilots to advise ATC of the planned flight path, especially if it is likely to be unexpected or unpredictable, such as cases involving the widening of the base leg or the inability to shorten the flying distance as anticipated by ATC.
9.6.2.1 Missed Approach
A visual approach is not an IAP, and except for published visual
approach procedures in the CAP, there are no procedures
associated with a missed visual approach; visual approaches
therefore have no missed approach segment. If a go-around is
necessary for any reason, aircraft operating at controlled airports
will be issued an appropriate advisory/clearance/instruction by the tower to ensure that separation from other airport traffic is maintained.
NOTE :
It is understood that the execution of a missed approach
manoeuvre involves critical internal flight deck communications
and high pilot workload. If these instructions are required for
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACplanning, pilots may request them before the approach clearance
or at any time prior to initiating the missed approach.
ATC instructions will guide the pilot to:
1. continue flying the issued IFR clearance; or
2. integrate into the airport VFR circuit.
(a) Controlled Airports
At controlled airports, until missed approach instructions are
issued, ATC should anticipate that pilots conducting a go-around
from a visual approach will:
(i) initially fly the runway heading;
(ii) follow the published missed approach instructions
for the IAP requested by the pilots and acknowledged
by ATC; or
(iii) follow the published missed approach instructions
for the IAP advertised on the ATIS.
(b) Uncontrolled Airports
At uncontrolled airports, aircraft crews are required to remain clear of clouds and are expected to complete a landing as soon
as possible. If a landing cannot be accomplished, the aircraft
crew is required to:
(i) remain clear of clouds; and
(ii) maintain separation from other airport traffic.
The crew is also expected to contact ATC as soon as possible for further clearance.
ATC separation from other IFR aircraft is only assured once
further ATC clearance has been received and acknowledged by the aircraft crew.
9.7 ARRIVALS
9.7.1 General
ATS surveillance separation is applied to arriving aircraft in
order to establish and maintain the most desirable arrival
sequence to avoid unnecessary “stacking”. In the approach phase,
vectoring is carried out to establish the aircraft on an approach aid. The initial instruction is normally a turn to a heading for
vectors to a final approach to the runway in use. Should a
communications failure occur after this point, the pilot should continue and carry out a straight-in approach if able, or carry out a procedure turn and land as soon as possible. Aircraft are
vectored so as to intercept the final approach course approximately
2 NM from the point at which final descent will begin.
Example:
JULIETT WHISKEY CHARLIE, TURN LEFT
HEADING ONE SEVEN ZERO TO INTERCEPT FINAL APPROACH COURSE. SEVEN MILES
FROM AIRPORT. CLEARED FOR STRAIGHT ‑IN
ILS RUNWAY ONE FIVE LEFT APPROACH. CONTACT TORONTO TOWER ON ONE ONE EIGHT DECIMAL SEVEN NOW. 9.7.2 ATS Surveillance Required
Traditionally, instrument approach procedures have been
developed to include a procedure turn initial approach segment.
Procedure turns permitted the pilot to “self navigate” t he aircraft
within the procedure in order to place the aircraft in a position
to conduct a normal landing. Introducing DME and other feeder
routes or transitions permitted the pilot to conduct a straight-in
procedure without conducting the procedure turn. Most instrument procedures today are accomplished without
conducting a procedure turn.
Instrument approaches at Canada’s major airports are conducted
by vectors to the final approach course. While procedure turns
are depicted on the instrument approach procedures at these
airports, procedure turns are never flown. ATC route and space
all aircraft within the terminal area in order to provide a systematic flow of the air traffic. An aircraft conducting a
procedure turn manoeuvre at these major centres would cause
serious traffic disruptions which may lead to losses of separation
or possibly a mid-air collision.
Instrument procedures are being introduced eliminating the
procedure turn as well as including a statement “ATS
SURVEILLANCE REQUIRED” as part of the procedure. The
initial approach segment of these instrument procedures is being
provided by ATC vectors. Without ATC vectoring, the instrument
procedure may not have a published initial approach segment.
Should an aircraft communication failure occur while being
vectored for one of these approaches, refer to the communications
failure procedures detailed in RAC Two-Way Communication Failure.
9.7.3 Speed Adjustment – ATS Surveillance-Controlled Aircraft
NOTE :
This section is for information only. It describes directives to
controllers and in no way alters the applications of CAR 602.32,
which prescribes the following maximum speeds for all aircraft:
1. below 10 000 ft ASL, 250 KIAS; and
2. below 3 000 ft AGL and within 10 NM of controlled airports,
200 KIAS.
To assist with vectoring, it is sometimes necessary to issue speed
adjustments. While ATC will take every precaution not to request
speeds beyond the capability of the aircraft, it is the pilot’s
responsibility to ensure that the aircraft is not operated at an
unsafe speed. If ATC issues a speed reduction that is inconsistent
with safe operation, the pilot must inform ATC when unable to comply.
Speed adjustment will be expressed in units of 10 KIAS or
multiples of 10 KIAS. Pilots complying with a speed adjustment
are expected to maintain a speed within 10 KIAS of the
specified speed.
Pilots may be asked to:
(a) maintain present speed; or
(b) increase or reduce speed to a specified speed or by a specified
amount.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACUnless prior concurrence in the use of a lower speed is obtained
from the pilot, the following minimum speeds will be applied to:
(a) aircraft operating 20 NM or more from destination airport:
(i) at or above 10 000 ft ASL: 250 KIAS; and
(ii) below 10 000 ft ASL: 210 KIAS;
(b) turbojet aircraft operating less than 20 NM from destination
airport: 160 KIAS; and
(c) propeller-driven aircraft operating less than 20 NM from
destination airport: 120 KIAS.
Pilots of aircraft that cannot attain speeds as high as the minimum
speeds specified may be requested to:
(a) maintain a specified speed equivalent to that of a preceding
or succeeding aircraft; or
(b) increase or decrease speed by a specified amount.
The issuance of an approach clearance normally cancels a speed
adjustment; however, if the controller requires that a pilot maintain
a speed adjustment after the issuance of the approach clearance, the controller will restate it. Otherwise, ATC may use the phrase
“resume normal speed” to advise a pilot that previously issued
speed restrictions are cancelled. Unless specifically stated by ATC,
an instruction to “resume normal speed” does not cancel speed
restrictions that are applicable to published procedures of upcoming
segments of flight.
9.7.4 Precision Radar Approaches
Precision Radar Approaches (PARs) are provided at aerodromes
with military PAR units. The aircraft is vectored by surveillance
radar to a predetermined position, at which point control is
transferred to the PAR controller for the approach.
Example:
JULIETT WHISKEY CHARLIE, EIGHT MILES
FROM AIRPORT, TURN LEFT HEADING TWO SEVEN ZERO FOR FINAL APPROACH. CLEARED FOR PRECISION RADAR APPROACH
RUNWAY TWO FOUR. C ONTACT TRENTON
PRECISION ON ONE TWO EIGHT DECIMAL SEVEN NOW.
In an emergency, where surveillance radar coverage permits it,
air traffic controllers will provide a surveillance radar approach
if no alternative method of approach is available and the pilot declares an emergency and requests a radar approach.
NOTE :
NAV CANADA are not flight-checked or commissioned for
surveillance approaches, nor are NAV CANADA controllers
specifically trained to provide them. 9.8 INITIAL CONTACT WITH CONTROL
TOWERS
Pilots should establish contact with the control tower as follows:
(a) If in direct communication with an ACC or a TCU, the IFR
controller shall advise the pilot when contact is to be made with the tower. Unless on vectors to final approach, pilots
should give the tower their ETA to the facility for the
approach they intend to fly.
(b) If the conditions above do not apply, pilots should establish
communication with the tower when approximately 25 NM
from the airport, give their ETA, obtain an ATC approach
clearance (if not already received), advise approach intentions
and remain on tower frequency.
NOTE :
Whenever an ETA is passed, the pilot should specify the point, fix or facility to which the ETA applies.
9.9 APPROACH POSITION REPORTS—
CONTROLLED AIRPORTS
Pilots conducting an instrument approach to, or landing at, a
controlled airport should only make position reports that are
requested by the appropriate ATC unit. As an example, pilots
may expect ATC to request a report by the Final Approach Fix
(FAF) or a specified distance on final. Position reports made
under these circumstances are expected to be stated by reporting
the position only.
9.10 CONTROL TRANSFER— INSTRUMENT
FLIGHT RULES (IFR) UNITS TO TOWERS
Tower controllers may accept responsibility for control of an
arriving IFR flight within the CZ if VMC exist at an airport,
and the aircraft has been sighted and will remain in sight. The
transfer of control to the tower does not cancel the IFR flight
plan, but rather indicates that the aircraft is now receiving airport
control service. In such instances, IFR separation minima may
not continue to be applied. The tower controller may use visual separation procedures, or issue clearances and instructions as
necessary to maintain a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of
airport traffic. Occasiona lly the tower controller may issue
instructions that supersede previous instructions and clearances
that the pilot had received from the IFR unit. Acknowledgement
of these instructions indicates to the tower that the pilot shall
comply with them. A pilot must not assume that the control
tower has ATS surveillance equipment or that ATS surveillance service is being provided.
9.11 INITIAL CONTACT WITH AIR-GROUND
FACILITY AT UNCONTROLLED AERODROMES
Pilots shall establish communications with the air-groundfacility
(FSS, RCO, CARS or UNICOM) on the appropriate frequency
if in direct communication with an ACC or a TCU, when directed
to do so by the ACC or TCU.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACNotwithstanding this, in accordance with CAR 602.104, pilots
shall establish communication with the facility on the appropriate
frequency no later than five minutes prior to the estimated time
of commencing the approach procedure. If the ATC approach clearance has not already been received, it should be obtained
from the agency listed on CAP approach charts, unless otherwise
directed by ATC.
NOTES :
1. If a pilot is instructed to remain on the ATC frequency
rather than being transferred to the appropriate frequency
for the uncontrolled aerodrome, it remains the pilot’s
responsibility to notify the associated destination aerodrome
ground station, or to broadcast where no ground station
exists, and report in accordance with the following
subsection. This may be accomplished by taking one of the
following actions:
(a) if the aircraft is equipped with more than one two-way communication radio, the pilot is expected to make the
report on the appropriate frequency with the secondary
radio, while monitoring the ATC frequency on the
primary radio; or
(b) if the aircraft is equipped with a single two-way
communication radio, the pilot must first request and receive permission to leave the ATC frequency in order to transmit this directed or broadcast report and then return to the ATC frequency; or, if this is not possible, the pilot should specifically request ATC to notify the associated ground station of their approach intentions and estimated time of landing.
2. At aerodromes where RAAS is provided via an RCO and
where AWOS (or LWIS) weather information is also broadcast
via a voice generator module (VGM), it is recommended
that pilots listen to the broadcast prior to contacting the
air-ground facility, and upon contact, advise that they have the wind and altimeter information.
Because a VGM weather broadcast contains up-to-the-minute weather, it will be more current and may differ slightly from the most recently disseminated aerodrome routine meteorological
report (METAR) or aviation selected special weather report
(SPECI). The latest METAR or SPECI for the remote aerodrome
will be provided, upon request, from the ATS unit controlling the RCO.
9.12 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
REPORTING PROCEDURES AT
UNCONTROLLED AERODROMES
Subsection 1 of CAR 602.104—Reporting Procedures for IFR
Aircraft When Approaching or Landing at an Uncontrolled
Aerodrome “applies to persons operating IFR aircraft when
approaching or landing at an uncontrolled aerodrome, whether
or not the aerodrome lies within an MF area.” Subsection 2 of CAR 602.104 states:
The pilot-in-command of an IFR aircraft who intends to conduct
an approach to or a landing at an uncontrolled aerodrome shall
report
(a) the pilot-in-command’s intentions regarding the operation
of the aircraft
(i) five minutes before the estimated time of commencing
the approach procedure, stating the estimated time of landing,
(ii) when commencing a circling manoeuvre, and
(iii) as soon as practicable after initiating a missed
approach procedure; and
(b) the aircraft’s position
(i) when passing the fix outbound, where the pilot-in-command intends to conduct a procedure turn or, if no procedure turn is intended, when the aircraft first intercepts the final approach course,
(ii) when passing the final approach fix or three minutes
before the estimated time of landing where no final approach fix exists, and
(iii) on final approach.
In addition to these requirements, pilots operating aircraft under
IFR into an uncontrolled aerodrome, when the weather conditions
at the aerodrome could permit VFR circuit operations, are
expected to approach and land on the active runway that may
be established by the aircraft operating in the VFR circuit. Pilots
operating aircraft under IFR at an uncontrolled aerodrome do not establish any priority over aircraft operating under VFR at
that aerodrome. Should it be necessary for the IFR aircraft to
approach and/or land on a runway contrary to the established
VFR operation, it is expected that appropriate communications,
between pilots or between pilots and the air-ground facility, will
be effected in order to ensure there is no traffic conflict.
9.13 INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
PROCEDURES AT AN UNCONTROLLED
AERODROME IN UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE
Pilots operating under IFR in uncontrolled airspace should,
whenever practical, monitor 126.7 MHz and broadcast their
intentions on this frequency immediately prior to changing
altitude or commencing an approach. Therefore, when arriving
at an aerodrome where another frequency is designated as the
MF, descent and approach intentions should be broadcast on
126.7 MHz before changing to the MF. If conflicting IFR traffic
becomes evident, this change should be delayed until the conflict
is resolved. Once established on the MF, the pilot shall make the
reports listed in the subsection above.
A straight-in landing from an IFR approach should not be used
at an uncontrolled aerodrome where air-ground advisory is not available to provide the wind direction and speed and runway condition reports required to conduct a safe landing. The pilot
should determine the wind and verify that the runway is
unobstructed before landing. Where pilots lack any necessary
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACinformation, they are expected to ensure that a visual inspection
of the runway is completed prior to landing. In some cases, this
can only be accomplished by conducting a circling approach
using the appropriate circling MDA.
Pilots operating aircraft under IFR into an uncontrolled
aerodrome in uncontrolled airspace when the weather conditions
at the aerodrome could permit VFR circuit operations are
expected to approach and land on the active runway that may
be established by the aircraft operating in the VFR circuit. Pilots
operating aircraft under IFR at an uncontrolled aerodrome in
uncontrolled airspace do not establish any priority over aircraft operating under VFR at that aerodrome. Should it be necessary for the IFR aircraft to approach to, land, or take off on a runway
contrary to the established VFR operation, it is expected that
appropriate communications between the pilots, or pilots and the air-ground facility, will be effected in order to ensure that there is no conflict of traffic.
9.14 OUTBOUND REPORT
To apply the prescribed separation minima between aircraft
intending to make a complete instrument approach procedure
and other aircraft, ATC must often establish the position and
direction of arriving aircraft with respect to the approach facility.
When reporting “outbound”, pilots should make these reports
only after they are over or abeam the approach facility and
proceeding in a direction away from the airport.
9.15 STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH
ATC uses the term “straight-in approach” to indicate an
instrument approach conducted so as to position the aircraft on
final approach without performing a procedure turn.
9.16 STRAIGHT-IN APPROACHES FROM AN
INTERMEDIATE FIX
Published transitions normally are designated from an en route
navigation aid to the primary approach aid upon which the
procedure turn is based. However, to accommodate aircraft with
modern avionics equipment and to improve fuel economy,
transitions at some locations direct the pilot to an intermediate
fix (IF) on the final approach course. Subject to ATC requirements
and local traffic conditions, a straight-in approach may be made
from this fix.
Intermediate fixes are usually located on the final approach
track at the procedure turn distance specified in the profile view.
This distance, which is normally 10 NM, is the distance within
which the procedure turn should be executed. Accordingly, after
passing the fix and manoeuvring the aircraft onto the proper
inbound track, descent may be made to the appropriate published
altitude that would apply as if a procedure turn had been
completed.
The abbreviation “NO PT” is used to denote that no procedure
turn is necessary from the point indicated and will normally be shown adjacent to the IF. However, if the minimum altitude IF to the final approach fix (FAF) is not readily apparent, the “NO PT” abbreviation may be shown at some point between the fix and FAF, along with an altitude applicable for this segment. Where more than one transition intersects the final approach
track at different points, only the furthest intersection is
designated as the IF. Pilots may begin a straight-in approach
from any depicted transition that intersects the final approach
track inside the designated IF provided that ATC is aware of
their intentions and subsequent manoeuvring is within the
capabilities of the aircraft.
If the aircraft is badly positioned, laterally or vertically, after
being cleared by ATC for the straight-in approach, pilots should
climb to the procedure turn altitude, or the minimum altitude
at the facility if one is depicted, and proceed to the FAF requesting
clearance for a procedure turn.
NOTE :
If the FAF is behind the aircraft, the pilot must conduct a missed
approach and request further clearance from ATC.
The depiction of radials on a DME arc transition to an IF are
normally limited to the radial forming the IAF at the beginning
of the arc, the lead radial (if required) to indicate where the turn to the final approach track should be commenced, and radials
forming step-down fixes if descent to lower altitudes can be
approved. However, the arc may be joined from any radial that intercepts the depicted arc.
9.17 PROCEDURE ALTITUDES AND
CURRENT ALTIMETER SETTING
All altitudes published in the CAP are minimum altitudes that
meet obstacle clearance requirements when International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA) conditions exist and the aircraft
altimeter is set to the current altimeter setting for that aerodrome.
The altimeter setting may be a local or a remote setting when
so authorized on the instrument approach chart. A current
altimeter setting is one provided by approved direct reading or
remote equipment or by the most recent routine hourly weather
report. These readings are considered current up to 90 min from
the time of observation. Care should be exercised when using
altimeter settings older than 60 min or when pressure has been
reported as falling rapidly. In these instances, a value may be
added to the published DH/MDA in order to compensate for
falling pressure tendency (0.01 inches of mercury = 10-ft
correction). When an authorized remote altimeter setting is
used, the altitude correction shall be applied as indicated.
9.17.1 Corrections for Temperature
Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate true altitude under
ISA conditions. Any deviation from ISA will result in an erroneous
reading on the altimeter. In a case when the temperature is higher
than the ISA, the true altitude will be higher than the
figure indicated by the altimeter, and the true altitude will be
lower when the temperature is lower than the ISA. The altimeter
error may be significant, and becomes extremely important
when considering obstacle clearances in cold temperatures.
The published minimum IFR altitudes (i.e. the MSA/TAA and
the initial/intermediate/final and missed approach segments,
including the MDA/DA) must be adjusted when the ambient
temperature on the surface is much lower than that predicted
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACby the standard atmosphere. As a general rule this is considered
to be 0°C or, when MDAs/DAs are 1 000 ft HAA or higher, it
begins at 10°C.
NOTE :
Should the pilot feel that the above rules do not adequately adjust
the published minimum IFR altitudes in the procedures to
compensate for low temperatures, it is at the pilot’s discretion
to apply temperature correction whenever the aerodrome
temperature is below the ISA.
Corrections may be obtained from the “Altitude Correction
Chart” in the CAP (which is reproduced as Table 9.1 in RAC).
This chart is calculated for an aerodrome at sea level. It is,
therefore, conservative when applied to aerodromes at higher
altitudes. To calculate the corrections (reduced altitudes) for
specific aerodromes or altimeter setting sources above sea level,
or for values not tabulated, refer to the following paragraphs.
With respect to altitude corrections, the following procedures
apply:
(a) IFR assigned altitudes may be either accepted or refused.
Refusal in this case is based upon the pilot’s assessment of
temperature effect on obstacle clearance. IFR assigned altitudes accepted by a pilot should not be adjusted to
compensate for cold temperatures, i.e. if a pilot accepts
“maintain 3 000”, an altitude correction should not be applied
to 3 000 ft.
(b) Vectoring altitudes assigned by ATC are temperature
corrected and require no temperature compensation by
pilots.
(c) When altitude corrections are applied to a published
mandatory altitude or missed approach holding altitude,
pilots should advise ATC of the temperature-corrected
altitude prior to crossing the associated waypoint.
The “Altitude Correction Chart” was calculated assuming a
linear variation of temperature with height. It is based on the
following equation, which may be used with the appropriate
value of to, H, Lo and Hss to calculate temperature corrections
for specific conditions. This equation produces results that are
within five percent of the accurate correction for altimeter setting
sources up to 10 000 ft and with minimum heights up to 5 000 ft
above that source. Unless otherwise specified, the destination
aerodrome elevation is used as the elevation of the altimeter source.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACTable 9.1—Altitude Corrections Based on Aerodrome Cold Temperatures
Aerodrome
Temperature ˚CHeight above the elevation of the altimeter setting sources (feet)
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000 1 500 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000
+10 20 30 40 60 80 100
0 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 90 120 170 230 290
-10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 290 390 490
-20 30 50 60 70 90 100 120 130 140 210 280 430 570 710
-30 40 60 80 100 120 130 150 170 190 280 380 570 760 950
-40 50 80 100 120 150 170 190 220 240 360 480 720 970 1 210
-50 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 450 600 890 1 190 1 500
NOTES :
1. The corrections have been rounded up to the next 10-ft
increment.
2. Values must be added to published minimum IFR altitudes.
3. Temperature values from the reporting station nearest to
the position of the aircraft should be used. This is normally
the aerodrome.
Table 9.2—Example of Corrections for an Aerodrome at an Elevation of 2 262 ft with a Temperature of -50˚C
— ALTITUDE HAA CORRECTION INDICATED ALTITUDE
Procedure Turn 4 000 ft 1 738 ft +521.4 ft1 4 600 ft2
FAF 3 300 ft 1 038 ft +311.4 ft 3 700 ft
MDA Straight-in 2 840 ft 578 ft +173.4 ft 3 020 ft
Circling MDA 2 840 ft 578 ft +173.4 ft 3 020 ft
1 CORRECTION derived as follows:
(2 000 ft at -50˚ error) 600 – (1 500 ft at -50˚error ) 450 = 150
Altitude difference of above (2 000 – 1 500) = 500
Error per foot difference (150/500)= 0.3HAA = 1 738
Error at 1 738 = (1 738 – 1 500) * 0.3 = 71.4 + 450 (error -50˚ at 1 500) = 521.4
2 INDICATED ALTITUDE derived as follows:
Calculated error at 1 738 from ab ove = 521.4
Procedure-turn altitude (4 000) + erro r (521.4) = 4 521.4
INDICATED ALTITUDE rounded next higher 100-ft increment = 4 600
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACFigure 9.9—Correction for Cold Temperatures: Equation
Correction = H ×15 – t 0
273 + t 0 – 0.5 × L 0 × (H + H ss) ( )
where:
H = minimum hei ght above the altimeter setting
source
(setting source is normally the aerodrome
unless otherwise specified)
t0 = taerodrome + Lo * haerodrome aerodrome (or specified
temperature reporting point) temperature
adjusted to sea level
L0 = 0.0065˚C per metre or 0.00198˚C per foot
Hss = altimeter setting source elevation
taerodrome = aerodrome (or specified temperature reporting
point) temperature
haerodrome = aerodrome (or specified temperature
reporting point) elevation
The actual lapse rate may vary considerably from the assumed standard, depending on latitude and time of year. However, the
corrections derived from the linear approximation can be taken
as a satisfactory estimate for general application at levels up to 10 000 ft.
9.17.2 Remote Altimeter Setting
Normally, approaches shall be flown using the current altimeter
setting only for the destination aerodrome. However, at certain
aerodromes where a local pressure setting is not available,
approaches may be flown using a current altimeter setting for
a nearby aerodrome. Such an altimeter setting is considered a
remote altimeter setting, and authorization for its use is published
in the RASS box, located at the bottom left-hand corner of the
approach chart, adjacent to the minima box, below the profile view.
If the use of a remote altimeter setting is required for limited
hours only, an altitude correction will be included with the
authorization. When the remote altimeter setting is used, the
altitude correction shall be applied as indicated. If the use of a
remote altimeter setting is required at all times, then the
correction is incorporated into the procedure at the time it is
developed.
Examples:
1. RASS: When using CYYY add 200’.
(When using the Mont-Joli altimeter setting, add 200 ft to the
intermediate, final and missed approach segment minimum
altitudes.)
2. RASS: Use CYXU.
(Use London altimeter setting.)
If the altitude correction results in the calculated rate of descent
exceeding design parameters, the words “circling minima apply”
will be added to the RASS box. The intent of this note is to draw
the pilot’s attention to the fact that he/she cannot use straight-in
minima when using the remote altimeter source. However, this does not prohibit the pilot from landing straight in if he/she has
adequate visual reference in applying circling minima and the aircraft is suitably positioned to land straight in.
Example:
RASS: When using CYHU add 120’. Circling minima apply.
(When using St-Hubert altimeter, add 120 ft to the in termediate,
final and missed approach segment minimum altitudes; circling
minima apply.)
9.18 DEPARTURE, APPROACH AND
ALTERNATE MINIMA
The civil minima published in the CAP shall, unless otherwise
authorized, be observed by all pilots in accordance with their
instrument rating. Authorization to operate to special limits
may be obtained by air operators in accordance with Part VII
of the CARs or by private operators in accordance with subpart 604
of the CARs
9.18.1 Category II Instrument Landing
System (ILS) Approach Minima
Category II operations are precision approaches in weather
minima as low as 100 ft DH and RVR 1 200 ft. These minima
are restricted to aircraft and pilots specifically approved for such
operations by TC and to runways specially equipped for the
category of operation. Details on Category II requirements are
contained in CAR 602.128, Landing Minima, and the Manual
of All Weather Operations (Categories II and III) (TP 1490E).
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACTable 9.3—Instrument Rating Weather Minima for CAT II ILS Approach
AIRCRAFT ROTORCRAFT
TAKEOFF VISIBILITY CAP 1/2 CAP but not less than 1/4 SM.
LANDING DH or MDA CAP CAP
ALTERNATE WEATHER MINIMA REQUIREMENTS – CAP GEN
FACILITIES AVAILABLE
AT SUITABLE ALTERNATEWEATHER REQUIREMENTS
TWO OR MORE USABLE
PRECISION APPROACHES
Each providing straight-in minima
to separate suitable runways.400 - 1 or 200 - 1/2 above the lowest usable
HAT and visibility, whichever is greater.N/A
ONE USABLE PRECISION
APPROACH600 - 2* or 300-1 above the lowest usable
HAT and visibility, whichever is greater.N/A
NON-PRECISION ONLY
AVAILABLE800 - 2* or 300-1 above the lowest usable
HAT/HAA and visibility, whichever is greater.N/A
NO IFR APPROACH AVAILABLEForecast weather must be no lower than
500 ft above a minimum IFR altitude that will
permit a VFR approach and landing.N/A
FOR ROTORCRAFT
Where instrument approach
procedures are available.N/ACeiling 200 ft above the minima for the
approach to be flown, and visibility at least
1 SM but never less than the minimum
visibility for the approach to be flown.
9.19 APPLICATION OF MINIMA
9.19.1 Takeoff Minima
CAR 701.20—Take-off Minima states that:
For the purposes of section 602.126, a person may conduct a
take-off in an aircraft where weather conditions are below the
take-off minima specified in the Canada Air Pilot if:
(a) in the case of a foreign air operator, the foreign air operator is authorized to do so in its Canadian foreign air operator certificate and complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards; or
(b) in the case of a person who operates a foreign state aircraft, the person is authorized to do so in a flight authorization and complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards.
Subsection (1) of CAR 602.126—Take-off Minima states that:
No pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall conduct a take-off if
the take-off visibility, as determined in accordance with
subsection (2), is below the minimum take-off visibility specified
in:
(a) the air operator certificate where the aircraft is operated in
accordance with Part VII;
(b) a special authorization issued under subsection 604.05(2); or
(c) the Canada Air Pilot in any case other than a case described
in paragraph (a) or (b).Subsection (2) of CAR 602.126 states that:
For the purposes of subsection (1), the take-off visibility is:
(a) the RVR of the runway, if the RVR is reported to be at or
above the minimum take-off visibility specified in a
document or the manual referred to in subsection (1);
(b) the ground visibility of the aerodrome for the runway, if
the RVR
(i) is reported to be less than the minimum take-off
visibility specified in a document or the manual
referred to in subsection (1),
(ii) is reported to vary between distances less than and
greater than the minimum take-off visibility
specified in the Canada Air Pilot or a certificate
referred to in subsection (1 ), or
(iii) is not reported; or
(c) the runway visibility as observed by the pilot-in-command,
if
(i) the RVR is not reported, and
(ii) the ground visibility of the aerodrome is not reported.
(iii) With respect to takeoff visibility, pilots will be
advised of the ground visibility by the appropriate
ATS unit. In the following example, explanations
are provided to illustrate whether takeoff is authorized
in a variety of visibility conditions.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACExamples:
A takeoff is to be conducted from Runway 27; the pilot is
authorized a takeoff minimum of RVR 2600 (1/2 SM).
1. ATC/FSS reports “… RVR Runway 27 is 2000, variable
1600-2800, visibility 1/2 mile”.
Although the RVR variation may be below minimum, a
takeoff is authorized because the reported ground visibility
of 1/2 mi. is governing.
2. ATC/FSS reports “… RVR Runway 27 is 2200, visibility
observed on-the-hour 1/4 mile, visibility now 1/2 mile”.
Although the RVR is below minimum, a takeoff is authorized
because the reported ground visibility of 1/2 mi. is governing.
3. ATC/FSS reports “… RVR 2600, visibility 1/4 mile”.
A takeoff is authorized since the lowest reported RVR is at
or above minimum.
4. ATC/FSS reports “… RVR Runway 27 is 2000, variable
1600-2800, visibility 1/4 mile”.
A takeoff is not authorized since both the lowest RVR and
the reported ground visibility are below minimum.
5. ATC/FSS reports “… RVR Runway 27 is 2000 …”.
A takeoff is not authorized because the reported RVR is
below minimum.
6. ATC/FSS/CARS reports only “… visibility observed on-the-
hour 1/4 mile”.
A takeoff is not authorized because reported visibility is
below minimum.
In summary, a takeoff is authorized when:
(a) the lowest reported RVR for the runway is at or above the minimum takeoff visibility, regardless of reported ground visibility;
(b) the reported ground visibility for the aerodrome is at or
above the minimum takeoff visibility, regardless of the
reported RVR for the runway; or
(c) in the absence of a reported RVR or reported ground
visibility, the runway visibility as observed by the pilot in command is at or above minimum takeoff visibility.9.19.2 Approach Ban
9.19.2.1 General Aviation—Non-Precision Approach
(NPA), Approach Procedure with Vertical
Guidance (APV), CAT I or CAT II Precision
Approach
CAR 602.129 specifies that instrument approaches by general
aviation aircraft are governed by RVR values only. With certain
exceptions, pilots of aircraft are prohibited from completing an
instrument approach past the FAF (or where there is no FAF,
the point where the final approach course is intercepted) to a
runway served by an RVR, if the RVR values as measured for
that runway are below the following minima:
Table 9.4—Minimum RVR for Airplanes
and Helicopters (General Aviation)
MEASURED RVR* AEROPLANES HELICOPTERS
RVR “A” only 1 200 1 200
RVR “A” and “B” 1 200/600 1 200/0
RVR “B” only 1 200 1 200
* RVR “A” located adjacent to the runway threshold.
RVR “B” located adjacent to the runway mid-point.
The following exceptions to the above prohibitions apply to all aircraft when:
(a) the below-minima RVR report is received, the aircraft is
inbound on approach and has passed the FAF, or where
there is no FAF, the point where the final approach course is intercepted;
(b) the pilot-in-command has informed the appropriate ATC
unit that the aircraft is on a training flight and that the
pilot-in-command intends to initiate a missed approach
procedure at or above the DH or the MDA, as appropriate;
(c) the RVR is varying between distances less than and greater than the minimum RVR;
(d) the RVR is less than the minimum RVR, and the ground
visibility at the aerodrome where the runway is located is reported to be at least one-quarter statute mile; or
(e) the pilot-in-command is conducting a precision approach to CAT III minima.
With respect to approach restrictions, in the case of a localized
phenomenon or any fluctuations that affect RVR validity, where
the ground visibility is reported by ATC or FSS to be at or above one-quarter statute mile, an approach may be completed.
Example:An ILS approach is to be conducted to Runway 27; RVR sensors
are located at positions A and B; the pilot is flying an aeroplane.
1. ATC/FSS reports “… RVR “A” 800, RVR “B” 800, observed visibility one-quarter statute mile.”
An approach to DH/MDA is authorized because the reported
ground visibility of one-quarter statute mile is governing.
2. ATC/FSS reports “… RVR “A” not available, RVR “B” 1 000.”
An approach to DH/MDA is not authorized since RVR “B” is governing and is below 1 200 ft.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACIf, after commencing an approach (but before reaching the FAF,
or where there is no FAF, the point where the final approach
course is intercepted), a pilot must discontinue an approach
because the RVR has gone below minima, the pilot shall continue
as cleared, advise ATC of their intentions and request further
clearance. If further clearance is not received by the time the
aircraft reaches the FAF, or where there is no FAF, the point
where the final approach course is intercepted, the pilot shall
execute a missed approach and proceed via the missed approach
procedure to the specified missed approach clearance limit.
In summary, an approach is authorized whenever:
(a) the lowest reported RVR for the runway is at or above minima
(CAR 602.129), regardless of reported ground visibility;
(b) the RVR is reported to be varying between distances less
than and greater than the minimum RVR;
(c) the RVR is below the minimum, and the ground visibility
is reported to be at least one-quarter statute mile;
(d) the RVR for the runway is unavailable or not reported; or
(e) ATS is informed that an aircraft is on a training flight and will conduct a planned missed approach.
No pilot shall commence an NPA, an APV, or a CAT I or CAT II
precision approach to an airport where low-visibility procedures
are in effect. Low-visibility procedures are associated with CAT III
operations. They are specified for an airport (for example, CYVR
or CYYZ) in the CAP and restrict aircraft and vehicle operations
on the movement area of the airport when the RVR is less than 1 200 ft.
9.19.2.2 Approach Ban—General Aviation—CAT III
Precision Approach
CAR 602.130 specifies the general aviation CAT III precision
approach ban. No pilot shall continue a CAT III precision
approach in an IFR aircraft beyond the FAF inbound, or where
there is no FAF, the point where the final approach course is
intercepted, unless the RVR reported is equal to or greater than
the minimum RVR specified in the CAP in respect of the runway
or surface of intended approach for the IAP conducted.
Table 9.5—Minimum RVR for Aircraft CAT III
Approaches (General Aviation)
MEASURED
RVR*CAT IIIA CAT IIIB CAT IIIC
RVR “A”, “B”
and “C”600/600/600Not
AuthorizedNot
Authorized
*RVR “A” located adjacent to the runway threshold.
RVR “B” located adjacent to the runway mid-point. RVR “C” located adjacent to the runway end. 9.19.2.3 Approach Ban—Commercial Operators—
General—Non-Precision Approach (NPA), Approach Procedure with Vertical Guidance
(APV), or CAT I Precision Approach
CAR 700.10 specifies the NPA, APV and precision approach
ban that generally applies to commercial operators. With certain
exceptions, pilots of commercial aircraft are prohibited from
completing an NPA, an APV, or a CAT I precision approach past
the FAF inbound, or where there is no FAF, the point where the
final approach course is intercepted, if the visibility report is
below the value corresponding to the CAP advisory visibility
for the approach conducted.
Table 9.6—Minimum Visibility for
Airplanes (Commercial Operators)
CAP ADVISORY
VISIBILITY
(SM, RVR x 100 ft)VISIBILITY REPORT
(Grnd Vis SM, RVR “A” or
Rwy Vis ft)
1/2 RVR 26
3/4 RVR 40
1 RVR 50
1 1/4
1 1/2
1 3/4
2 1/4
2 1/2
2 3/4
33/8, RVR or Rwy Vis 1 600
5/8, RVR or Rwy Vis 3 000
3/4, RVR or Rwy Vis 4 000
1, RVR or Rwy Vis 5 000
1 1/4, RVR or Rwy Vis 6 000
1 1/2, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000 1 1/2, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000
1 3/4, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000
2, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000
2 1/4, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000 2 1/4, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000
Table 9.7—Minimum Visibility for
Helicopters (Commercial Operators)
MEASURED RVR HELICOPTERS
RVR “A” only 1 200
RVR “A” and “B” 1 200/0
RVR “B” only 1 200
An RVR report takes precedence over a runway visibility report
or a ground visibility report, and a runway visibility report takes
precedence over a ground visibility report. Ground visibility
will only impose an approach ban at aerodromes south of 60ºN
latitude. If no RVR, runway visibility, or ground visibility is
reported, there are no criteria to impose an approach ban. (This
concept is similar to the present CAR 602 approach ban, where if there is no RVR reported, there is no criterion to impose an approach ban.)
The following exceptions to the above prohibitions apply to all
aircraft when:
(a) the visibility report is below the required value, and the
aircraft has passed the FAF inbound, or where there is no
FAF, the point where the final approach course is intercepted;
(b) the pilot-in-command has informed the appropriate ATC
unit that the aircraft is on a training flight and that the
pilot-in-command intends to initiate a missed approach
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACprocedure at or above the decision altitude (height) [DA(H)]
or the MDA, as appropriate;
(c) the RVR is varying between distances less than and greater
than the minimum RVR;
(d) the ground visibility is varying between distances less than and greater than the minimum visibility;
(e) a localized meteorological phenomenon is affecting the
ground visibility to the extent that the visibility on the
approach to the runway of intended approach and along
that runway, as observed by the pilot in flight and reported immediately to ATS, if available, is equal to or greater than the visibility specified in the CAP for the IAP conducted; or
(f) the approach is conducted in accordance with an Operations
Specification issued in accordance with CAR 703, 704 or
No pilot shall commence an NPA, an APV, or a CAT I precision
approach to an airport where low-visibility procedures are in
effect. Low-visibility procedures are associated with CAT III
operations. They are specified for an airport (for example, CYVR
or CYYZ) in the CAP and restrict aircraft and vehicle operations
on the movement area of the airport when the RVR is less than 1 200 ft.
9.19.2.4 Approach Ban—Commercial Operators—
CAT II and CAT III Precision Approach
CAR 700.11 specifies the CAT II and CAT III precision approach
ban that applies to commercial operators. No pilot shall continue
a CAT II or CAT III precision approach in an IFR aircraft beyond
the FAF inbound, or where there is no FAF, the point where the final approach course is intercepted, unless the RVR reported is equal to or greater than the minimum RVR specified in the CAP in respect of the runway or surface of intended approach for the IAP conducted.
Table 9.8— Minimum RVR for Airplane and Helicopter
CAT II Approaches (Commercial Operators)
MEASURED RVR *AEROPLANES HELICOPTERS
RVR “A” and “B” 1 200/600 1 200/0
Table 9.9— Minimum RVR for Aircraft CAT III
Approaches (Commercial Operators)
MEASURED
RVR *CAT IIIA CAT IIIB CAT IIIC
RVR “A”, “B”
and “C”600/600/600Not
AuthorizedNot
Authorized
*RVR “A” located adjacent to the runway threshold.
RVR “B” located adjacent to the runway mid-point.RVR “C” located adjacent to the runway end. 9.19.2.5 Approach Ban—Commercial Operators—
Operations Specification—Non-Precision Approach (NPA), Approach Procedure with
Vertical Guidance (APV), or CAT I Precision
Approach
CARs 703.41, 704.37, and 705.48 specify the NPA, APV and
precision approach ban that applies to commercial operators
through an Operations Specification. CAR 703, 704 and 705
operators authorized through Operations Specification 019, 303
or 503 and who meet all the conditions related to the approach
procedure, are permitted to conduct an approach at a visibility
value less than those specified in the CAR 700 approach ban.
With certain exceptions, pilots of commercial aircraft are
prohibited from completing an NPA, an APV, or a CAT I precision
approach past the FAF inbound, or where there is no FAF, the
point where the final approach course is intercepted, if the
visibility report is below the value corresponding to the CAP
advisory visibility for the approach conducted.
Table 9.10— Minimum Visibility for Airplanes
(CARs 703/704/705 Operations)
CAP ADVISORY
VISIBILITY (SM, RVR x
100 ft)VISIBILITY REPORT (Grnd Vis
SM, RVR “A” or Rwy Vis ft)
1/2 RVR 26
3/4 RVR 40
1 RVR 50
1 1/4
1 1/2
1 3/4
2 1/4
2 1/2
2 3/4
31/4, RVR or Rwy Vis 1 200
3/8, RVR or Rwy Vis 2 000
1/2, RVR or Rwy Vis 2 600
5/8, RVR or Rwy Vis 3 400
3/4, RVR or Rwy Vis 4 000
1, RVR or Rwy Vis 5 000
1, RVR or Rwy Vis 5 000
1 1/4, RVR or Rwy Vis 6 000
1 1/4, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000
1 1/2, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000 1 1/2, RVR or Rwy Vis > 6 000
An RVR report takes precedence over a runway visibility report
or a ground visibility report, and a runway visibility report takes
precedence over a ground visibility report. Ground visibility
will only impose an approach ban at aerodromes south of 60ºN
latitude. If no RVR, runway visibility, or ground visibility is
reported there are no criteria to impose an approach ban. (This
concept is similar to the present CAR 602 approach ban, where if there is no RVR reported, there is no criterion to impose an approach ban.)
The following exceptions to the above prohibitions apply to
aeroplanes when:
(a) the visibility report is below the required value and the
aircraft has passed the FAF inbound, or where there is no
FAF, the point where the final approach course is intercepted;
or
(b) the RVR is varying between distances less than and greater than the minimum RVR.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC9.19.2.6 Runway Visibility
CAR 602.131 specifies the concept of runway visibility as defined
in CAR 101.01(1). The purpose of runway visibility is to determine
and report a visibility at the TDZ of a runway that is not equipped
with or is not reporting an RVR. An instrument-rated pilot or
a qualified person (under CAR 804) can assess runway visibility
when RVR sensor detection equipment is not available. In effect,
a person is permitted to assess runway visibility from
approximately the same position as an RVR “A” sensor installation.
CAR Standard 622.131 (for pilots) and CAR Standard 824.25
(for qualified persons) describe how to assess and report runway
visibility.
Runway visibility is assessed at or adjacent to the runway
threshold, in the direction of the runway, based on runway lights
or landmarks that can be seen and recognized. The assessment
is made in feet based on a 200-ft runway edge light spacing, or
using landmarks found on the applicable CAP aerodrome chart.
A report of runway visibility should be reported immediately
to ATS in the following format:
“RUNWAY VISIBILITY, RUNWAY [runway number ]
ASSESSED AS [ distance assessed ] FEET AT
[time] UTC,” to the nearest 100 ‑ft increment.
A runway visibility report is valid for a period of 20 min after
it is assessed. If the runway visibility varies during the assessment,
the lowest value is reported. The lowest value that is reported is
200 ft, with lower values reported as “… LESS THAN 200 FEET…”
The highest value that is reported is 6 000 ft, with higher values reported as “… GREATER THAN 6 000 FEET …”
9.19.2.7 Localized Phenomenon
CAR 700.10 recognizes that certain localized meteorological
conditions can reduce the reported ground visibility, thus
imposing an approach ban when the flight visibility appears to be much greater. An example would be a localized fog bank that
is covering the ground observer’s observation point, resulting
in a reported ground visibility of one-quarter statute mile at an
aerodrome south of 60ºN latitude, while the flight visibility
along the approach to the runway and on the runway itself (as
observed by the pilot-in-command), is greater than 15 SM. In
this case, the pilot can declare a localized phenomenon, and
override an approach ban imposed by a ground visibility report.
A pilot cannot use localized phenomena to override an RVR or
a runway visibility report that imposes an approach ban. To
legally continue the approach past the FAF inbound, the flight visibility on the approach path and along the runway must be equal to or greater than the advisory visibility published in the CAP, for the procedure flown, and the pilot-in-command must immediately report the conditions observed to ATS.CAUTION:
Pilots are reminded of the insidious hazard that thin ground-
based layers, such as shallow fog, ice fog, or blowing snow can
present. Such conditions may allow a pilot-in-command to
override an approach ban based on what appears to be a localized
phenomenon, when in fact extensive and very poor visibility
will be encountered at low altitude during the later stages of the approach, landing and roll-out. The pilot-in-command should take all possible information into account before overriding an
approach ban, based on what appears to be a localized
phenomenon, in order to avoid conducting an approach during these hazardous conditions.
9.19.2.8 Effects of the High-Intensity Approach
Lighting (HIAL) System on Canada Air
Pilot (CAP) Advisory Visibility and on Runway
Certification
Instrument approach procedures developed for runways with
HIAL systems receive a credit against their CAP advisory visibility
(by up to ½ SM). When these lighting systems are inoperative, adjustments to the approach minima must be made by the pilot
as indicated in the tables below. This includes cases when the
HIAL system is continuously operating on only one of the
normally available intensity levels and changes to the intensity
cannot be selected or requested by the pilot during the approach.
These approach minima adjustments may determine whether
or not the pilot is prohibited from completing an instrument
approach past the FAF (see RAC 9.19.2).
HIAL systems in Canada include SSALR (“AN” in the CAP),
ALSF-2 (“AL” in the CAP), and SSALS (“AW” in the CAP). Also included are the following older types of systems: CAT I High
Intensity (also known as ALSF-1 or as “AE” in the CAP) and
CAT II High Intensity (“AC” in the CAP). All of these systems,
except for SSALS, are used to certify a precision approach runway.
When the HIAL system is inoperative, a certified precision
runway is downgraded to a non-precision runway. For this reason,
an approach procedure with straight-in minima below a DH of 250 ft, and below an advisory visibility of 1 SM (RVR 50), must
have its minima increased to 250 ft DH and 1 SM (RVR 50)
visibility when the HIAL is inoperative. For example:
Table 9.11—Straight-in minima corrections for a DH below 250 ft
HIAL Operational (published) HIAL Inoperative
DH (ft) Advisory Visibility (SM) DH (ft) Advisory Visibility (SM)
200 - 249 ½ (RVR 26) 250 1 (RVR 50)
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACFor approach procedures with straight-in minima of 250 ft DH/
HAT or greater, the advisory visibility must be increased if any
of the HIAL systems become inoperative, as indicated in the
following table. No increase to the DH/HAT itself is required.
No adjustment to circling minima is required based on the
operating condition of the HIAL systems.
Table 9.12—Advisory visibility corrections for a DH/HAT equal to or greater than 250 ft
DH/HAT (ft)Advisory Visibility when HIAL is
Operational (published) (SM)Advisory Visibility when HIAL is
Inoperative (SM)
250 – 347 1 1
348 – 434 1 1 ¼
435 – 521 1 1 ½
522 – 608 1 ¼ 1 ¾
609 – 695 1 ½ 2
696 – 782 1 ¾ 2 ¼
783 – 869 2 2 ½
870 – 956 2 ¼ 2 ¾
957 and above 2 ½ 3
9.19.3 Landing Minima
CAR 602.128 specifies that landings are governed by published
DH/MDAs. Pilots of aircraft on instrument approaches are
prohibited from continuing the final approach descent below
DH or descending below MDA, as applicable, unless the required
visual reference has been established and maintained in order
to complete a safe landing. When the required visual reference
is not established or maintained, a missed approach must be
initiated. Pilots must be cautioned that the missed approach
segment that provides for obstacle clearance originates at the
published MAP. The published MAP on a precision approach
is coincidental with the DH. Obstacle clearance will not be
assured for missed approaches initiated beyond the MAP.
NOTE :
Certain published approaches that contain multiple lines of
minima may have step-down altitudes that are lower than
a published line of minima. Pilots should not descend to a
step-down altitude that is lower than the altitude on their selected
line of minima.The visual references required by the pilot to continue the
approach to a safe landing should include at least one of the
following references for the intended runway, and should be
distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot by:
(a) the runway or runway markings;
(b) the runway threshold or threshold markings;
(c) the touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings;
(d) the approach lights;
(e) the approach slope indicator system;
(f) the runway identification lights;
(g) the threshold and runway end lights;
(h) the touchdown zone light;
(i) the parallel runway edge lights; or
(j) the runway centreline lights.
Aerodromes that have instrument approaches may not have all
of the above items, therefore pilots should consult the appropriate
charts and current NOTAM to ascertain the available aids.
Published landing visibilities associated with all instrument
approach procedures are advisory only. Their values are indicative
of visibilities which, if prevailing at the time of approach, should
result in required visual reference being established. (See GEN 5.1
for the definition.) They are not limiting and are intended to be
used by pilots only to judge the probability of a successful landing
when compared against available visibility reports at the
aerodrome to which an instrument approach is being carried out.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC9.20 RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)
9.20.1 Definitions
Prevailing Visibility : The maximum visibility value common
to sectors comprising one-half or more of the horizontal circle.
NOTE :
Prevailing visibility is determined by human observations.
Runway Visual Range (RVR): in respect of a runway, means
the maximum horizontal distance, as measured by an automated
visual landing distance system and reported by an ATC unit or
an FSS for the direction of takeoff or landing, at which the runway,
or the lights or markers delineating it, can be seen from a point
above its centreline at a height corresponding to the average eye level of pilots at touchdown.
To compute RVR, three factors must be known. The first is the
transmissivity of the atmosphere as provided by a visibility
sensor. The second is the brightness of the runway lights which
is controlled on request by the ATC controller. The third factor is whether it is day or night, since the eye can detect lights easier at night than during the day. There is a period during twilight
where there is a problem similar to that with prevailing visibility
when neither day, nor night conditions prevail.
RVR is measured by a visibility sensor such as a RVR sensor
located near the runway threshold. For CAT II landing systems, a second sensor is provided about the mid-point of the runway. The RVR sensor near the threshold is identified as “A” and the
second one as “B”. Their locations are important for the assessment
of visibility, and so their positions are indicated on the aerodrome
diagrams in CAP.
A light emitted from a source is attenuated in the atmosphere
due to snow, fog, rain, and so forth. The amount of this attenuation,
or the transmissivity of the atmosphere, can be obtained by
measuring the amount of light reaching a detector after being
transmitted by a projector. The visibility sensor samples the
atmosphere at a height that best represents the slant transmittance
from the pilot’s eye at cockpit level to the runway.
9.20.2 Operational Use of Runway Visual
Range (RVR)
RVR information is available at the ATC IFR arrival control
position, the PAR position, the control tower and the FSS.
When applicable, RVR information is given to the pilot as a
matter of routine and can be used in the determination or
application of visibility minima only if the active runway is
served by the visibility sensor. RVR information, found in the
Remarks section of surface weather reports, is not to be used for
operational purposes and is superseded by any RVR information
from ATS personnel.
NOTE :
RVR reports are intended to provide an indication of how far
the pilot can expect to see along the runway in the touchdown
zone; however, the actual visibility at other points along the
runway may differ due to differing weather conditions. This should be taken into account when decisions must be made
based on reported RVR.
A pertinent phenomenon that occurs fairly often during periods
of low visibility is large fluctuations that occur over extremely
short time intervals. As per ICAO recommendations, the RVR
computer automatically averages the readings over the last minute.
The controller will provide the RVR if it is less than 6 000 ft, or
upon request. The RVR will be provided in 100-ft increments
from 300 ft to 1 199 ft, in 200-ft increments from 1 200 ft to
2 999 ft, and in 500-ft increments from 3 000 ft to 6 000 ft. The
RVR remains constant for runway light settings of 1, 2 and 3,
but it can increase for settings of 4 and 5. If the latter settings
are used, the pilot will be provided with both the RVR and the light setting.
NOTE :
At aerodromes equipped with ARCAL, the light settings may
not be known to ATS personnel.
In daytime, even a high intensity setting can fade into background
brightness. For example, the pilot may be provided with an RVR
of 4 000 ft while making an approach when shallow fog is
occurring over a snow surface in bright sunlight. Because of the
glare, runway lights will be difficult to see; therefore, visibility will be much less than the reported RVR. In situations such as this, the use of prevailing visibility would be more appropriate.
RVR may be used instead of prevailing visibility for landing and
take-off minima, but only for runways equipped with an RVR system. In such cases, the following table can be used.
Table 9.13—RVR to Be Used Instead of Prevailing
Visibility for Landing and
Take-Off Minima on Equipped Runways
GROUND VISIBILITY RVR
1 mile 5 000 feet
3/4 mile 4 000 feet
1/2 mile 2 600 feet
1/4 mile 1 200 feet
See Note 2 under 1 200 feet
NOTES :
1. A comparative scale converting RVR-feet into RVR-metres
is shown in the GEN section.
2. Ground visibility does not apply to operators with a takeoff limit below 1 200 feet.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACATS phraseology applicable to the foregoing is as follows:
(a) Runway (number) visual range/ RVR three thousand
five hundred feet.
(b) Runway (number) visual range/ RVR less than
three hundred feet.
(c) Runway (number) visual range/ RVR more than
six thousand feet.
(d) Runway (number) visual range/ RVR (number) feet,
fluctuating (number) to (number) feet, visibility
(fraction) mile.
(e) Runway (number) visual range/ RVR (number) feet, runway
lights at setting four/five.
(f) Runway (number) visual range/ RVR ALFA (number) feet, BRAVO (number) feet, CHARLIE (number) feet.
9.21 AIRCRAFT APPROACH CATEGORIES
Aircraft performance has a direct effect on the airspace and
visibility required for the various manoeuvres associated with
the conduct of an instrument approach procedure. The most
significant performance factor is aircraft speed. For this reason,
a number of aircraft approach categories, each with a specified speed range, have been established.
An aircraft’s approach category is determined based on its
reference landing speed ( Vref), if specified, or if Vref is not specified,
1.3 times stall speed ( Vso) at the maximum certificated landing
weight. Vref, Vso, and the maximum certificated landing weight
are those values as established for the aircraft by the certification
authority of the country of registry. The categories are as follows:
Table 9.14—Aircraft Approach Categories
CATEGORY A B C D E SPEEDS
up to 90 KIAS
(includes all
rotorcraft)
91 to
120 KIAS
121 to
140 KIAS
141 to
165 KIAS
above
165 KIAS
NOTE :
Category E minima are not provided for on civil instrument
approach procedure charts.
An aircraft’s appr oach category does not change if the actual
landing weight is less than the maximum certificated landing
weight. The certificated approach category is permanent and
independent of the changing conditions of day-to-day operations.
An aircraft is certificated in only one approach category and
cannot be flown to the minima of a slower approach category.
For example, a Category C aircraft cannot utilize Category B
minima.
Howe ver, if the requirement for a faster approach speed places
the aircraft in a higher speed approach category, the minima
for the appropriate higher category must be used. This may be
due to operational circumstances such as emergency returns
requiring overweight landing or approaches made with inoperative
flaps or in icing conditions. Additionally, if it is necessary to visually manoeuvre at speeds in excess of the upper limit of a
speed range for a category, the minima for the category for that
higher speed must be used. For example, an aircraft which falls
in Category A, but is circling to land at a speed in excess of 90 kt,
must use the approach Category B minima when circling to
land.
9.22 STRAIGHT-IN LANDING MINIMA
Minima for a straight-in landing are published when a normal rate of descent can be made from the final approach fix (FAF)
to the runway threshold and when the final approach track
intersects the extended runway centre-line within 30˚ and within
a prescribed distance from the threshold. When either the normal
rate of descent or the runway alignment exceeds the criteria,
straight-in landing minima are not published and only circling minima apply. The fact that only circling minima are published
does not preclude a pilot from landing straight-in if the required
visual reference is available in sufficient time to make a normal approach and landing.
NOTE :
The term straight-in used in connection with landing should
not be confused with its use in straight-in approach minima.
An ATC clearance for a straight-in approach merely clears the
aircraft for an approach without first completing a procedure
turn. The minima that will subsequently be used will be based
on considerations such as the runway in use, published minima,
aircraft category, etc.
The use of straight-in landing minima is predicated upon the
pilot having the wind direction and speed and runway condition
reports required to conduct a safe landing. At an uncontrolled
aerodrome where the pilot may lack the necessary information, the pilot is expected to verify that the runway is unobstructed prior to landing. In some cases, this can only be accomplished
by conducting a circling approach using the appropriate
circling minima.
At an uncontrolled aerodrome, runway conditions (including
any temporary obstructions such as vehicles) may be determined
by the pilot by:
(a) contacting the appropriate FSS or UNICOM at the destination;
(b) a pre-flight telephone call to the destination to arrange for
making the necessary information available when required
for landing;
(c) a visual inspection;
(d) a NOTAM issued by the aerodrome operator; or
(e) any other means available to the pilot, such as message relay
from preceding aircraft at the destination.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC9.23 CIRCLING
Circling is the term used to describe an IFR procedure that is
conducted by visually manoeuvring an aircraft, after completing
an instrument approach, into position for landing on a runway
which is not suitably located for a straight-in landing (not usually
applicable to rotorcraft).
The visual manoeuvring area for a circling approach is determined
by drawing arcs centred on each runway threshold and joining
those arcs with tangent lines. The radius of the arcs is related to
the aircraft category and may be based on either standard circling
approach radii or expanded circling approach radii (see sections
9.23.1 and 9.23.2 below). The circling minimum descent altitude
(MDA) provides a minimum of 300 feet above all obstacles
within the visual manoeuvring area for each category.
Figure 9.11—Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) Area
If it is necessary to manoeuvre an aircraft at a speed in excess
of the upper limit of the speed range for its approach category, the circling minima for the next higher category should be used in order to ensure appropriate protection from obstacles.
Circling restrictions are published at some locations to prevent
circling manoeuvres in certain sectors or directions where higher
terrain or prominent obstacles exist. This practice allows the
publication of lower minima than would otherwise be possible.
In such cases, the circling MDA DOES NOT PROVIDE
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE WITHIN THE RESTRICTED
SECTOR.
9.23.1 Standard Circling Approach Radii
Circling approach protected areas developed prior to 2020 used the radius distances shown in the following table. Approaches using standard circling approach areas can be identified by the absence of the
symbol on the circling line of minima.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACTable 9.15 — Standard Circling Approach Radii
Circling MDA in feet
AMSLApproach Category and Circling Radius (NM)
All altitudes CAT A CAT B CAT C CAT D CAT E*
1.3 1.5 1.7 2.3 4.5
*Category E circling minima are published at DND aerodromes only.
9.23.2 Expanded Circling Approach Radii
Circling approach protected areas developed in 2020 or later use
a radius distance based on the aircraft category as well as the
altitude of the circling MDA, which accounts for increases to
true airspeed with altitude. The following table provides radius
values for each aircraft category within five altitude bands.
Approaches using expanded circling approach areas can be
identified by the presence of the symbol on the circling line
of minima.
Table 9.16 — Expanded Circling Approach Radii
Circling MDA in feet AMSLApproach Category and Circling Radius (NM)
— CAT A CAT B CAT C CAT D CAT E*
1000 or less 1.3 1.7 2.7 3.6 4.5
1001 – 3000 1.3 1.8 2.8 3.7 4.6
3001 – 5000 1.3 1.8 2.9 3.8 4.8
5001 – 7000 1.3 1.9 3.0 4.0 5.0
7001 – 9000 1.4 2.0 3.2 4.2 5.3
*Category E circling minima are published at DND aerodromes only.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC9.24 CIRCLING PROCEDURES
An air traffic controller may specify manoeuvring in a certain
direction or area due to traffic considerations; however, the
selection of the procedure required to remain within the protected
area and to accomplish a safe landing rests with the pilot. There
can be no single procedure for conducting a circling approach
due to variables such as runway layout, final approach track,
wind velocity and weather conditions. The basic requirements are to keep the runway in sight after initial visual contact, and remain at the circling MDA until a normal landing is assured. Examples of various circling approach situations are illustrated in Figure 9.12.
Figure 9.12—Typical Circling Manoeuvres
9.25 MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE
WHILE VISUALLY MANOEUVRING IN THE VICINITY OF THE AERODROME
The pilot may have to conduct a missed approach after starting
visual manoeuvres. There are no standard procedures in this
situation. Thus, unless the pilot is familiar with the terrain, it
is recommended that:
(a) a climb be initiated;
(b) the aircraft be turned towards the centre of the aerodrome; and
(c) the aircraft be established, as closely as possible, in the
missed approach procedure published for the instrument
approach procedure just completed.
With the runway in sight at circling MDA, the pilot should
execute the missed approach if there is any doubt that the ceiling
and visibility are inadequate for manoeuvring safely to the point
of touchdown.
9.26 MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURES
Whenever a pilot conducts a published missed approach from
an instrument approach procedure, the aircraft must continue
along the published final approach course to the published
Missed Approach Point (MAP) and follow the published missed
approach instructions. The pilot may climb immediately to the
altitude specified in the missed approach procedure or assigned
by ATC. In the event of a missed approach when no missed approach clearance has been received, the pilot will follow the
published missed approach instructions. Should the pilot arrive
at the missed approach holding fix prior to receiving further
clearance, the pilot will:
(a) hold in a standard holding pattern on the inbound track
used to arrive at the fix;
(b) if there is a published missed approach track to the fix, hold
in a standard holding pattern inbound to the fix on this
track;
(c) if there is a published shuttle or holding pattern at the fix,
hold in this pattern regardless of the missed approach track
to the fix; or
(d) if there are published missed approach holding instructions,
hold in accordance with these.
If a clearance to another destination has been received, the pilot
shall, in the absence of other instructions, carry out the published
missed approach instructions until at an altitude which will
ensure adequate obstacle clearance before proceeding on course.
If specific missed approach instructions have been received and
acknowledged, the pilot is required to comply with the new
missed approach instructions before proceeding on course, e.g. “on missed approach, climb runway heading to 3 000 feet; right turn, climb on course” or “on missed approach, climb straight ahead to the BRAVO NDB before proceeding on course”.
Civil and military air traffic control procedures do not require
the air traffic controller to provide terrain and obstacle clearance
in their missed approach instructions. Terms such as “on missed
approach, right turn climb on course” or “on missed approach,
left turn on course” are not to be considered specific missed
approach instructions. It remains the pilot’s responsibility to
ensure terrain and obstacle avoidance and clearance.The terrain and obstacle environment in the missed approach
segment may require a climb gradient greater than the standard
200 ft/NM (or 400 ft/NM for helicopter-only procedures). The
pilot must plan in advance to ensure that the aircraft can meet the climb gradient required by the procedure in the event of a missed approach and must also be aware that flying at a ground
speed higher than anticipated will increase the climb rate
requirement (feet per minute). Where aircraft limitations or
other factors preclude the pilot from following the published
climb gradient, it is the responsibility of the pilot-in-
command (PIC) to determine alternative procedures that will
take into account obstacle and terrain clearance.
9.27 SIMULTANEOUS PRECISION
INSTRUMENT APPROACHES - PARALLEL RUNWAYS
When simultaneous precision instrument approaches are in
progress, ATC will vector arriving aircraft to one or the other
of the parallel localizers for a straight-in final approach. (When
cleared for a straight-in approach, a procedure turn is not
permitted.) Each of the parallel approaches has a “high side”
and a “low side” for vectoring and to allow for vertical separation
until both aircraft are established inbound on their respective parallel localizer (LOC).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACThe pilot will be instructed to change and report on the tower
frequency prior to reaching the final approach fix (FAF) inbound.
If an aircraft is observed to overshoot the localizer during the
final turn, the pilot will be instructed to return to the correct
localizer course immediately. After an aircraft is established on
the localizer, the controller monitoring the final approach will
issue control instructions only if an aircraft deviates or is expected
to deviate by 1 500 ft from the localizer centreline. Information
or instructions issued by the monitoring controller will be aimed
at returning the aircraft to the localizer course. If the aircraft
fails to take corrective action, the aircraft on the adjacent localizer
may be issued appropriate control instructions. Monitoring of
the approach is terminated without notification to the pilot when
the aircraft is 1 NM from the runway threshold. If considered
necessary, appropriate missed approach instructions will be
issued.
THE APPROACH CLEARANCE WILL INCLUDE AN ALTITUDE THAT MUST BE MAINTAINED UNTIL INTERCEPTING THE GLIDE PATH. If the glide path is
inoperative, the pilot will be cleared to maintain an altitude to
a specified distance measuring equipment (DME) distance before
commencing the descent.
When informed by automatic terminal information service
(ATIS) or by the arrival controller that simultaneous precision instrument approaches are in progress, pilots should advise the
arrival controller immediately of any avionics unserviceabilities
having an impact on their capabilities to accept this procedure.
9.28 SIMULTANEOUS PRECISION
INSTRUMENT APPROACHES - CONVERGING RUNWAYS
ATC may clear pilots for precision instrument approaches
simultaneously to converging runways at airports where this
procedure has been approved.
Aircraft will be informed through ATIS or by the arrival controller
as soon as feasible after initial contact when simultaneous
precision instrument approaches to converging runways are in
progress. When simultaneous approaches are in progress, ATC will vector arriving aircraft to the appropriate runway localizer for a straight-in final approach. Pilots should advise the arrival
controller immediately of any malfunctioning or inoperative
equipment making this procedure undesireable.
These are the restrictions for simultaneous precision approaches
to converging runways:
(a) Converging runways (defined as an included angle between
15˚ and 100˚).
(b) ATS surveillance available.
(c) Precision instrument approach systems (ILS/MLS) operating
on each runway.
(d) Non-intersecting final approach courses.
(e) Missed approach points at least 3 NM apart.
(f) Non-overlapping primary missed approach protected
airspace.(g) Separate instrument approach charts denoting the
procedures.
(h) If runways intersect, tower controllers must be able to apply
visual separation as well as intersecting runway separation criteria.
(i) Only straight-in approaches and landing are authorized.
To emphasize the protection of active runways and to aid in
preventing runway incursions, landing instructions which include
the words “HOLD SHORT” should be acknowledged by a
readback of the hold point by the pilot.
10.0 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) — HOLDING PROCEDURES
10.1 GENERAL
Pilots are expected to adhere to the aircraft entry and holding
manoeuvres, as described in RAC 10.5, since ATC provides
lateral separation in the form of airspace to be protected in
relation to the holding procedure.
10.2 HOLDING CLEARANCE
A holding clearance issued by ATC includes at least
(a) a clearance to the holding fix;
(b) the direction to hold from the holding fix;
(c) a specified radial, course, or inbound track;
(d) if DME is used, the DME distances at which the fix end and
outbound end turns are to be commenced (e.g. hold between
[number of miles] and [number of miles]);
NOTE :
In the absence of an outbound DME being issued by ATC, pilots
are expected to time the holding pattern in accordance with
subsections below.
(e) the altitude or FL to be maintained; and
(f) the time to expect further clearance or an approach clearance;
or
(g) the time to leave the fix in the event of a communications failure.
NOTE :
An expect-further-clearance time is usually followed by further
en route clearance, which is followed by an expect-approach-
clearance time when traffic conditions permit.
During entry and holding, pilots manually flying the aircraft
are expected to make all turns to achieve an average bank angle
of at least 25˚ or a rate of turn of 3˚ per second, whichever requires
the lesser bank. Unless the ATC clearance contains instructions
to the contrary, or a non-standard holding pattern is published
at the holding fix, pilots are expected to make all turns to the
right after initial entry into the holding pattern.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACOccasionally, a pilot may reach a clearance limit before obtaining
further clearance from ATC. In this event, where a holding
pattern is published at the clearance limit, the pilot is to hold as
published. Where no holding pattern is published, the pilot is
to hold in a standard pattern on the inbound track to such
clearance limit and request further clearance.
If communication cannot be established with ATC, the pilot
should then proceed in accordance with communication failure
procedures.
Examples
1. A westbound flight on R77, cleared to Greely NDB (YRR)
reaches Ottawa before obtaining further clearance. The
pilot is to hold at YRR on an inbound track of 287˚ and
request further clearance.
2. The published missed approach procedure for an ILS
RWY 23 approach at Halifax is the following:
“CLIMB TO 2 200 ON TRAC K OF 234˚ TO “ZHZ”
NDB.”
A pilot missing an ILS approach to RWY 23 and not in receipt of further clearance is to proceed directly to the “ZHZ” NDB, make a right turn and hold at the “ZHZ” beacon on an inbound track of 234º and request further clearance.
If for any reason a pilot is unable to conform to these procedures,
ATC should be advised as early as possible.
10.3 STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN
A standard holding pattern is depicted in Figure 10.1 in terms of still air conditions.
Figure 10.1—Standard Holding Pattern
Having entered the holding pattern, on the second and subsequent
arrivals over the fix, the pilot executes a right turn to fly an
outbound track that positions the aircraft most appropriately
for the turn onto the inbound track. When holding at a VOR, the pilot should begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of station passage as indicated on the TO–FROM indicator.
Continue outbound for one minute if at or below 14 000 ft ASL,
or one and a half minutes if above 14 000 ft ASL. (ATC specifies distance, not time, where a DME fix is to be used for holding.)
Turn right to realign the aircraft on the inbound track. 10.4 NON-STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN
A non-standard holding pattern is one in which
(a) the fix end and outbound end turns are to the left; and/or
(b) the planned time along the inbound track is other than the
standard one-minute or one-and-a-half minute leg
appropriate for the altitude flown.
10.5 ENTRY PROCEDURES
The pilot is expected to enter a holding pattern according to the
aircraft’s heading in relation to the three sectors shown in
Figure 10.2, recognizing a zone of flexibility of five degrees on
either side of the sector boundaries. For holding on VOR
intersections or VOR/DME/TACAN (VHF omnidirectional
range/distance measuring equipment/tactical air navigation aid)
fixes, entries are limited to the radials or DME arcs forming the
fix, as appropriate.
Figure 10.2—Entry Sectors
Sector 1 procedures (parallel entry) are:
(a) Upon reaching the fix, turn onto the outbound heading of the holding pattern for the appropriate period of time.
(b) Turn left to intercept the inbound track or to return directly
to the fix.
(c) On the second arrival over the fix, turn right and follow
the holding pattern.
Sector 2 procedures (offset entry) are:
(a) Upon reaching the fix, turn to a heading that results in a
track having an angle of 30˚ or less from the inbound track reciprocal on the holding side.
(b) continue for the appropriate period of time, then turn right
to intercept the inbound track and follow the holding pattern.
Sector 3 procedure (direct entry) is:
(a) Upon reaching the fix, turn right and follow the
holding pattern.
Entry procedures to a non-standard pattern requiring left turns
are oriented in relation to the 70˚ line on the holding side
(Figure 10.3), just as in the standard pattern.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACFigure 10.3—Left Hand Pattern Entry
When crossing the fix to enter a holding pattern, the appropriate
ATC unit should be advised. ATC may also request that the pilot
report “established in the hold”. The pilot is to report “established”
when crossing the fix after having completed the entry procedure.
10.6 TIMING
The still air time for flying the outbound leg of a holding pattern
should not exceed 1 min if at or below 14 000 ft ASL, or 1 1/2
min if above 14 000 ft ASL; however, the pilot should make due
allowance in both heading and timing to compensate for wind effect.
After the initial circuit of the pattern, timing should begin abeam
the fix or on attaining the outbound heading, whichever occurs later. The pilot should increase or decrease outbound times, in
recognition of winds, to effect 1 or 1 1/2 min (appropriate to
altitude) inbound to the fix.
When the pilot receives ATC clearance specifying the time of
departure from the holding fix, adjustments should be made to
the flight pattern within the limits of the established holding
pattern to leave the fix as close as possible to the time specified.
10.7 SPEED LIMITATIONS
The size of the protected airspace for a holding pattern is based
on aircraft speed. Unless otherwise noted on the charts or when
a shuttle procedure is specified (see RAC 10.9), holding patterns
must be entered and flown at or below the airspeeds listed in
Table 10.1 below:
Table 10.1—Maximum Holding Airspeeds
Altitude (ASL) Maximum Holding
Airspeed (KIAS)
At or below 6 000 ft 200
Above 6 000 ft up to and including
14 000 ft230
Above 14 000 ft 265NOTE S:
1. At Canadian military airfields, the size of the protected
airspace is for a maximum of 310 KIAS, unless otherwise noted.
2. For helicopter procedures (COPTER), the maximum holding
airspeed is 90 KIAS, unless otherwise noted.
Pilots are to advise ATC immediately if airspeeds in excess of
those specified above become necessary for any reason, including
turbulence, or if they are unable to accomplish any part of the holding procedure.
After departing a holding fix, pilots should resume normal speed
subject to other requirements, such as speed limitations in the vicinity of controlled airports, specific ATC requests, etc.
NOTE :
In areas where turbulence is known to exist, holding patterns
may be designed for speeds of 280 KIAS.
10.8 DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME) PROCEDURES
DME holding is subject to the same entry and holding procedures
previously described except that distances, in NM are used in
lieu of time values. In describi ng the direction from the fix on
which to hold and the limits of a DME holding pattern, an ATC
clearance will specify the DME distance from the navigation
aid at which the inbound and outbound legs are to be terminated.
The end of each leg is determined by the DME indications.
Figure 10.4—DME Hold
Example:
An aircraft cleared to the 270˚ RADIAL 10 mile DME FIX, to
HOLD BETWEEN 10 AND 15 miles, will hold inbound on the 270˚ radial, commence turn to the outbound leg when the DME indicates 10 NM and commence turn to inbound leg when the DME indicates 15 NM.
10.9 SHUTTLE PROCEDURE
A shuttle procedure is defined as a manoeuvre involving a descent
or climb in a pattern resembling a holding pattern. Shuttles are generally prescribed on instrument procedure charts located in
mountainous areas. In the approach phase, it is normally
prescribed where a descent of more than 2 000 ft is required
during the initial or intermediate approach segments. It can also
be required when flying a missed approach or departure procedure
from certain airports in the vicinity of mountain ranges. A
shuttle procedure shall be executed in the pattern as published
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACunless instructions contained in an ATC clearance direct
otherwise.
To ensure that the aircraft does not exceed the obstacle clearance
protected airspace during a shuttle descent or climb, the aircraft
must not exceed:
(a) the airspeed limit published on instrument procedure charts
or, if no airspeed limit is published, the following limits:
(i) For climbs, the maximum airspeed is 310 KIAS.
(ii) For descents, the maximum airspeeds from Table
10.1 apply;
(b) the outbound/inbound still air time restrictions;
(c) the DME holding restrictions.
NOTE :
All shuttle climb airspeeds are subject to CAR 602.32.
10.10 HOLDING PATTERNS PUBLISHED ON
ENROUTE AND TERMINAL CHARTS
At some high traffic density areas, holding patterns are depicted
on IFR Terminal Area and Enroute charts. When pilots are
cleared to hold at a fix where a holding pattern is published, or
if clearance beyond the fix has not yet been received, pilots are
to hold according to the depicted pattern using normal entry
procedures and timing in the hold as described above. ATC will
use the following phraseology when clearing an aircraft holding
at a fix that has a published holding pattern;
CLEARED TO THE (fix), HOLD (direction) AS PUBLISHED EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE AT (time)
NOTE :
The holding direction means the area in which the hold is to be
completed in relation to the holding fix, e.g. east, northwest, etc.
If a pattern is required that is different than that published,
detailed holding instructions will be issued by ATC.
If a pilot is instructed to depart a fix that has a published hold,
at a specified time, the pilot has the option to:
(a) proceed to the fix, then hold until the “depart fix” time
specified;
(b) reduce speed to make good his “depart fix” time; or
(c) a combination of (a) and (b).
11.0 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC) SPECIAL PROCEDURES
11.1 ADHERENCE TO MACH NUMBER
Within CDA, aircraft shall adhere to the Mach number assigned
by ATC, to within 0.01 Mach, unless approval is obtained from
ATC to make a change or until the pilot receives the initial
descent clearance approaching destination. If it is necessary to
make an immediate temporary change in the Mach number (e.g. because of turbulence), ATC shall be notified as soon as possible
that such a change has been made.
If it is not possible to maintain the last assigned Mach number
during en route climbs and descents because of aircraft
performance, pilots shall advise ATC at the time of the climb/
descent request.
11.2 PARALLEL OFFSET PROCEDURES
ATC may request that an aircraft fly a parallel offset from an
assigned route. This manoeuvre and subsequent navigation is
the responsibility of the pilot. When requested to offset or regain
the assigned route, the pilot should change heading by 30˚ to
45˚ and report when the offset or assigned route is attained.
In an ATS surveillance environment, ATC will provide ATS
surveillance monitoring and the required separation.
In a non-ATS surveillance environment, ATC will apply parallel
offsets to RNPC-certified aircraft operating within high-level
RNPC airspace in order to accomplish an altitude change with respect to same direction aircraft.
The following phraseology is normally used for parallel offset
procedures:
PROCEED OFFSET (number) MILES (right/left) OF CENTRELINE (track/route) AT (significant point/time) UNTIL (significant point/time).
11.3 STRUCTURED AIRSPACE
During specific periods, certain portions of domestic high-level
airspace may be structured for one-way traffic in which cruising
flight levels inappropriate to the direction of the aircraft track
may be assigned by ATC. Aircraft operating in a direction
contrary to the traffic flow will be assigned those cruising flight
levels appropriate to the direction of track except in specific
instances, such as turbulence. When the airspace is not structured
for one-way traffic, appropriate cruising flight levels will be
used. ATC will transition aircraft to the appropriate cruising
flight level for the direction of track before aircraft exit the
defined areas or before termination of the indicated times.
11.4 CANADIAN DOMESTIC ROUTES
11.4.1 General
Within North American Airspace, various route and track
systems exist in order to provide effective management of airspace
and traffic. Under specified conditions, random routes may be included in a flight plan or requested.
11.4.2 North American Route Program (NRP)
11.4.2.1 Introduction
The North American Route Program (NRP) is a joint FAA and
NAV CANADA program that allows air operators to select
operationally advantageous routings. The objective of the NRP
is to harmonize and adopt common procedures, to the extent
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACpossible, applicable to random route flight operations at and
above FL 290 within the conterminous U.S. and Canada.
The NRP will be implemented through various phases with the
end goal of allowing all international and domestic flight
operations to participate in the NRP throughout the conterminous
U.S. and Canada.
11.4.2.2 Eligibility
Flights may participate in the NRP under specific guidelines
and filing requirements:
(a) provided the flight originates and terminates within
conterminous U.S. and Canada; or
(b) for North Atlantic international flights, provided that they
are operating within the North American Route (NAR)
System.
11.4.2.3 Procedures
NRP common procedures and specific NAV CANADA
requirements are contained in the “Planning” section of the CFS.
11.4.3 Mandatory Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
Routes
Air traffic controllers and ATS automated systems rely on certain
set routes in order to plan systematic air traffic flows, a process
that is critical for reducing delays. Mandatory IFR routes provide
guidance in planning routes, minimize route changes, and allow
for efficient departure, en route, and arrival ATS while also
reducing communication and the potential for readback and
FMS input errors.
Procedures for and descriptions of mandatory routes are published
in the “Planning” section of the CFS.
11.4.4 Fixed Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes
Published fixed RNAV routes can be flight planned for use by
aircraft with RNAV capability, subject to any limitations or
requirements noted on the en route charts, in applicable advisory
circulars, or by NOTAM.
(a) Q-routes are high-level fixed RNAV routes depicted on
En Route High Altitude charts using black dashed lines and
require an RNAV system with performance capabilities
currently only met by GNSS or distance measuring
equipment/inertial reference unit (DME/DME/IRU)
systems. DME/DME/IRU navigation may be limited in
some parts of Canada owing to navigational facility coverage.
In such cases, the routes will be annotated as “GNSS only” on the chart.
(b) T-routes are low-level controlled fixed RNAV routes depicted
on En Route Low Altitude charts using black dashed lines
and require GNSS RNAV systems for use. The airspace
associated with T-routes extends upward from 2 200 ft AGL,
10 NM either side of the centreline, and does not splay. The MOCA provides obstacle protection for only 6 NM either side of the track centreline and does not splay.(c) L-routes are low-level uncontrolled fixed RNAV routes
depicted on En Route Low Altitude charts using green dashed
lines and require GNSS RNAV systems for use. The MOCA
provides obstacle protection for only 6 NM either side of
the track centreline and does not splay.
Magnetic reference bearing (MRB) is the published bearing
between two waypoints on a fixed RNAV route and will be
published within the SDA. The MRB is calculated by applying
magnetic variation at the waypoint to the calculated true course
between two waypoints. Pilots should use this bearing as a
reference only, because RNAV systems will fly the true course between the waypoints. True reference bearings (TRB) will be
published along fixed RNAV routes located in the NDA and
shall be notated with the suffix “T.”
11.4.5 Northern Control Area (NCA) Random
Routes
Within the Northern Control Area (NCA), flights operating on random routes shall flight plan and make positions reports as follows:
(a) flights operating on predominately north or south tracks
(315˚T clockwise through 045˚T or the reciprocals) shall
report over reporting line points formed by the intersection
of parallels of latitude spaced at 5˚ intervals expressed in
latitude by whole degrees and meridians of longitude
expressed in either whole degrees or whole and half degrees;
(b) south of 75˚N latitude, flights operating on predominately east or west tracks (046˚T clockwise through 134˚T or the reciprocals) shall report over reporting line points formed
by the intersection of either whole degrees or whole and
half degrees of latitude coincident with each 10˚ of longitude.
For flights operating north of 75˚N latitude, where 20˚ of
longitude is traversed in less than 60 min, reporting line
points are to be defined by parallels of latitude expressed
in degrees and minutes coincident with meridians of
longitude at 20˚ intervals;
(c) as requested by ATS.
11.4.6 Arctic Control Area (ACA) Random Routes
Within the Arctic Control Area (ACA), flights operating on
random routes shall flight plan and make positions reports
as follows:
(a) at the reporting lines coincident with 141˚W, 115˚W and
60˚W meridians. If the route of flight is north of 87˚N
latitude, the 115˚W report is not required;
(b) westbound flights which do not cross the 60˚W meridian on entry or prior to entry into the ACA shall report at the point of entry into the ACA;
(c) westbound flights which do not cross the 141˚W meridian
prior to exiting the ACA shall report at the point of exit
from the ACA;
(d) eastbound flights which do not cross the 141˚W meridian on entry into the ACA shall report at the point of entry;
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC(e) eastbound flights which do not cross the 60˚W meridian
on or after exiting the ACA shall report the point of exit;
(f) northbound or southbound flights which do not cross
significant reporting lines shall report at the entry and exit
points of the ACA; and
(g) as requested by ATS.
11.4.7 Polar Routes
11.4.7.1 General
With the advent of aircraft capable of long-range flight,
circumventing the globe via the North Pole has become routine.
Polar routes are flight paths to or from the Americas and Eurasia
via Russian polar airspace. Polar flights must file designated
polar fixes on the Anchorage/Russian border but are otherwise random in Canadian airspace.
11.4.7.2 Flight Planning and Position Reporting
Polar routes can be flight planned by aircraft with CMNPS
certification. Flight plan routing should be filed with a fix every
5˚ of latitude. Random points should be expressed in whole
degrees of latitude and either whole degrees or whole and half degrees of longitude.
11.4.7.3 Altitude Assignment
Current cruising altitude for direction of flight requirements
are based on east-west traffic flows. A shift in flight track (from
east to west or vice versa) requires the assignment of a new flight
level. Flights on north-south routes may shift track, from easterly
to westerly or vice versa, depending on route segment. This
shifting makes altitude assignment based on current regulations
less than optimal.
In order to accommodate polar route flights, aircraft operating
on polar routes within the Edmonton, Winnipeg and Montréal
FIRs may be assigned altitudes inappropriate to the direction
of flight. Altitude assignment is based on traffic management
requirements for the movement of aircraft in a safe, orderly and expeditious manner.
11.5 NORTHERN AMERICAN ROUTE (NAR)
SYSTEM
The NAR System provides an interface between NAT oceanic
and domestic airspaces. Operating conditions and description of the NAR are contained in RAC 11.4 and the CFS, “Planning” section.
For a detailed description of the NAR System, refer to the CFS
NORTH AMERICAN ROUTES (NARs) for NORTH ATLANTIC
TRAFFIC Section 7(a), which outlines the requirements to flight
plan and operate using the NAR system.
11.6 EMERGENCY SECURITY CONTROL OF
AIR TRAFFIC (ESCAT) PLAN
(see the Emergency section of the Canada Flight Supplement [CFS].)11.7 REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION
MINIMUM (RVSM)
11.7.1 Definitions
RVSM : The application of 1000-ft vertical separation at and
above FL 290 between aircraft approved to operate in reduced
vertical separation minimum airspace.
Non-RVSM Aircraft : An aircraft that does not meet reduced
vertical separation minimum (RVSM) requirements for
certification and/or for operator approval.
RVSM Aircraf t: An aircraft that meets reduced vertical separation
minimum (RVSM) requirements for certification and for
operator approval.
11.7.2 Reduced Vertical Separation
Minimum (RVSM) Airspace
RVSM airspace is all airspace within CDA from FL 290 to FL 410
inclusive as defined in the DAH (TP 1820) and depicted in
Figure 12.3.
Figure 11.1—RVSM Airspace and
RVSM Transition Airspace
11.7.3 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Pro cedures
Within RVSM airspace ATC:
(a) will, within non-ATS surveillance airspace, endeavour to
establish 2 000 ft separation or applicable lateral or
longitudinal separation minimum if an aircraft reports
greater-than-moderate turbulence, and/or mountain wave
activity that is of sufficient magnitude to significantly affect
altitude-keeping, and is within 5 min of another aircraft at 1 000 ft separation;
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC(b) will, within ATS surveillance airspace, vector aircraft to
establish ATS surveillance separation or establish 2 000 ft
separation if an aircraft reports greater-than-moderate
turbulence, or encountering mountain wave activity that
is of sufficient magnitude to significantly affect altitude-
keeping, if 1 000 ft vertical separation exists between two
aircraft, and targets appear likely to merge;
(c) may structure portions of the airspace for specific periods
of time for one-way traffic in which inappropriate flight
levels to the direction of flight may be assigned; and
(d) may, within non-ATS surveillance airspace, temporarily
suspend RVSM within selected areas and/or altitudes due
to adverse weather conditions, e.g. pilot reports greater-
than-moderate turbulence. When RVSM is suspended, the
vertical separation minimum between all aircraft will be
2 000 ft.
Pilots may be requested by ATC to confirm that they are approved
for RVSM operations. Pilots/operators unable to provide such
confirmation will be issued a clearance to operate outside RVSM
airspace:
PHRASEOLOGY:
“Affirm RVSM” or “Negative RVSM (supplementary
information, e.g. monitoring flight).” See phraseology depicted
in Figure 12.4
11.7.4 In-Flight Procedures
Before entering RVSM airspace, the status of required equipment
should be reviewed. The following equipment should be operating
normally:
(a) two independent altitude measurement systems;
(b) one automatic altitude control system; and
(c) one altitude alert system.
The pilot must notify ATC whenever the aircraft:
(a) is no longer RVSM-compliant due to equipment failure;
(b) experiences loss of redundancy of altimetry systems; or
(c) encounters turbulence or mountain wave activity that affects
the capability to maintain the cleared flight level.
In the event that any of the required equipment fails prior to
entering RVSM airspace, a new clearance should be requested in order to avoid RVSM airspace.
In level cruise, it is essential that the aircraft maintains the
cleared flight level. Except in contingency situations, aircraft
should not deviate from the cleared flight level without an ATC clearance. If the pilot is notified by ATC of an assigned altitude
deviation (AAD) error of 300 ft or greater, the pilot should return
to the cleared flight level as soon as possible. TRANSITION BETWEEN FLs: During cleared transition
between flight levels, the aircraft should not overshoot or
undershoot the assigned level by more than 150 ft.
11.7.5 Flight Planning Requirements
Unless an aircraft can be accommodated in RVSM airspace as
detailed in paragraph 12.17.6, RVSM approval is required for
the aircraft to operate within RVSM airspace. The operator must
determine that the aircraft has been approved by the appropriate
State authority and will meet the RVSM requirements for the
filed route of flight and any planned alternate routes. The letter “W” shall be inserted in Item 10 (Equipment) of the flight plan
to indicate that the aircraft is RVSM-compliant and the operator
is RVSM-approved. The “W” designator is not to be used unless both conditions are met. If the aircraft registration is not used in Item 7, the registration is to be entered in Item 18 (RAC 3.16.8 “REG/”).
ATC will use the equipment block information to either issue
or deny clearance into RVSM airspace and to apply either 1 000 ft
or 2 000 ft vertical separation minimum.
Non-RVSM aircraft requesting permission to operate in RVSM
airspace shall include “STS/NONRVSM” in Item 18 of the flight
plan to indicate the reason for special handling by ATS.
11.7.6 Operation of Non-Reduced Vertical
Separation Minimum (Non-RVSM ) Aircraft
in RVSM Airspace
FLIGHT PRIORITY: RVSM aircraft will be given priority for
level allocation over non-RVSM aircraft. Non-RVSM aircraft
may be accommodated on a traffic- and workload-permitting
basis.
VERTICAL SEPARATION: The vertical separation minimum
between non-RVSM aircraft operating in RVSM airspace and
all other aircraft is 2 000 ft.
CONTINUOUS CLIMB OR DESCENT THROUGH RVSM
AIRSPACE: Non-RVSM aircraft may be cleared to climb to and
operate above FL 410 or descend to and operate below FL 290,
provided the aircraft is capable of:
(a) a continuous climb or descent and does not need to level
off at an intermediate altitude for any operational
considerations; and
(b) climb or descent at the normal rate for the aircraft.
STATE AIRCRAFT: For the purposes of RVSM operations, State
aircraft are those aircraft used in military, customs and police
services.
(a) State aircraft are exempt from the requirement to be RVSM-
approved to operate in RVSM airspace.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACNON-RVSM AIRCRAFT IN RVSM AIRSPACE: Non-RVSM
aircraft may flight plan to operate within RVSM airspace,
provided the aircraft:
(a) is being delivered to the State of Registry or Operator;
(b) was formerly RVSM-approved, but has experienced an
equipment failure and is being flown to a maintenance
facility for repair in order to meet RVSM requirements and/
or obtain approval;
(c) is being utilized for mercy or humanitarian purposes;
(d) is a photographic survey flight (CDA only). This approval
is not applicable for that portion of flight transiting to and from the area(s) of surveying or mapping operations;
(e) is conducting flight checks of a NAVAID. This approval is
not applicable for that portion of flight transiting to and
from the area(s) of flight check operations; or
(f) is conducting a monitoring, certification or developmental flight.
PHRA SEOLOGY: Pilots of non-RVSM flights should include
the phraseology “negative RVSM” in all initial calls on ATC
frequencies, requests for flight level changes, readbacks of flight
level clearances within RVSM airspace and readbacks of climb or descent clearances through RVSM airspace. See Figure 12.4.
11.7.7 Delivery Flights for Aircraft that are Reduced Vertical Separation
Minimum (RVSM)-C ompliant on Delivery
An aircraft that is RVSM-compliant on delivery may operate in
Canadian Domestic RVSM airspace provided that the crew is
trained on RVSM policies and procedures applicable in the
airspace and the responsible State issues the operator a letter of authorization approving the operation.
State notification to the NAARMO should be in the form of a
letter, e-mail or fax documenting the one-time flight indicating:
(a) planned date of the flight;
(b) flight identification;
(c) registration number; and
(d) aircraft type/series.
11.7.8 Airworthiness and Operational Approval
and Monitoring
Operators must obtain airworthiness and operational approval
from the State of Registry or State of the Operator, as appropriate,
to conduct RVSM operations. For the purposes of RVSM, the
following terminology has been adopted:
(a) RVSM Airworthiness Approval: The approval that is issued
by the appropriate State authority to indicate that an aircraft
has been modified in accordance with the relevant approval
documentation, e.g. service bulletin, supplemental type
certificate, and is therefore eligible for monitoring. The date
of issue of such an approval should coincide with the date
when the modification was certified by the operator as being
comple te. (b) RVSM (Operational) Approval: The approval that is issued
by the appropriate State authority once an operator has
achieved the following:
(i) RVSM airworthiness approval; and
(ii) State approval of Operations Manual (where
applicable) and on-going maintenance procedures.
Operators of Canadian-registered aircraft intending to operate
in RVSM airspace will be required to show that they meet all
the applicable standards in accordance with CARs Parts VI and
VII. Information on RVSM approval may be obtained from:
Airworthiness Approvals:
Transport Canada Safety and Security Director,
Aircraft Certification (AARD)
Ottawa ON K2G 5X4
Tel:
.................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-996-9178
Operating Standards Commercial Air Carriers and
Private Operators:
Transport Canada Safety and Security,
Commercial and Business Aviation (AARTF) Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.:
................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-954-1602
RVSM Maintenance Programs: (AARTM)
Transport Canada Safety and Security,
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: ................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-952-3298
11.7.9 Monitoring
All operators that operate or intend to operate in airspace where
RVSM is applied are required to participate in the RVSM
monitoring program. Monitoring prior to the issuance of RVSM
operational approval is not a requirement. However, operators
should submit monitoring plans to the responsible civil aviation
authority to show that they intend to meet the North American RVSM minimum monitoring requirements.
ADS-B and GPS-based monitoring systems are available to
support RVSM operations. Monitoring is a quality control
program that enables Transport Canada and other civil aviation
authorities to assess the in-service altitude-keeping performance
of aircraft and operators.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACGPS monitoring unit (GMU) services to conduct a height-keeping
performance monitoring flight may be obtained from the following
agencies:
CSSI, Inc.
Washington, DC
Tel.: ....................................................................... 202-863-2175
E-mail: .................................................. monitor@cssiinc.com
Web site: ..www.cssiinc.com/industries/aviation/reduced-
vertical-separation-minimum-rvsm/
ARINC
Annapolis, MD
RVSM Operations Coordinator
Tel.: ...................................................................... 410-266-4707
E-mail: .................................................... rvsmops@arinc.com
Web site: ....................................... www.rockwellcollins.com
11.7.10 North American Approvals Registry and
Monitoring Organization (NAARMO)
The Regional Monitoring Agency for CDA is the NAARMO,
located in Atlantic City, NJ, and may be contacted as follows:
William J. Hughes Technical Center NAS & International
Airspace Analysis Branch (ACT-520)
Atlantic City International Airport Atlantic City, NJ 08405 USA
Fax:
....................................................................... 609-485-5117
AFTN: .................................................................................. N/A
Information on the responsibilities and procedures applicable to
the NAARMO may be found on the Web site:
<www.faa.gov/air_traffic/separation_standards/naarmo/ >.
11.7.11 Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
System (TCAS) II/Airborne Collision
Avoidance System (ACAS) II Reduced
Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
Requirements
Aeroplanes operating in accordance with CAR 702, 703, 704
and 705 in RVSM airspace must be equipped with TCAS II/
ACAS II. The TCAS II/ACAS II must be TSO to TSO-C-119b
or later revision (TCAS II software version 7.0). All other TCAS/
ACAS-equipped aircraft operating in RVSM airspace should be
equipped with software version 7.
11.7.12 Mountain Wave Activity (MWA)
Significant MWA occurs both below and above FL 290, which
is the floor of RVSM airspace. It often occurs in western Canada
and western USA in the vicinity of mountain ranges. It may
occur when strong winds blow perpendicular to mountain ranges,
resulting in up and down or wave motions in the atmosphere.
Wave action can produce altitude excursions and airspeed
fluctuations accompanied by only light turbulence. With
sufficient amplitude, however, wave action can induce altitude
and airspeed fluctuations accompanied by severe turbulence.
MWA is difficult to forecast and can be highly localized and
short-livedWave activity is not necessarily limited to the vicinity of mountain
ranges. Pilots experiencing wave activity anywhere that
significantly affects altitude-keeping can follow the guidance
provided below.
In-flight indications that the aircraft is being subjected to MWA
are:
(a) altitude excursions and airspeed fluctuations with or without
associated turbulence;
(b) pitch and trim changes required to maintain altitude with accompanying airspeed fluctuations; and
(c) light to severe turbulence depending on the magnitude of t he M WA.
TCAS Sensitivity —For both MWA and greater-than-moderate
turbulence encounters in RVSM airspace, an additional concern
is the sensitivity of collision avoidance systems when one or both
aircraft operating in close proximity receive TCAS advisories
in response to disruptions in altitude hold capability.
Pre-flight tools— Sources of observed and forecast information
that can help the pilot ascertain the possibility of MWA or severe
turbulence are: Forecast Winds and Temperatures Aloft (FD), Area Forecast (FA), SIGMETS and PIREPS.
11.7.13 Wake Turbulence
Pilots should be aware of the potential for wake turbulence
encounters following Southern Domestic RVSM (SDRVSM)
implementation. Experience gained since 1997, however, has
shown that such encounters in RVSM airspace are generally
moderate or less in magnitude.
It is anticipated that, in SDRVSM airspace, wake turbulence
experience will mirror European RVSM experience gained since
January 2002. European authorities have found that reports of
wake turbulence encounters had not increased significantly
since RVSM implementation (eight versus seven reports in a
ten-month period). In addition, they found that reported wake
turbulence was generally similar to moderate clear air turbulence.
Pilots should be alert for wake turbulence when operating:
(a) in the vicinity of aircraft climbing or descending through their altitude;
(b) approximately 12–15 mi. after passing 1 000 ft below opposite
direction traffic; and
(c) approximately 12–15 mi. behind and 1 000 ft below same direction traffic.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACTable 11.1—Pilot/Controller Standard
Phraseology for RVSM Operations
Message Phraseology
For a controller to ascertain the RVSM
approval status of an aircraft (call sign) confirm RVSM approved
Pilot indication that flight is
RVSM-approved Affirm RVSM
Pilot will report lack of RVSM approval
(Non-RVSM status):
a.
On the initial call on any
frequency in the RVSM airspace; and
b.
In all requests for flight level
changes pertaining to flight levels within the RVSM airspace; and
c. In all read-backs to flight level
clear ances pertaining to flight
levels within the RVSM airspace; and
d.
In read-back of flight level clearances involving climb and descent through RVSM airspace
(FL 290-410)Negative RVSM (supplementary information, e.g. “monitoring
flight”)
Pilot report of one of the following after entry into RVSM airspace: all primary altimeters, automatic altitude control systems or altitude alerters have failed
(This phrase is to be used to convey
both the initial indication of RVSM
aircraft sys tem failure an d on initial
contact on all frequencies in RVSM airspace until the problem ceases to exist or the aircraft has exited RVSM airspace)Unable RVSM Due Equipment
ATC denial of clearance into
RVSM airspace Unable issue clearance into RVSM airspace, maintain FL__.
Pilot reporting inability to maintain cleared flight level due to weather encounters. Unable RVSM due (state reason) (e.g. turbulence, mountain wave)
ATC requesting pilot to confirm that an aircraft has regained RVSM-approved status or a pilot is ready to resume RVSM Confirm able to resume RVSM
Pilot ready to resume RVSM after aircraft system or weather contingency Ready to resume RVSM 11.7.14 In-Flight Contingencies
The following general procedures are intended as guidance only.
Although all possible contingencies cannot be covered, they
provide for cases of inability to maintain assigned level due to:
(a) weather;
(b) aircraft performance; and
(c) pressurization failure.
The pilot’s judgment should determine the sequence of actions
to be taken, taking into account specific circumstances, and
ATC shall render all possible assistance.
If an aircraft is unable to continue flight in accordance with its
ATC clearance, a revised clearance shall, whenever possible, be
obtained prior to initiating any action, using a distress or urgency
signal if appropriate. If prior clearance cannot be obtained, an
ATC clearance shall be obtained at the earliest possible time.
The pilot should take the following actions until a revised ATC clearance is received:
(a) establish communications with and alert nearby aircraft
by broadcasting, at suitable intervals: flight identification,
flight level, aircraft position, (including the ATS route
designator or the track code) and intentions on the frequency
in use, as well as on frequency 121.5 MHz (or, as a back-up, the inter-pilot air-to-air frequency 123.45 MHz);
(b) initiate such action as necessary to ensure safety. If the pilot
determines that there is another aircraft at or near the same
flight level, which might conflict, the pilot is expected to
adjust the path of the aircraft, as necessary, to avoid conflict.
Figure 12.5 provides pilot guidance on actions to take under
certain conditions of aircraft system failure and weather
encounters. It also describes the ATC controller actions in these
situations. It is recognized that the pilot and controller will use
judgement to determine the action most appropriate to any given
situation.
Table 11.2(a)—Contingency Pilot Actions: Initial Actions
Initial pilot actions when unable to maintain flight level
or unsure of aircraft altitude–keeping capability
• Notify ATC and request assistance as detailed below;
• Maintain cleared flight level, if possible, while
evaluating the situation;
• Watch for conflicting traffic, both visually and
with reference to ACAS/TCAS, if equipped; and
• Alert nearby aircraft by illuminating exterior lights,
broadcasting position, flight level and intentions
on 121.5 MHz (or as back-up, the inter-pilot air-to-
air frequency, 123.45 MHz).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACTable 11.2(b)—Contingency Pilot Actions: Inability
to Maintain Cleared Flight Level Due to Weather
Pilot should: ATC may be expected to:
• Contact ATC and
advise
• Unable RVSM Due (state reason)”
(e.g. turbulence,
mountain wave)• In ATS surveillance
airspace, where 1 000 ft
vertical separation exists between two aircraft, and targets appear likely to merge, vector one or both aircraft to establish ATS surveillance separation until the pilot reports clear
of the turbulence
• If not initiated by the controller, and if in ATS surveillance airspace, request vector clear of traffic at adjacent flight levels • Provide lateral or longitudinal separation from traffic at adjacent flight levels, traffic-permitting
• Request flight level change or re-route,
if desired • Advise pilot of
conflicting traffic
• Issue flight level change or re-route, traffic-permitting
Table 11.2(c)—Contingency Pilot Actions:
Report of Mountain Wave Activity
Pilot should: ATC may be expected to:
• Contact ATC and report experiencing MWA • Advise pilot of
conflicting traffic
• If advised of conflicting traffic at adjacent flight levels and the aircraft is experiencing MWA that significantly affects altitude-keeping, request vector to acquire horizontal separation
• If so desired, request a flight level change or re-route • If pilot requests, vector aircraft to achieve horizontal separation, traffic-permitting
• In ATS surveillance
airspace, where 1 000 ft
vertical separation exists between two aircraft, and targets appear likely to merge, vector one or both aircraft to establish ATS surveillance separation until the pilot reports clear of MWA
• Issue flight level change or re-route, traffic-permitting
• Report location and magnitude of MWA
to ATC • Issue PIREP to other aircraft concerned Table 11.2(d)—Contingency Pilot Actions:
Wake Turbulence Encounter
Pilot should: ATC may be expected to:
• Contact ATC and request vector lateral offset or flight level change• Issue vector, lateral offset or flight level change, traffic-permitting
Table 11.2(e)—Contingency Pilot Actions:
Failure of Automatic Altitude Control System,
Altitude Alerter or All Primary Altimeters
Pilot wil: ATC will:
• Contact ATC and advise “Unable RVSM Due Equipment”
• Request Clearance out of RVSM unless operational situation dictates otherwise• Provide 2 000 ft
vertical separation or appropriate horizontal separation
• Clear aircraft out of RVSM airspace
Table 11.2(f)—Contingency Pilot Actions:
One Operational Primary Altimeter
Pilot will: ATC will:
• Cross-check stand-by altimeter
• Notify ATC of loss of redundancy, operation with single primary altimeter
• If unable to confirm primary altimeter accuracy, follow action for failure of all primary altimeters • Acknowledge operation with single primary altimeter and monitor progress
11.8 MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE
WARNING (MSAW)
11.8.1 General
Minimum safe altitude warning (MSAW) is an ATS surveillance
display feature designed to alert controllers to the existence of
aircraft operating or predicted to operate at altitudes where
separation from terrain cannot be assured. It is used to assist
controllers in detecting altitude deviations that could result in
controlled flight into terrain (CFIT).
MSAW service is only available in the Vancouver FIR to IFR
and CVFR aircraft operating in en route controlled airspace
that receive ATS surveillance service and are in direct
communication with the controller. There is a service exclusion
zone within a 100-NM radius of CYVR. In addition, MSAW
service is not available in control zones and approach/departure
corridors.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RAC11.8.2 Procedures
In the event an MSAW is generated, the controller will provide
the following information:
(a) TERRAIN WARNING
(b) IMMEDIATE SAFE ALTITUDE [VALUE]
(c) ALTIMETER [V ALUE]
11.8.3 Pilot-Initiated Terrain Avoidance Procedure
If the aircraft is equipped with GPWS or TAWS, the flight crew
is expected to carry out the appropriate terrain avoidance
procedures in response to an on-board alarm. The pilot of a
GPWS/TAWS-equipped aircraft should acknowledge receipt of
the altimeter and immediate safe altitude information from the
controller. The pilot should also advise the controller of the
terrain avoidance action being taken when beginning the
manoeuvre or as soon as workload permits.
Exam ple:
Pilot: ROGER, INITIATING GPWS/TAWS CLIMB or
ROGER, GPWS/TAWS EQUIPPED
The controller at this point will provide the aircraft with
additional terrain-related information, as appropriate.Exam ple:
ATC: [higher/lower] TERRAIN AHEAD, TO YOUR
[left/right]
IMMEDIATE SAFE ALTITUDE NOW [altitude]
11.8.4 Air Traffic Control (ATC)-In itiated Terrain
Avoidance Procedure
After issuing the altimeter and immediate safe altitude
information the controller will, if appropriate, provide direction
based on the MSAW information received.
Example:
ATC: EXPEDITE CLIMB TO SEVEN THOUSAND
In the event that the aircraft is not GPWS/TAWS-equipped or
the pilot has not yet received a warning from his/her on-board
system, the pilot should request vectors for terrain avoidance
assistance as required.
Example:
Pilot: REQUEST VECTORS FOR TERRAIN
AVOIDANCE or REQUEST TERRAIN AVOIDANCE INSTRUCTION
Although the prime responsibility to initiate terrain avoidance
rests with the pilot, if, in the judgment of the controller, it becomes
apparent that the aircraft is in danger of colliding with terrain, the controller may initiate terrain avoidance intervention.
Example:
ATC: TURN [left/right] [number of] DEGREES
IMMEDIATELY or CLIMB [altitude] IMMEDIATELYOnce terrain avoidance has been initiated, the pilot will be
provided with all additional terrain-related information available.
Example:
ATC: [higher/lower] TERRAIN AHEAD, TO YOUR [left/right] IMMEDIATE SAFE ALTITUDE NOW
[value]
If, at any time during the procedure, the pilot regains sight of
the terrain, visual terrain avoidance should resume and the
controller should be advised as soon as practicable.
11.8.5 Assistance to Aircraft in Distress
The digitized terrain contour map component of the MSAW
system can be used by the controller independently of the warning
function to provide navigational assistance to any aircraft in
need. Such aircraft could include identified aircraft that are lost or have encountered icing in mountainous terrain.
Vectoring for terrain avoidance can be provided to aircraft in
distress or experiencing an emergency, provided the pilot requests
it or the controller suggests it and the pilot concurs.
11.9 FORMATION FLIGHTS
(See AIP Canada ENR paragraph 5.5.1.)
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC12.0 RAC ANNEX
12.1 GENERAL
This annex contains those Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs)
that relate to the subject matter of this chapter, but may not have
been incorporated, in full or in part, in the chapter text.
12.2 CANADIAN AVIATION
REGULATIONS (CARS)
Reckless or Negligent Operation of Aircraft
No person shall operate an aircraft in such a reckless or negligent
manner as to endanger or be likely to endanger the life or property
of any person.
Fitness of Flight Crew Members
An operator of an aircraft shall not require any person to act as
a flight crew member or to carry out a preflight duty, and a
person shall not act as a flight crew member or carry out that
duty, if the operator or the person has reason to believe that the person is not, or is not likely to be, fit for duty.
Alcohol or Drugs – Crew Members
No person shall act as a crew member of an aircraft
(a) within 12 hours after consuming an alcoholic beverage;
(b) while under the influence of alcohol; or
(c) while using any drug that impairs the person’s faculties
to the extent that the safety of the aircraft or of persons
on board the aircraft is endangered in any way.
Alcohol or Drugs – Passengers
(1) In this Section, “intoxicating liquor” means a beverage that
contains more than 2.5 percent pr oof spirits.
(2) No person shall consume on board an aircraft an intoxicating
liquor unless the intoxicating liquor
(a) has been served to that person by the operator of the aircraft;
(b) where no flight attendant is on board, has been provided
by the operator of the aircraft.
(3) No operator of an aircraft shall provide or serve any
intoxicating liquor to a person on board the aircraft, where
there are reasonable grounds to believe that the person’s
faculties are impaired by alcohol or a drug to an extent that may present a hazard to the aircraft or to persons on board the aircraft.
(4) Subject to subsection (5), no operator of an aircraft shall
allow a person to board the aircraft, where there are
reasonable grounds to believe that the person’s faculties are impaired by alcohol or a drug to an extent that may present a hazard to the aircraft or to persons on board the aircraft.
(5) The operator of an aircraft may allow a person whose
faculties are impaired by a drug to board an aircraft, where
the drug was administered in accordance with a medical
authorization and the person is under the supervision of
an attendant.
Compliance with Instructions
(1) Every passenger on board an aircraft shall comply with
instructions given by any crew member respecting the safety
of the aircraft or of persons on board the aircraft.
(2) Every crew member on board an aircraft shall, during flight
time, comply with the instructions of the pilot-in-command
or of any person whom the pilot-in-command has authorized
to act on behalf of the pilot-in-command.
Smoking
(1) No person shall smoke on board an aircraft during takeoff
or landing or when directed not to smoke by the
pilot-in-command.
(2) No person shall smoke in an aircraft lavatory.
(3) No person shall tamper with or disable a smoke detector
installed in an aircraft lavatory without permission from a crew member or the operator of the aircraft.
Aircraft Operating Limitations
No person shall operate an aircraft unless it is operated in
accordance with the operating limitations
(a) set out in the aircraft flight manual, where an aircraft flight manual is required by the applicable standards of airworthiness;
(b) set out in a document other than the aircraft flight
manual, where use of that document is authorized
pursuant to Part VII;
(c) indicated by markings or placards required pursuant
to Section 605.05; or
(d) prescribed by the competent authority of the state of
registry of the aircraft.
Portable Electronic Devices
(1) No operator of an aircraft shall permit the use of a portable
electronic device on board an aircraft, where the device
may impair the functioning of the aircraft’s systems or
equipment.
(2) No person shall use a portable electronic device on board an aircraft except with the permission of the operator of the aircraft.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACCarry-on Baggage, Equipment and Cargo
(1) No person shall operate an aircraft with carry-on baggage,
equipment or cargo on board, unless the carry-on baggage, equipment and cargo are
(a) stowed in a bin, compartment, rack or other location
that is certified in accordance with the aircraft type
certificate in respect of the stowage of carry-on baggage,
equipment or cargo; or
(b) restrained so as to prevent them from shifting during
movement of the aircraft on the surface and during
takeoff, landing and in-flight turbulence.
(2) No person shall operate an aircraft with carry-on baggage, equipment or cargo on board unless
(a) the safety equipment, the normal and emergency exits
that are accessible to passengers and the aisles between
the flight deck and a passenger compartment are not
wholly or partially blocked by carry-on baggage,
equipment or cargo;
(b) all of the equipment and cargo that are stowed in a
passenger compartment are packaged or covered to
avoid possible injury to persons on board;
(c) where the aircraft is type-certificated to carry 10 or
more passengers and passengers are carried on board,
(i) no passenger’s view of any “seat belt” sign, “no
smoking” sign or exit sign is obscured by carry-on
baggage, equipment or cargo except if an auxiliary
sign is visible to the passenger or another means of notification of the passenger is available,
(ii) all of the passenger service carts and trolleys are
securely restrained during movement of the aircraft
on the surface, takeoff and landing, and during
in-flight turbulence where the pilot-in-command or in-charge flight attendant has directed that the
cabin be secured pursuant to subsection 605.25(3)
or (4), and
(iii) all of the video monitors that are suspended from the ceiling of the aircraft and extend into an aisle are stowed and securely restrained during takeoff and landing; and
(d) all of the cargo that is stowed in a compartment to
which crew members have access is stowed in such a manner as to allow a crew member to effectively reach
all parts of the compartment with a hand-held fire
extinguisher. Crew Member Instructions
The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall ensure that each crew
member, before acting as a crew member on board the aircraft, has been instructed with respect to
(a) the duties that the crew member is to perform; and
(b) the location and use of all of the normal and emergency
exits and of all of the emergency equipment that is carried
on board the aircraft.
Passenger Briefings
(1) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall ensure that all of
the passengers on board the aircraft are briefed before takeoff
with respect to the following, where applicable:
(a) the location and means of operation of emergency and normal exits;
(b) the location and means of operation of safety belts,
shoulder harnesses and restraint devices;
(c) the positioning of seats and the securing of seat backs and chair tables;
(d) the stowage of carry-on baggage;
(e) where the aircraft is unpressurized and it is possible
that the flight will require the use of oxygen by the
passengers, the location and means of operation of
oxygen equipment; and
(f ) any prohibition against smoking.
(2) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall ensure that all of the passengers on board the aircraft are briefed
(a) in the case of an over-water flight where the carriage
of life preservers, individual flotation devices or personal flotation devices is required pursuant to
Section 602.62, before commencement of the over-water
portion of the flight, with respect to the location and use of those items; and
(b) in the case of a pressurized aircraft that is to be operated
at an altitude above FL 250, befor e the aircraft reaches
FL 250, with respect to the location and means of
operation of oxygen equipment.
(3) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall, before takeoff,
ensure that all of the passengers on board the aircraft are
provided with information respecting the location and use of
(a) first aid kits and survival equipment;
(b) where the aircraft is a helicopter or a small aircraft that
is an aeroplane, any ELT that is required to be carried
on board pursuant to Section 605.38; a nd
(c) any life raft that is required to be carried on board
pursuant to Section 602.63.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACNoise Operating Criteria
No person shall operate an aircraft at or in the vicinity of an
aerodrome except in accordance with the applicable noise
abatement procedures and noise control requirements specified
by the Minister in the Canada Air Pilot or Canada Flight
Supplement , including the procedures and requirements relating
to
(a) preferential runways;
(b) minimum noise routes;
(c) hours when aircraft operations are prohibited
or restricted;
(d) arrival procedures;
(e) departure procedures;
(f ) duration of flights;
(g) the prohibition or restriction of training flights;
(h) VFR or visual approaches;
(i) simulated approach procedures; and
(j) the minimum altitude for the operation of aircraft in
the vicinity of the aerodrome.
Noise-Restricted Runways
(1) Subject to subsection (2), no person shall operate a subsonic
turbo-jet aeroplane that has a maximum certificated take-
off weight of more than 34 000 kg (74,956 pounds) on
take-off at a noise-restricted runway set out in column II
of an item of the table to this section at an aerodrome set
out in column I of that ite m, unless there is on board
(a) a certificate of airworthiness indicating that the
aeroplane meets the applicable noise emission standards;
(b) a certificate of noise compliance issued in respect of
the aeroplane; or
(c) where the aeroplane is not a Canadian aircraft, a
document issued by the state of registry that specifies that the aeroplane meets the applicable noise emission requirements of that state.
(2) Subsection (1) does not apply
(a) to the extent that it is inconsistent with any obligation assumed by Canada in respect of a foreign state in a treaty, convention or agreement;
(b) where the pilot-in-command of an aircraft has declared
an emergency; or
(c) where an aircraft is operated on
(i) an air evacuation operation,
(ii) any other emergency air operation, or
(iii) a departure from an aerodrome at which it was
required to land because of an emergency. Table 1 RAC Annex—Noise Restricted
Runways for Takeoff
ItemColumn I Column II
AerodromeNoise Restricted
Runways for Takeoff
1. Vancouver International
Airport 08L, 08R, 12, 26R
2. Calgary International Airport 07, 10, 16, 25, 28
3. Edmonton City Centre (Blatchford Field) Airport All runways
4. Edmonton International Airport 12
5. Winnipeg/James Armstrong Richardson International Airport 13, 18
6. Hamilton Airport 06
7. Toronto/Lester B. Pearson International Airport 05, 06L, 06R, 15L, 15R
8. Ottawa/Macdonald-Cartier International Airport 32
9. Montréal/Pierre Elliott Trudeau International AirportAll runways
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACPower-driven Aircraft – day VFR
No person shall conduct a takeoff in a power-driven aircraft for
the purpose of day VFR flight unless it is equipped with
(a) where the aircraft is operated in uncontrolled airspace,
an altimeter;
(b) where the aircraft is operated in controlled airspace, a sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure;
(c) an airspeed indicator;
(d) a magnetic compass or a magnetic direction indicator
that operates independently of the aircraft electrical
generating system;
(e) a tachometer for each engine and for each propeller or
rotor that has limiting speeds established by the
manufacturer;
(f ) an oil pressure indicator for each engine employing an oil pressure system;
(g) a coolant temperature indicator for each liquid-
cooled engine;
(h) an oil temperature indicator for each air-cooled engine
having a separate oil system;
(i) a manifold pressure gauge for each
(i) reciprocating engine equipped with a variable-pitch
propeller,
(ii) reciprocating engine used to power a helicopter,
(iii) supercharged engine, and
(iv) turbocharged engine;
(j) a means for the flight crew, when seated at the flight controls to determine
(i) the fuel quantity in each main fuel tank, and
(ii) if the aircraft employs retractable landing gear,
the position of the landing gear;
(k) subject to subsections 601.08(2) and 601.09(2), a
radiocommunication system adequate to permit two-
way communication on the appropriate frequency when
the aircraft is operated within
(i) Class B, Class C or Class D airspace,
(ii) an MF area, unless the aircraft is operated pursuant
to subsection 602.97(3 ), or
(iii) the ADIZ;
(l) where the aircraft is operated under Subpart 4 of this
Part, or under Subpart 3, 4 or 5 of Part VII,
radiocommunication equipment adequate to permit
two-way communication on the appropriate frequency;
(m) where the aircraft is operated in Class B airspace, radio
navigation equipment that will enable it to be operated in accordance with a flight plan; and
(n) where the aircraft is operated under Subpart 4 of this
Part or under Subpart 5 of Part VII, radi o navigation
equipment that is adequate to receive radio signals
from a transmitting facility. Power-driven Aircraft – VFR OTT
(1) No person shall conduct a takeoff in a power-driven aircraft
for the purpose of VFR OTT flight unless it is equipped
with
(a) the equipment referred to in paragraphs 605.14(c) to (j);
(b) a sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure;
(c) a means of preventing malfunction caused by icing for each airspeed indicating system;
(d) a gyroscopic direction indicator or a stabilized magnetic
direction indicator;
(e) an attitude indicator;
(f ) subject to subsection (2), a turn and slip indicator or
turn coordinator;
(g) where the aircraft is to be operated within the Northern
Domestic Airspace, a means of establishing direction that is not dependent on a magnetic source;
(h) radiocommunication equipment adequate to permit
two-way communication on the appropriate frequency;
and
(i) radio navigation equipment adequate to permit the
aircraft to be navigated safely.
(2) Where the aircraft is equipped with a third attitude indicator
that is usable through flight attitudes of 360° of pitch and roll for an aeroplane, or ± 80° of pitch and ± 120° of roll for a helicopter, the aircraft may be equipped with a slip-
skid indicator in lieu of a turn and slip indicator or turn
coordinator.
Power-driven Aircraft – Night VFR
(1) No person shall conduct a takeoff in a power-driven aircraft
for the purpose of night VFR flight, unless it is equipped with
(a) the equipment referred to in paragraphs 605.14(c) to (n);
(b) a sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure;
(c) subject to subsection (2), a turn and slip indicator or
turn coordinator;
(d) an adequate source of electrical energy for all of the
electrical and radio equipment;
(e) in respect of every set of fuses of a particular rating
that is installed on the aircraft and accessible to the
pilot-in-command during flight, a number of spare
fuses that is equal to at least 50 percent of the total
number of installed fuses of that rating;
(f ) where the aircraft is operated so that an aerodrome is
not visible from the aircraft, a stabilized magnetic
direction indicator or a gyroscopic direction indicator;
(g) where the aircraft is to be operated within the Northern
Domestic Airspace, a means of establishing direction that is not dependent on a magnetic source;
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC(h) where the aircraft is an airship operated within controlled
airspace, radar reflectors attached in such a manner as
to be capable of a 360-degree reflection;
(i) a means of illumination for all of the instruments used to operate the aircraft;
(j) when carrying passengers, a landing light; and
(k) position and anti-collision lights that conform to the
Aircraft Equipment and Maintenance Standards.
(2) Where the aircraft is equipped with a third attitude indicator
that is usable through flight attitudes of 360° of pitch and
roll for an aeroplane, or ± 80° of pitch and ± 120° of roll for a helicopter, the aircraft may be equipped with a slip-skid
indicator in lieu of a turn and slip indicator or turn coordinator.
(3) No person shall operate an aircraft that is equipped with
any light that may be mistaken for, or downgrade the
conspicuity of, a light in the navigation light system, unless
the aircraft is being operated for the purpose of aerial
advertising.
(4) In addition to the equipment requirements specified in
subsection (1), no person shall operate an aircraft in night
VFR flight under Subpart 4 of this Pa rt or Subparts 2 to 5
of Part VII, unless the aircraft is equipped with
(a) an attitude indicator;
(b) a vertical speed indicator;
(c) a means of preventing malfunction caused by icing for each airspeed indicating system; and
(d) an outside air temperature gauge.
Use of Position and Anti-collision Lights
(1) Subject to subsection (2), no person shall operate an aircraft
in the air or on the ground at night, or on water between
sunset and sunrise, unless the aircraft position lights and
anti-collision lights are turned on.
(2) Anti-collision lights may be turned off where the pilot-in-
command determines that, because of operating conditions,
doing so would be in the interests of aviation safety.
Power-driven Aircraft – IFR
No person shall conduct a takeoff in a power-driven aircraft for the purpose of IFR flight unless it is equipped with
(a) when it is operated by day, the equi pment required
pursuant to paragraphs 605.16(1)(a) to (h);
(b) when it is operated by night, the equipment required
pursuant to paragraphs 605.16(1)(a) to (k);
(c) an attitude indicator;
(d) a vertical speed indicator;
(e) an outside air temperature gauge;
(f ) a means of preventing malfunction caused by icing for each airspeed indicating system; (g) a power failure warning device or vacuum indicator
that shows the power available to gyroscopic instruments
from each power source;
(h) an alternative source of static pressure for the altimeter,
airspeed indicator and vertical speed indicator;
(i) sufficient radiocommunication equipment to permit
the pilot to conduct two-way communications on the appropriate frequency; and
(j) sufficient radio navigation equipment to permit the
pilot, in the event of the failure at any stage of the flight
of any Item of that equipment, including any associated
flight instrument display,
(i) to proceed to the destination aerodrome or proceed
to another aerodrome that is suitable for landing, and
(ii) where the aircraft is operated in IMC, to complete
an instrument approach and, if necessary, conduct
a missed approach procedure.
Balloons – Day VFR
No person shall conduct a takeoff in a balloon for the purpose
of day VFR flight unless it is equipped with
(a) an altimeter;
(b) a vertical speed indicator;
(c) in the case of a hot air balloon,
(i) a fuel quantity gauge, and
(ii) an envelope temperature indicator;
(d) in the case of a captive gas balloon, a magnetic direction
indicator; and
(e) subject to subsections 601.08(2) and 601.09(2), a radio
communication system adequate to permit two-way
communication on the appropriate frequency when the
balloon is operated within
(i) Class C or Class D airspace,
(ii) an MF area, unless the aircraft is operated pursuant
to subsection 602.97(3 ), or
(iii) the ADIZ.
Balloons – Night VFR
No person shall conduct a takeoff in a balloon for the purpose of night VFR flight unless it is equipped with
(a) equipment required pursuant to Section 605.19;
(b) position lights;
(c) a means of illuminating all of the instruments used by the flight crew, including a flashlight; and
(d) in the case of a hot air balloon, two independent fuel systems.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACGliders – Day VFR
No person shall operate a glider in day VFR flight unless it is
equipped with
(a) an altimeter;
(b) an airspeed indicator;
(c) a magnetic compass or a magnetic direction indicator; and
(d) subject to subsections 601.08(2) and 601.09(2), a
radiocommunication system adequate to permit two-way
communication on the appropriate frequency when the
glider is operated within
(i) Class C or Class D airspace,
(ii) an MF area, unless the aircraft is operated pursuant
to subsection 602.97(3), or
(iii) the ADIZ.
Seat and Safety Belt Requirements
(1) Subject to subsection 605.23, no person shall operate an
aircraft other than a balloon unless it is equipped with a
seat and safety belt for each person on board the aircraft
other than an infant.
(2) Subsection (1) does not apply to a person operating an aircraft
that was type-certificated with a safety belt designed for
two persons.
(3) A safety belt referred to in subsection (1) shall include a
latching device of the metal-to-metal type.
Restraint System Requirements
An aircraft may be operated without being equipped in accordance
with Section 605.22 in respect of the following persons if a
restraint system that is secured to the primary structure of the
aircraft is provided for each person who is
(a) carried on a stretcher or in an incubator or other similar
device;
(b) carried for the purpose of parachuting from the aircraft; or
(c) required to work in the vicinity of an opening in the aircraft
structure.
Shoulder Harness Requirements
(1) No person shall operate an aeroplane, other than a small
aeroplane manufactured before July 18, 1978, unl ess each
front seat or, if the aeroplane has a flight deck, each seat
on the flight deck is equipped with a safety belt that includes
a shoulder harness.
(2) Except as provided in Section 705.75, no person shall operate
a transport category aeroplane unless each flight attendant seat is equipped with a safety belt that includes a shoulder harness. (3) No person shall operate a small aeroplane manufactured
after December 12, 1986, the initial type certificate of which
provides for not more than nine passenger seats, excluding
any pilot seats, unless each forward- or aft-facing seat is
equipped with a safety belt that includes a shoulder harness.
(4) No person shall operate a helicopter manufactured after
September 16, 1992, the initial type certificate of which
specifies that the helicopter is certified as belonging to the normal or transport category, unless each seat is equipped with a safety belt that includes a shoulder harness.
(5) No person operating an aircraft shall conduct any of the
following flight operations unless the aircraft is equipped
with a seat and a safety belt that includes a shoulder harness
for each person on board the aircraft:
(a) aerobatic manoeuvres;
(b) Class B, C or D external load operations conducted by
a helicopter; and
(c) aerial application, or aerial inspection other than flight
inspection for the purpose of calibrating electronic
navigation aids, conducted at altitudes below 500 feet
AGL.
General Use of Safety Belts and Restraint Systems
(1) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall direct all of the persons on board the aircraft to fasten safety belts
(a) during movement of the aircraft on the surface;
(b) during takeoff and landing; and
(c) at any time during flight that the pilot-in-command
considers it necessary that safety belts be fastened.
(2) The directions referred to in subsection (1) also apply to
the use of the following restraint systems:
(a) a child restraint system;
(b) a restraint system used by a person who is engaged in parachute descents; and
(c) a restraint system used by a person when working in the vicinity of an opening in the aircraft structure.
(3) Where an aircraft crew includes flight attendants and the
pilot-in-command anticipates that the level of turbulence
will exceed light turbulence, the pilot-in-command shall
immediately direct each flight attendant to
(a) discontinue duties relating to service;
(b) secure the cabin; and
(c) occupy a seat and fasten the safety belt provided.
(4) Where an aircraft is experiencing turbulence and the in-charge flight attendant considers it necessary, the
in-charge flight attendant shall
(a) direct all of the passengers to fasten their safety belts; and
(b) direct all flight attendants to discontinue duties relating
to service, to secure the cabin, to occupy the assigned
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACseats and to fasten the safety belts provided and to do
so oneself.
(5) Where the in-charge flight attendant has given directions
in accordance with subsection (4), the in-charge flight
attendant shall so inform the pilot-in-command.
Use of Passenger Safety Belts and Restraint
Systems
(1) Where the pilot-in-command or the in-charge flight attendant
directs that safety belts be fastened, every passenger who is not an infant shall
(a) ensure that the passenger’s safety belt or restraint system
is properly adjusted and securely fastened;
(b) if responsible for an infant for which no child restraint
system is provided, hold the infant securely in the
passenger’s arms; and
(c) if responsible for a person who is using a child restraint
system, ensure that the person is properly secured.
(2) No passenger shall be responsible for more than one infant.
Use of Crew Member Safety Belts
(1) Subject to subsection (2), the c rew members on an aircraft
shall be seated at their stations with their safety belts fastened
(a) during takeoff and landing;
(b) at any time that the pilot-in-command directs; and
(c) in the case of crew members who are flight attendants, at any time that the in-charge flight attendant so directs pursuant to
paragraph 605.25(4)( b).
(2) Where the pilot-in-command directs that safety belts be
fastened by illuminating the safety belt sign, a crew member
is not required to comply with paragraph (1)(b)
(a) during movement of the aircraft on the surface or during
flight, if the crew member is performing duties relating
to the safety of the aircraft or of the passengers on
board;
(b) where the aircraft is experiencing light turbulence, if
the crew member is a flight attendant and is performing
duties relating to the passengers on board; or
(c) if the crew member is occupying a crew rest facility
during cruise flight and the restraint system for that
facility is properly adjusted and securely fastened.
(3) The pilot-in-command shall ensure that at least one pilot is
seated at the flight controls with safety belt fastened during
flight time. Child Restraint System
(1) No operator of an aircraft shall permit the use of a child
restraint system on board the aircraft unless
(a) the person using the child restraint system is
accompanied by a parent or guardian who will attend to the safety of the person during the flight;
(b) the weight and height of the person using the child
restraint system are within the range specified by
the manufacturer;
(c) the child restraint system bears a legible label indicating
the applicable design standards and date of manufacture;
(d) the child restraint system is properly secured by the
safety belt of a forward-facing seat that is not located in an emergency exit row and does not block access to an aisle; and
(e) the tether strap is used according to the manufacturer’s
instructions or, where subsection (2) applie s, secured
so as not to pose a hazard to the person using the child restraint system or to any other person.
(2) Where a seat incorporates design features to reduce occupant
loads, such as the crushing or separation of certain
components, and the seat is in compliance with the applicable
design standards, no person shall use the tether strap on the child restraint system to secure the system.
(3) Every passenger who is responsible for a person who is
using a child restraint system on board an aircraft shall be
(a) seated in a seat adjacent to the seat to which the child restraint system is secured;
(b) familiar with the manufacturer’s installation instructions
for the child restraint system; and
(c) familiar with the method of securing the person in the
child restraint system and of releasing the person from it.
Flight Control Locks
No operator of an aircraft shall permit the use of a flight control
lock in respect of the aircraft unless
(a) the flight control lock is incapable of becoming engaged
when the aircraft is being operated; and
(b) an unmistakable warning is provided to the person
operating the aircraft whenever the flight control lock is engaged.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACDe-icing or Anti-icing Equipment
No person shall conduct a takeoff or continue a flight in an
aircraft where icing conditions are reported to exist or are forecast
to be encountered along the route of flight unless
(a) the pilot-in-command determines that the aircraft is
adequately equipped to operate in icing conditions in
accordance with the standards of airworthiness under which the type certificate for that aircraft was issued; or
(b) current weather reports or pilot reports indicate that
icing conditions no longer exist.
Oxygen Equipment and Supply
(1) No person shall operate an unpressurized aircraft unless it
is equipped with sufficient oxygen dispensing units and
oxygen supply to comply with the requirements set out in the table to this subsection.
Table 2 RAC Annex—Oxygen Requirements
for Unpressurized Aircraft
ItemColumn I Column II
Persons For Whom
Oxygen Supply Must Be Available Period Of Flight And Cabin-Pressure-Altitude
1. All crew members and 10 percent of passengers and, in any case, no less than one passenger Entire period of flight
exceeding 30 minutes at
cabin-pressure-altitudes
above 10 000 feet
ASL but not exceeding
13 000 feet ASL
2. All persons on board the aircraft (a)
Entire period of flight at cabin-pressure-altitudes
above 13 000 feet ASL
(b) For aircraft operated in an air transport service under the conditions referred to in paragraph(a), a period of flight of not less than
one hour.
(2) No person shall operate a pressurized aircraft unless it is
equipped with sufficient oxygen dispensing units and oxygen
supply to provide, in the event of cabin pressurization failure
at the most critical point during the flight, sufficient oxygen
to continue the flight to an aerodrome suitable for landing
while complying with the requirements of the table to this subsection. Table 3 RAC Annex—Minimum Oxygen Requirements
for Pressurized Aircraft Following Emergency Descent
ItemColumn I Column II
Persons For
Whom Oxygen Supply Must Be Available Period Of Flight And Cabin-Pressure-Altitude
1. All crew members and 10 percent of passengers and, in any case, no less than one passenger
(a) Entire period of flight exceeding
30 minutes at cabin-pressure-
altitudes above 10 000 feet ASL
but not exceeding 13 000 feet
ASL
(b) Entire period of flight at cabin-
pressure-altitudes above
13 000 feet ASL
(c) For aircraft operated in an air
transport service under the
conditions referred to in
paragraph (a) or (b), a period of flight of not less than
(i) 30 minutes (Note 2), and
(ii) for flight crew members,
two hours for aircraft the
type certificate of which authorizes flight at altitudes
exceeding FL 250 (Note 3)
2. All passengers (a) Entire period of flight at cabin-
pressure-altitudes exceeding
13 000 feet ASL
(b) For aircraft operated in an air
transport service under the
conditions referred to in
paragraph (a), a period of flight of not less than 10 minutes
NOTE S:
1. In determining the available supply, the cabin pressure
altitude descent profile for the routes concerned must be
taken into account.
2. The minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a constant rate of descent from the aircraft’s maximum
operating altitude authorized in the type certificate to
10 000 ft ASL in 10 minutes, followed by 20 minutes at
10 000 feet ASL.
3. The minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a constant rate of descent from the aircraft’s maximum
operating altitude authorized in the type certificate to
10 000 ft ASL in 10 minutes, followed by 110 minutes at
10 000 feet ASL.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RACUse of Oxygen
(1) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes
above 10 000 ft ASL, but not exceeding 13 000 ft ASL,
each crew member shall wear an oxygen mask and use
supplemental oxygen for any part of the flight at those
altitudes that is more than 30 min in duration.
(2) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes
above 13 000 ft ASL, each person on board the aircraft shall
wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for the
duration of the flight at those altitudes.
(3) The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an
oxygen mask if
(a) the aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen
masks and is operated at or above FL 250; or
(b) the aircraft is equipped with quick-donning oxygen
masks and is operated above FL 410.
12.3 TRANSPORTATION OF DANGEROUS
GOODS (TDG) BY AIR
Dangerous goods refers to a product, substance or organism
included by its nature or by the regulations in any of the classes
listed in the schedule to the Transportation of Dangerous Goods
Act, 1992 . There are nine classes of dangerous goods:
Class 1: Explosives ;
Class 2: Gases;
Class 3: Flammable l iquids;
Class 4: Flammable so lids; substances liable to
spontaneous combustion; substances that on contact with water emit flammable gases;
Class 5: Oxidizing sub stances and organic peroxides;
Class 6: Toxic and in fectious substances;
Class 7: Radioactiv e materials;
Class 8: Corrosives ; and
Class 9: Miscellane ous products, substances or
organisms.
Dangerous goods must not be carried on board any Canadian-registered aircraft, or in any foreign aircraft when operated in
Canada, unless in compliance with the Transportation of
Dangerous Goods Act, 1992 (TDG Act, 1992) and the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Regulations (TDG
Regulations).
Sections 12.1 to 12.3 of the TDG Regulations regulate the domestic
and international transport of dangerous goods by air, and adopt
by reference the ICAO’s Technical Instructions for the Safe
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (ICAO TIs). Sections 12.4 to 12.17 of the TDG Regulations provide alternative
domestic provisions for dangerous goods in air transport, which
address the unique characteristics of the Canadian aviation
industry and geographical environment.
Anyone handling, offering for transport or transporting
dangerous goods by aircraft in Canada must be trained and hold
a valid training certificate in compliance with Part 6, Training,
of the TDG Regulations or be in the presence and under the
direct supervision of a person who is trained and who holds a
TDG training certificate. A TDG training certificate expires
24 months after its date of issuance.
The Canadian Aviation Regulations require that air operators
submit procedures for the transport of dangerous goods and
corresponding training programs to TC for review and approval.
TC published Advisory Circular (AC) 700-001— Dangerous
Goods Special Authorization to assist air operators in the
development of dangerous goods procedures and training
programs. The AC is available on the Transport Canada
Civil Aviation (TCCA) documentation Web site: < https://tc.
canada.ca/en/aviation/reference-centre/advisory-circulars/advisory-circular-ac-no-700-001 >.
NOTE :
Consultants may provide assistance in developing dangerous
goods procedures and training programs; however, generic
procedures and training programs must be amended to reflect air operators’ activities.
An air operator may delegate some of its responsibilities to third
parties; however, the air operator remains accountable. Therefore,
an air operator is responsible for training employees (and third-
party staff) as per the approved dangerous goods procedures
and training program.
Canadian private operators may not be required to submit
dangerous goods documentation to TC for review and approval
under CAR 604. However, the ICAO TIs, referenced in the TDG Regulations, require that all operators establish and
maintain a training program, regardless of whether they carry dangerous goods as cargo or not.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RACFor additional information, visit the TDG Web site (< https://
tc.canada.ca/en/dangerous-goods/transportation-dangerous-
goods-canada >) or contact one of the following TDG regional
offices:
Atlantic
Tel.: . .................................................................. 1-866-814-1477
E-mail: . .................................... TDG-TMDAtlantic@tc.gc.ca
Quebec
Tel.: . .................................................................. 1-514-633-3400
E-mail: . .................................... TMD-TDG.Quebec@tc.gc.ca
Ontario
Tel.: ................................................................... 1-416-973-1868
E-mail: ..................................... TDG-TMDOntario@tc.gc.ca
Prairie and Northern
Tel.: ................................................................... 1-888-463-0521
E-mail: ........................................... TDG-TMDPNR@tc.gc.ca
Pacific
Tel.: .................................................................. 1-604-666-2955
E-mail: ....................... TDGPacific-TMDPacifique@tc.gc.ca
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RAC
TC AIM March 20, 2025NATNAT—NORTH
ATLANTIC (NAT)
OPERATIONS
NOTE :
Refer to AIP Canada Enroute (ENR) 7.0 for the most up-to-date
navigation information and procedures available at < https://
www.navcanada .ca/en/aeronautical-information/aip-canada.
aspx> .
1.0 NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT)
OPERATIONS
1.1 REGULATION, REFERENCE
DOCUMENTS AND GUIDANCE MATERIAL
1.1.1 Regulation
CAR 602.38 requires pilots of Canadian aircraft, when flying
over the high seas, to comply with the applicable rules set out
in ICAO Annex 2, Rules of the Air , and with the applicable
regional supplementary procedures set out in ICAO Doc 7030.
1.1.2 North Atlantic (NAT) Docum entation
The following documents are applicable to operations in the
NAT region:
(a) ICAO Annex 2— Rules of the Air;
(b) ICAO Annex 11— Air Traffic Services ;
(c) ICAO Doc 4444— Procedures for Air Navigation Services —
Air Traffic Management ;
(d) ICAO Doc 7030— Regional Supplementary Procedures ;
(e) ICAO NAT Doc 001— NAT SPG Handbook ;
(f) ICAO NAT Doc 003 — High Frequency Management
Guidance Material for the North Atlantic Region;
(g) ICAO NAT Doc 006— Air Traffic Management Operational
Contingency Plan—North Atlantic Region ;
(h) ICAO NAT Doc 007— North Atlantic Operations and
Airspace Manual ; and
(i) NAT Ops Bulletins .
1.2 GENERAL AVIATION AIRCRAFT
Canadian Aviation Regulation (CAR) 602.39 specifies the
following:
“No pilot-in-command of a single-engined aircraft, or of a multi-
engined aircraft that would be unable to maintain flight in the
event of the failure of any engine, shall commence a flight that will leave Canadian Domestic Airspace and enter airspace over the high seas unless:(a) the pilot-in-command holds a pilot licence endorsed with an instrument rating;
(b) the aircraft is equipped with
(i) the equipment referred to in section 605.18,
(ii) a high frequency radio capable of transmitting and
receiving on a minimum of two appropriate
international air-ground general purpose frequencies,
and
(iii) hypothermia protection for each person on board;
and
(c) the aircraft carries sufficient fuel to meet the requirements of section 602.88 and, in addition, carries contingency fuel equal to at least 10 percent of the fuel required pursuant to
section 602.88 to complete the flight to the aerodrome
of destination.”
1.3 NORTH AMERICAN ROUTES (NAR)
The North American route (NAR) system interfaces with North
Atlantic (NAT) oceanic, the oceanic transition area, and domestic
airspace and is used by air traffic transiting the NAT. NARs
consist of a series of pre-planned routes to and from established
oceanic entry/exit points (OEP) and major identified airports
throughout Canada and the United States.
NARs and their associated procedures are published in the
Planning section of the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) and
in the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) Airport Facility/
Directory —Northeast .
1.4 GANDER OCEANIC TRANSITION
AREA (GOTA)
The implementation of additional surveillance and communication
sites along the north-east coast of Canada allowed for the
provision of enhanced services and led to the creation of the
Gander oceanic transition area (GOTA).
The lower limit of the GOTA is FL 290; the upper limit is FL 600.
The GOTA is Class A controlled airspace.
The GOTA consists of airspace FL 290 and above, from 6530N
060W, east to the Reykjavik area control centre (ACC) boundary,
south to 6330N 055W, south along 055W to the Gander domestic
boundary, north along the Gander/Montreal domestic boundaries,
north to the Edmonton boundary, and then back to the point
of origin (see Figure 1.1).
Surveillance services are provided by Gander ACC. The automatic
dependence surveillance - contract/controller-pilot data link
communications (ADS-C/CPDLC) log on address for aircraft
in GOTA airspace is CDQX.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
NATFigure 1.1—Gander OCA
1.5 NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT) ORGANIZED
TRACK SYSTEM (OTS)
Organized tracks are formulated and published in a North
Atlantic (NAT) track message via the Aeronautical Fixed
Telecommunications Network (AFTN) and sent to all interested
operators. The daytime structure is published by Shanwick area
control centre (ACC) and the night-time structure is published by Gander ACC.
Flight levels are allocated for use within the organized track
system (OTS), and in most cases, details of domestic entry and exit routings associated with individual tracks are provided in the NAT track message.
To permit an orderly changeover between successive OTSs, a
period of several hours is interposed between the termination of one system and the commencement of the next. During these periods, operators are expected to file random routes or use the coordinates of a track in the system that is about to come into effect.
Eastbound traffic crossing 030˚W at 1030 UTC or later and
westbound traffic crossing 030˚W at 0000 UTC or later should plan to avoid the OTS at the published levels.
Further information on available flight level profiles can be
found in NAT 1.20.3.1.6 FLIGHT RULES
Over the high seas, the lower limit of all North Atlantic (NAT) oceanic control areas (OCA) is FL 055; there is no upper limit.
Throughout the NAT region, airspace at and above FL 055 is
Class A controlled airspace, and below FL 055 is Class G
uncontrolled airspace.
At or above FL 060, flights shall be conducted under instrument
flight rules (IFR) even when aircraft are not operating in
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
Air traffic control (ATC) clearances to climb or descend while
maintaining one’s own separation and remaining in visual
meteorological conditions (VMC) shall not be issued to aircraft.
1.7 FLIGHT PLANNING PROCEDURES
1.7.1 Routes
For eastbound and westbound traffic:
(a) South of 70°N, the planned tracks shall be defined by
significant points formed by the intersection of half or whole
degrees of latitude at each 10° of longitude (060°W, 050°W,
040°W). For flights operating north of 70°N, significant
points are defined by the parallels of latitude expressed in
degrees and minutes with longitudes at 20° intervals; the
distance between significant points shall, as far as possible,
not exceed one hour of flight time. Additional significant
points should be established when required because of
aircraft speed or the angle at which meridians are crossed. When the flight time between successive significant points is less than 30 min, one of the points may be omitted.
(b) Oceanic traffic transitioning through the GOTA from FL 290
to FL 600 shall flight plan an oceanic entry/exit point (OEP),
a 050°W coordinate, and a 040°W coordinate.
(c) The following OEPs are limited to flights conducted from
FL 290 and above: AVPUT, CLAVY, EMBOK, KETLA,
LIBOR, MAXAR, NIFTY, PIDSO, RADUN, SAVRY, TOXIT,
URTAK, VESMI, AVUTI, BOKTO, CUDDY, DORYY, and
ENNSO.
(d) The following OEPs shall be flight planned by all aircraft entering or exiting Gander oceanic airspace, regardless of
altitude: HOIST, IRLOK, JANJO, KODIK, LOMSI, MELDI,
NEEKO, PELTU, RIKAL, SAXAN, TUDEP, UMESI, ALLRY,
BUDAR, ELSIR, IBERG, JOOPY, MUSAK, NICSO, OMSAT,
PORTI, RELIC, SUPRY, and RAFIN.
For northbound and southbound traffic, the planned tracks
shall be defined by significant points formed by the intersection
of whole degrees of longitude with parallels of latitude spaced at 5° (65°N, 60°N, 55°N).
TC AIM March 20, 2025NATFor aircraft planning to fly within the OTS from the oceanic
entry point to the oceanic exit point as detailed in the daily NAT
track message, the track shall be defined in Item 15 of the flight
plan by the abbreviation “NAT” followed by the code letter
assigned to the track. Refer to subsection 1.20.3.2 for more details
on the OTS.
For eastbound NAT flights planning to operate on the OTS, the
second and third route options should be indicated at the end of Item 18 of the flight plan. Those operators who do not have
the capability to provide this information in Item 18 of the flight
plan should send the information by a separate AFTN message to Gander ACC (CYQXZQZX).
Examples:
RMKS/ … O2.X370 O3.V350 (Option 2 is Track X at FL 370;
option 3 is Track V at FL 350).RMKS/ … O2.RS390 O3.Z370 (Option 2 is random track south
at FL 390; option 3 is Track Z at FL 370).
NOTE :
In the preceding examples, options 2 and 3 are indicated by the
letter “O” and not by the number zero.
ATS requires flights entering or exiting the Gander OCA to
flight plan in accordance with the published NAT OTS or, if
exiting by way of 51°N 050°W and south thereof, via the following
OEPs (compulsory reporting points) and associated 050°W
coordinates (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1—OEPs and Associated Coordinates
OEP Coordinates
ALLRY 5100N 05000W
BUDAR 5030N 05000W
ELSIR 5000N 05000W
IBERG 4930N 05000W
JOOPY 4900N 05000W
MUSAK 4830N 05000W
NICSO 4800N 05000W
OMSAT 4730N 05000W
PORTI 4700N 05000W
RELIC 4630N 05000W
SUPRY 4600N 05000W
RAFIN 4500N 05000W
ATS requires flights entering or exiting the New York OCA through
CDA to flight plan over one of the following compulsory reporting
points: NOVOK, JEBBY, BOBTU, or TALGO; or via ELERI or
MUSPO, for flights arriving at or departing from Halifax
airport (CYHZ). Eastbound flights that exit the New York OCA
via CDA and subsequently enter the Gander OCA are required to flight plan in accordance with the published NAT OTS or over an oceanic entry point and a 050°W coordinate.Flights exiting the New York OCA via BOBTU should contact
Gander ACC five minutes prior to BOBTU on frequency
134.7 MHz. Operators should be aware that if the NAT OTS
includes tracks that are at or south of SUPRY 46°N 050°W (or 46°N 050°W SUPRY), optimal flight levels and routes may not be available.
To facilitate effective coordination for flights entering or exiting
the Gander domestic CTA and the New York OCA via 44°N
050°W or south thereof:
(a) Eastbound flights exiting the Gander domestic CTA directly
into the New York OCA are required to flight plan via LOMPI
direct JAROM direct TALGO direct 44°N 050°W or south thereof.
(b) Eastbound flights exiting the New York OCA directly into
the Gander domestic CTA are required to flight plan via
BOBTU.
(i) When the eastbound OTSs are anchored at RAFIN
and/or TALGO, BOBTU will be unavailable for eastbound NAT traffic flight planning between
FL 300 and FL 400, inclusive.
(c) Westbound flights exiting the New York OCA directly into
the Gander domestic CTA are required to flight plan via
BOBTU direct JAROM direct LOMPI.
NOTE :
TALGO is not to be used for westbound flights.
ATS system parameters require all westbound flights transiting
from the Gander OCA or the GOTA to the Montréal FIR/CTA to flight plan via 060°W below FL 290 and via an oceanic entry
point if operating from FL 290 up to and including FL 600,
followed by both a boundary reporting point and then one of
the following inland reporting points: LAKES, LOPVI, RODBO,
JELCO, FEDDY, TEFFO, DUTUM, or BEZED. KENKI and
IRBIM are not to be used as boundary reporting points. Flights operating from FL 290 and above may flight plan a NAR to or from an oceanic entry point.
1.7.2 Airspeed
The TAS or Mach number is to be entered in Item 15 of the flight
plan.
1.7.3 Altitude
The planned cruising level(s) for the oceanic portion of the flight
should be included in Item 15 of the flight plan.
NOTE :
Pilots planning to conduct a flight wholly or partly outside the
OTS should indicate, in a flight plan, cruising level(s) appropriate
to the direction of flight and in accordance with the flight levels
as described in the NAT FLAS. Refer to section 1.20.3 for more details on FLAS.
Requests for a suitable alternative flight level may be indicated
in Item 18 of the flight plan.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
NAT1.7.4 Estimated Times
For NAT flights, the accumulated elapsed time only to the first
oceanic FIR boundary (Gander accepts elapsed time to OEPs) is to be entered in Item 18 of the flight plan.
1.7.5 Aircraft Approval Status and Registration
For an aircraft certified as being in compliance with operations
within the NAT HLA, the approval status (MNPS) shall be
indicated in Item 10 by entering the letter “X”. It is the pilot’s
responsibility to ensure that specific approval has been given
for the NAT HLA operations. Refer to subpart 1.11 for more
information on MNPS in the NAT HLA.
For an aircraft certified as being in compliance with RVSM
MASPS, RVSM approval shall be indicated in Item 10 by entering
the letter “W”. It is the pilot’s responsibility to ensure that specific
approval has been given for RVSM operations. Refer to subpart 1.12 for more information on RVSM MASPS.
If the aircraft registration is not included in Item 7, it shall be
indicated in Item 18.
1.7.6 Filing
NAT operators shall forward all flight plans for eastbound NAT
flights to the Canadian ACCs whose FIR or CTA the flights will traverse. These flight plans shall include the EET for each CTA boundary in Item 18 of the flight plan. The AFTN addresses for Canadian ACCs are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2—AFTN Addresses for Canadian ACCs
AFTN
Addresses Canadian
ACCs AFTN
Addresses Canadian
ACCs
CZQXZQZX Gander CZWGZQZX Winnipeg
CZQMZQZX Moncton CZEGZQZX Edmonton
CZULZQZX Montréal CZVRZQZX Vancouver
CZYZZQZX Toronto — —
Where possible, operators are to file eastbound NAT flight plans
at least four hours prior to the ETA at the oceanic entry point specified in the flight plan.1.8 PREFERRED ROUTE MESSAGE (PRM)
North Atlantic (NAT) operators shall send preferred route
messages (PRMs) for eastbound flights to the following Gander
Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network (AFTN)
addresses:
(a) CZQXZQZX (Gander ACC)
(b) CZULZQZX (Montreal ACC)
The following format is to be used for eastbound PRMs:
[PRIORITY] [DEST ADDRESS] [DEST ADDRESS] — [DATE TIME OF ORIGIN] [ORIGIN ADDRESS]
[MESSAGE TYPE] ‑[COMPANY] ‑[EB]‑[YYMMDD AT
030°W] ‑ [(DEP/DEST) (INLAND FIX) (OEP) (OCA
RPS) (LANDFALL) (LAST UK POINT) (NUMBER OF
FLT 01 ‑99)]
Example:
FF CZQXZQZX
130502 KJFKSWRW
PRM ‑SWR ‑E‑200113
CYUL/ LSZH JOOPY 49/50 49/40 49/30 49/20
BEDRA NASBA 02
KJFK/ LSZH PORTI 47/50 48/40 49/30 50/20
SOMAX ATSUR 03
NOTES :
1. If there is no inland navigation fix (INF), the latitude crossing
080°W is to be used.
2. PRMs for eastbound flights are to be sent no later than 1000
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
1.9 CLEARANCES
Advancements in technology for communications, navigation,
surveillance (CNS) solutions have enabled NAT ANSPs to improve
safety and services in the NAT Region and, as such, they have
removed the requirement for operators to obtain a specific oceanic
clearance to operate within the region, the changes are effective
March 21, 2024 in the Reykjavik and Santa Maria OCAs and
effective December 4, 2024 in Gander and Bodo. For more
information and for current operational procedures for the NAT,
refer to NAT Ops Bulletin 2023-001, NAT Doc 007 and
AIP Canada ENR 7.0.
Pilots proceeding westbound across the NAT and entering CDA
within the Gander, Moncton and Montréal FIRs should comply
with the following procedures:
(a) Flights whose current route clearance contains their flight
planned oceanic exit point will not be issued en-route
clearances upon entering the airspace and are to follow the flight planned route as filed. Domestic en-route clearances will be issued:
(i) for flights that have been rerouted and exit oceanic
airspace at a point other than the flight planned
exit fix;
TC AIM March 20, 2025NAT(ii) at a pilot’s request for another routing; or
(iii) if a flight plan has not been received by the ACC.
(b) Flights that have been rerouted from the flight planned
route and enter CDA within 120 NM of the flight planned
oceanic exit point can anticipate a clearance to regain the flight planned route by the INF, unless the pilot requests a
different routing. For flights entering CDA more than 120 NM from the flight planned oceanic exit point, a
clearance will be issued following consultation with the
pilot.
(c) ATC will use the latest flight plan received before a flight
departs. Subsequent changes to the flight planned route,
including any changes received by the pilot from flight
operations or dispatch while en-route, must be requested
directly by the pilot on initial contact with the appropriate
domestic ACC. Direct requests from flight operations or
dispatch to ATC to reclear aircraft will only be considered
under exceptional circumstances and are not an acceptable
alternative to a pilot-initiated request for a re-clearance.
(d) Domestic re-clearances by ATC may contain either the route
specified in full detail or a NAR.
If an aircraft enters CDA via the Edmonton FIR, the onward
domestic routing will have been established in coordination
between the Reykjavik and the Edmonton ACCs, and additional
domestic clearance is not required. If there has been a change
in route from the filed flight plan, clarification of the onward
routing may be obtained from Edmonton ACC upon request.
Westbound aircraft that have proceeded across the NAT and
have entered the GOTA or CDA shall maintain the last Mach
setting assigned by ATC:
(a) unless approval is obtained from ATC to make a change;
or
(b) until the pilot receives an initial descent clearance
approaching destination.
1.10 POSITION REPORTS
1.10.1 Requirements
Unless otherwise requested by ATC, flights shall make position reports at the significant points listed in the flight plan or in the ATC amended route. For more details on position reporting in
the NAT Region, such as time, place and contents, refer to
NAT Doc 007 section 5.3 and AIP Canada ENR 7.1.9.
1.10.2 Communications with Air Traffic
Control (ATC)
All aircraft operating in the Gander OCA must be capable of
conducting two-way radio communication with ATC. The radio
communication equipment shall consist of at least one HF and one other long-range communication system (HF, CPDLC, or SATVOICE). Carrying HF radio and the additional long-range communication system is mandatory, except for operations on routes covered by VHF facilities. (Refer to Planning Section C in the CFS for a list of VHF facilities.)See CARs 602.38 and 602.39 for Canadian-registered aircraft
or for aircraft entering the NAT via CDA.
For more details on equipage requirements in the NAT HLA,
refer to ICAO Annex 2 and to the NAT section in ICAO’s Regional
Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030), as well as national AIPs
for the States concerned.
All flights operating in the Gander OCA should check in on
international air-ground frequencies. Refer to AIP Canada ENR
7.1.10 for detailed procedures on making initial contact upon
entering Gander OCA.
1.11 MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
SPECIFICATIONS (MNPS) FOR
OPERATIONS WITHIN THE
NORTH ATLANTIC HIGH-LEVEL
AIRSPACE (NAT HLA)
1.11.1 General
Prior to February 2016, NAT HLA was referred to as MNPS
airspace. As of January 2022, ICAO removed all references to
MNPS in their documentation, starting with NAT Doc 007. The
CARs still refer to MNPS airspace and MNPS requirements.
Therefore, the replacement of MNPS with NAT HLA is a
transition in progress, which means both terms can be considered
interchangeable until the removal from the CARs is complete.
Furthermore, filing ‘X’ in Field 10a of the flight plan is still
required to indicate authorization to operate in the NAT HLA.
For detailed requirements, refer to the following documents:
(a) ICAO Doc 7030— Regional Supplementary Procedures ;
(b) ICAO NAT Doc 001— NAT SPG Handbook ;
(c) ICAO NAT Doc 007— North Atlantic Operations and
Airspace Manual ;
(d) Parts VI and VII of the CARs; and
(e) AIP Canada ENR 7.2.3.3 .
Eastbound aircraft requesting an oceanic clearance from Gander
ACC to enter the NAT HLA may be asked by ATC to confirm
that they are approved for MNPS operations. Pilots/operators
unable to provide such confirmation will be issued an oceanic
clearance to operate their aircraft outside the NAT HLA (below FL 285 or above FL 420).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
NAT1.11.2 Aircraft Without Minimum Navigation
Performance Specifications (MNPS) for t he
North-Atlantic High-Level
Airspace (NAT HLA) Operations
An aircraft that does not meet the NAT HLA requirements may
be allowed to operate in the NAT HLA if the following conditions
are satisfied:
(a) The aircraft is being provided with ATS surveillance services;
(b) Direct controller-pilot VHF communication is maintained;
and
(c) The aircraf t has a certified installation of equipment
providing it with the ability to navigate along the cleared
track.
NOTE :
Pilots operating aircraft in the NAT HLA under these provisions
should familiarize themselves with NAT HLA operations and
procedures. They should also have a current copy of the OTS
message that is in effect for the time of their flight for situational
awareness.
Aircraft that are not approved to operate in the NAT HLA and
do not meet the above provisions may be cleared to climb or
descend through the NAT HLA, traffic permitting.
1.12 REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION
MINIMUM (RVSM)—MINIMUM
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
SPECIFICATIONS (MASPS)
Flights within the North Atlantic high-level airspace (NAT HLA)
must have the approval of either the State of Registry of the
aircraft or of the State of the operator. Since the NAT HLA is
designated as reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM)
airspace at all levels, flight crews and operators must be State
approved, specifically for NAT RVSM operations to fly in the
NAT HLA. Aircraft operating in RVSM airspace are required
to be compliant with the altimetry Minimum Aircraft System
Performance Specifications (MASPS) and must hold a State-
issued airworthiness approval. For detailed requirements, refer
to the following publications:
(a) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Doc 7030—
Regional Supplementary Procedures ;
(b) ICAO NAT Doc 001— NAT SPG Handbook ;
(c) ICAO NAT Doc 007— North Atlantic Operations and
Airspace Manual ;
(d) Parts VI and VII of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs);
and
(e) AIP Canada ENR 7.2.4.1.13 ADHERENCE TO MACH SETTING
While operating in the Gander oceanic control area (OCA) and
Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA), aircraft shall adhere to the
Mach setting assigned by air traffic control (ATC) unless approval
is obtained from ATC to make a change or until the pilot receives
an initial descent clearance approaching destination. If it is
essential to make an immediate temporary change in Mach
setting (e.g. as a result of turbulence), ATC shall be notified as soon as possible that such a change has been made.
Pilots shall advise ATC at the time of the climb/descent request
if it is not possible to maintain the last assigned Mach setting
during en-route climbs and descents because of aircraft
performance.
Fixed speed is no longer required for every flight crossing the
North Atlantic (NAT). NAT operations without an assigned
fixed speed (OWAFS) are now possible. Refer to AIP Canada
ENR paragraph 7.1.11 for more details.
1.14 OPERATION OF TRANSPONDERS
Transponders must be operated at all times on Mode A or Mode
C on Code 2000 while the aircraft is operated in the North
Atlantic (NAT) region. However, the last air traffic control (ATC)
assigned code must be retained for a period of 10 min after entry
into NAT airspace unless the pilot is otherwise directed by ATC.
NOTE :
This procedure does not affect the use of the special purpose
codes 7500, 7600, and 7700.
1.15 METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS
In accordance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Annex 3 - Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation,
flight crews are no longer required to provide voice reports of meteorology (MET) observations for wind speed and direction or air temperature.
However, when an aircraft establishes automatic dependent
surveillance — contract (ADS-C) with a North Atlantic air traffic
services (NAT ATS) unit, they may be requested to provide
automated MET reports from the MET group for wind and
temperature data or where they encounter significant meteorological phenomena via a controller-pilot data link
communications (CPDLC) free text downlink.
1.16 ALTITUDE REPORTS
Aircraft cleared for climb or descent should report their level to the nearest 100 ft.
For all altitude changes, whether they are climbs or descents,
pilots should report reaching the new level/cruising altitude to air traffic control (ATC).
TC AIM March 20, 2025NAT1.17 CONTINGENCY AND EMERGENCY
PROCEDURES
1.17.1 In-flight Contingencies
Contingency procedures in the NAT Region are not the same
as those used in domestic airspaces. NAT Doc 007 and the
AIP Canada ENR 7.4 provide explanations and details of the
procedures to follow for NAT traffic.
All pilots transiting the NAT should be thoroughly familiar with
the in-flight contingency procedures for situations of rapid
descent, turnback, diversion and reduction of navigation
capability.
For more details, refer to the following documents:
(a) ICAO Doc 4444— Procedures for Air Navigation Services —
Air Traffic Management ;
(b) ICAO Doc 7030— Regional Supplementary Procedures ;
(c) ICAO NAT Doc 001— NAT SPG Handbook ;
(d) ICAO NAT Doc 007— North Atlantic Operations and
Airspace Manual;
(e) NAT OPS Bulletins; and
(f) AIP Canada ENR 7.4.
1.18 COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE—NORTH
ATLANTIC (NAT) TRAFFIC
The following procedures are intended to provide general
guidance for North Atlantic (NAT) aircraft experiencing a
communications failure.
If the aircraft is so equipped, a pilot experiencing a two-way
radio communications failure shall operate the transponder in Mode
C, squawk Code 7600 and attempt to contact the current
controlling ATC facility using an alternative communication
method, such as CPDLC or SATVOICE.
If the aircraft is not equipped with SATVOICE or CPDLC, then
the flight crew should attempt to use VHF to contact any (other)
ATC facility or another aircraft, inform them of the difficulty
and request that they relay information to the ATC facility with which communications are intended.
The inter-pilot air-to-air VHF frequency, 123.450
MHz, may be
used to relay position reports via another aircraft. The emergency
frequency 121.500 MHz should not be used to relay routine
communications, but since all NAT traffic is required to monitor
the emergency frequency, it may be used, in these circumstances,
to establish initial contact with another aircraft and then request
transfer to the inter-pilot frequency for further communication.
In view of the traffic density in the NAT region, flight crews of
aircraft experiencing a two-way ATS communications failure
should broadcast regular position reports on the inter-pilot
frequency 123.450 MHz until such time as communications
are re-established.
For specific procedures on communications failures prior to
entering and after entering the NAT, refer to ICAO NAT Doc 007,
section 5.6.1.19 NORTH ATLANTIC HIGH-LEVEL
AIRSPACE (NAT HLA)
1.19.1 General
The NAT HLA is that volume of airspace between FL 285 and
FL 420 within the OCAs of Bodo Oceanic, Gander Oceanic,
New York Oceanic East, Reykjavik, Santa Maria, and Shanwick
excluding the Brest Oceanic Transition Area (BOTA) and the
Shannon Oceanic Transition Area (SOTA).
Operators of Canadian-registered aircraft intending to fly in
the NAT HLA will be required to show that they meet all the
applicable standards. Information on the measures necessary
to gain approval may be obtained from the following:
Equipment Installation Approval:
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
Regional Airworthiness Engineer
(See GEN 1.0 for the appropriate regional office.)
Commercial Flight Standards: Transport Canada Civil Aviation
330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8Tel.:
................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ............................................................... ........ 613-990-6215
Figure 1.2—NAT HLA Between FL 285 and FL 420
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
NAT1.19.2 Time Keeping Procedures
Prior to entry into the NAT HLA, the time reference system(s)
to be used during the flight for calculation of waypoint ETAs
and waypoint ATAs should be synchronized to UTC. All ETAs
and ATAs passed to ATC should be based on a time reference
that has been synchronized to UTC or equivalent. Acceptable
sources of UTC include the following:
(a) The United States National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) HF radio station near Fort Collins, Colo.,
(call sign WWV), which operates 24 hr a day on 2 500,
5 000, 10 000, 15 000, and 20 000 kHz (AM/SSB) and
announces UTC time at the top of each minute.
(b) Approved (TSO-C129) GPS equipment on board (corrected
to UTC) that allows pilots to access UTC time 24 hr a day.
(c) The National Research Council of Canada HF radio station in Ottawa (call sign CHU), which is available 24 hr a day on 3 330, 7 850, and 14 670 kHz (SSB). In the final ten-second
period of each minute, it makes a bilingual station
identification and time announcement in UTC.
(d) The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which
transmits the Greenwich time signal once every hour on a number of domestic and worldwide frequencies.
(e) Any other source shown to the state of registry or state of the operator (as appropriate) to be an equivalent source of UTC.
1.19.3 Aircraft Without Minimum Navigation Performance
Specifications (MNPS) Capabili ty
An aircraft that does not meet the NAT HLA requirements may
be allowed to operate in the NAT HLA if the following conditions
are satisfied:
(a) The aircraft is being provided with ATS surveillance services;
(b) Direct controller-pilot VHF communication is maintained;
and
(c) The aircraft has a certified installation of equipment
providing it with the ability to navigate along the cleared
track.
NOTE :
Pilots operating aircraft in the NAT HLA under these provisions
should familiarize themselves with NAT HLA operations and
procedures. They should also have a current copy of the OTS
message that is in effect for the time of their flight for situational
awareness.
Aircraft that are not approved to operate in the NAT HLA and
do not meet the above provisions may be cleared to climb or
descend through the NAT HLA, traffic permitting.
1.19.4 Monitoring of Gross Navigation Errors
In order to ensure that the required navigation standards are
being observed within the NAT HLA, a continuous monitoring
of the navigation accuracy of aircraft in this airspace takes place
using surveillance systems in Canada, Ireland, France, Iceland, and the United Kingdom. In cases of a gross navigation error,
the pilot will normally be notified by the ATC unit observing
the error. The subsequent investigation to determine the error
will involve the ATC unit, the operator, and the state of registry.
If there is a serious increase in the number of large errors, it may
become necessary to increase separation standards until remedial
action has been determined. Alternatively, if rapid corrective
action cannot be achieved, it may be necessary for the state of
registry or the state of the operator to temporarily exclude
offending aircraft types or operators from the NAT HLA.
1.20 NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT) REDUCED
VERTICAL SEPARATION
MINIMUM (RVSM)
1.20.1 Geographic Boundaries
In the NAT, RVSM airspace is airspace within the geographic
extent of the NAT region from FL 290 to FL 410 inclusive.
1.20.2 Reduced Vertical Separation
Minimum (RVSM) Details and Procedures
For RVSM details and procedures applicable to both the NAT
and CDA, see RAC 11.7.
1.20.3 Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS)
As with procedures in CDA, aircraft flight planning in oceanic
airspace should normally plan for a flight level appropriate to
the direction of flight, particularly when they are operating
outside of the OTS structure and valid times.
In an effort to provide efficient and economic profiles,
NAT ANSPs, through consultation, have designed the FLAS.
The FLAS standardizes flight levels available for traffic routing
on and outside of the OTS as well as during transition times
(times between valid OTS).
Aircraft operators are advised to flight plan using the flight
levels specified in this document, relative to their particular
f light(s).
1.20.3.1 Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS)
Procedures
FLAS procedures entail:
(a) the establishment of flight level profiles normally available
during OTS valid times;
(b) the establishment of flight level profiles during OTS
changeover periods;
(c) the establishment of a night datum line, with the area south
of the line reserved principally for traffic originating in
New York/Santa Maria; and
(d) the establishment of a north datum line, with the area on or north of the line reserved for late-running westbound traffic from Reykjavik to Gander.
TC AIM March 20, 2025NAT1.20.3.2 Organized Track System (OTS)
(a) Westbound
(i) The westbound OTS message is designed and
published by Shanwick daily.
(ii) The most northerly track of a day OTS is designated
as NAT Track Alpha; the adjacent track to the south,
as NAT Track Bravo; and so on.
(iii) The valid times are 1130 to 1900 UTC at 30°W.
(iv) The flight level profiles normally published are FL 310
to FL 390 inclusive
(v) Tracks that landfall at or north of CUDDY FL 340
will not be published.
(A) FL 340 is omitted from these tracks to allow
profiles for aircraft originating in the
Reykjavik OCA.
(b) Eastbound
(i) The eastbound OTS message is designed and
published by Gander daily.
(ii) The most southerly track is designated as Track Zulu;
the adjacent track to the north, as Track Yankee;
and so on.
(iii) The valid times are 0100 to 0800 UTC at 30°W.
(iv) The flight level profiles normally published are FL 310
to FL 400 inclusive.
(v) FL 310 is available on New York tracks only.
(vi) Eastbound traffic routing, south of both the night
datum line and the main OTS, should flight plan
using FL 310, FL 340, FL 360, or FL 380.
(vii) New York Tracks entering Shanwick OCA that cross,
or route south of, the night datum line may be any combination of FL 310, FL 340, FL 360, or FL 380,
or as otherwise agreed between Santa Maria and
New York. Additional levels will be allocated to New York Tracks if the core OTS is located in
that area.
NOTE :
For this procedure “New York Tracks” are any eastbound OTS Tracks that originate in the New York area and enter Gander or Shanwick OCAs. 1.20.3.3 Organized Track System (OTS) Changeover
Periods
(a) Basic Principles:
(i) The time period between the expiration of one OTS
and the commencement of another set is known as the OTS changeover period.
(ii) All times relate to 030°W.
(iii) OTS changeover rules apply from 0801 to 1129 UTC
and from 1901 to 0059 UTC.
(iv) During these times, flight levels shall be applied in
accordance with the direction of flight except as
stated below.
(b) Guidelines
(i) Westbound traffic crossing 030°W from 2230 to
0059 UTC:
(A) Remain clear of the incoming OTS; and
(B) Do not plan delegated ODLs (FL 340 and
FL 380).
(I) After 2230 UTC, the published OTS flight
levels and ODLs are released to Gander
for the use of eastbound traffic.
(ii) Eastbound traffic crossing 030°W from 1000 to
1129 UTC:
(A) Remain clear of the incoming OTS at FL 350; and
(B) Do not plan the delegated ODL (FL 330).
(I) After 1000 UTC, the OTS (at FL 330 and FL 350) and ODL (FL 330) are released to
Shanwick for the use of westbound traffic.
(iii) Eastbound traffic crossing 30°W from 1030 to
1129 UTC at FL 370 and FL 390:
(A) Remain clear of the incoming OTS.
(I) After 1030 UTC, the OTS (at FL 370 and
FL 390) is released to Shanwick for the use
of westbound traffic.
(iv) At the end of westbound (daytime) OTS:
(A) Westbound aircraft crossing 030°W until
1900 UTC at the ODL (FL 330) or on the OTS shall have priority over eastbound aircraft.
(I) During the westbound OTS hours of validity, Gander delegates FL 330 to
Shanwick for use by westbound traffic.
(v) At the end of eastbound (night-time) OTS:
(A) Eastbound aircraft crossing 030°W until
0800 UTC at the ODLs (FL 340 and FL 380) or
on the OTS shall have priority over westbound
aircraft.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
NATThe table below provides a summary:
Table 1.4—OTS Changeover Periods
Level Time (UTC) Direction
FL 430 24 hr Westbound.
May be flight planned as eastbound
by non-RVSM aircraft.
FL 410 24 hr Eastbound.
FL 400 0801–2229
0100–0800Westbound.
Westbound (avoiding OTS).
Eastbound OTS (subject to
westbounds).
Westbound (avoiding OTS).
Eastbound (OTS).
FL 390 1901–1029
1130 –1900Eastbound.Eastbound (avoiding OTS).
Westbound OTS (subject to eastbounds).
Eastbound (avoiding OTS).
Westbound (OTS).
FL 380 0300–0700
0100–0800Westbound (ODL, on and to the
North of the North datum line).
Westbound.Eastbound (subject to westbounds).Eastbound (OTS and ODL).
FL 370 1901–10291030 –1129
1130 –1900Eastbound.Eastbound (avoiding OTS).
Westbound OTS (subject to eastbounds).
Eastbound (avoiding OTS).
Westbound (OTS).
FL 360 0801–2229
0100–0800Westbound.
Westbound (avoiding OTS).
Eastbound OTS (subject to
westbounds).
Westbound (avoiding OTS).
Eastbound (OTS).
FL 350 1901–09591000–1129
1130–2000Eastbound.Eastbound (avoiding OTS).
Westbound OTS (subject to eastbounds).
Eastbound (avoiding OTS).
Westbound (OTS).
FL 340 0801–2229
0100–0800Westbound.Eastbound (subject to wesbounds).
Eastbound OTS (subject to
westbounds).
Eastbound (OTS and ODL).
FL 330 1901–09591000–1129
1130 –1900Eastbound.Westbound (subject to eastbounds).Westbound (OTS and ODL).
FL 320 0801–22292230–0059
0100–0800Westbound.
Westbound (avoiding OTS).
Eastbound OTS (subject to
westbounds).
Westbound (avoiding OTS).
Eastbound (OTS).
FL 310 24 hr Westbound (ODL).
FL 300 24 hr Westbound.
FL 290 24 hr Eastbound.1.20.3.4 Night Datum Line
During the eastbound OTS hours of validity, a static datum line,
known as the night datum line, is established with the following
coordinates:
45°N 030°W – 49°N 020°W – SOMAX – ATSUR
FL 340 and FL 380 are delegated to Gander for eastbound traffic
on and to the north of the night datum line.
FL 340 will not be used for Gander eastbound traffic to the south
of the night datum line.
FL 380 will not be used for Gander eastbound traffic to the south
of either the night datum line or the eastbound OTS, whichever
is further south.
Figure 1.3—Night Datum Line
1.20.3.5 North Datum Line
Between 0300 and 0700 UTC, a static datum line, known as the north datum line, is established with the following coordinates:
URTAK – 60°N 050°W – 62°N 040°W – 63°N 030°WOn and to the north of the north datum line, FL 380 is delegated
to Reykjavik for use by westbound traffic.
In the event of a high volume of north random flights or OTS
tracks, the north datum line may be suspended to accommodate
the anticipated eastbound traffic.
TC AIM March 20, 2025NATFigure 1.4—North Datum Line
1.20.4 North Atlantic (NAT) Reduced Vertical
Separation Minimum (RVSM) Air craft
Approvals
Operators of Canadian-registered aircraft intending to fly in
HLA airspace will be required to show that they meet all of the
applicable standards (refer to AIP ENR 7.2.3.3 Minimum
requirements for operations within the NAT HLA). Further
information on the measures necessary to gain approval may
be obtained from the following:
Airworthiness Approvals
RVSM Maintenance Programs
Director, Standards (AART)
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: . .................................................................. 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-952-3298
Commercial Flight Standards (AARTF)
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: ................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ...................................................................... 613-990-6215
RVSM Maintenance Programs
Director, Standards (AART)
Transport Canada Civil Aviation
330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: ................................................................... 1-800-305-2059
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-952-32981.20.5 Central Monitoring Agency (CMA)
The Regional Monitoring Agency for the NAT is the CMA located
in Prestwick, UK, and it may be contacted at the following address:
North Atlantic Central Monitoring Agency
c/o National Air Traffic Services
Room G41
Scottish & Oceanic Area Control Centre Sherwood Road
Prestwick, Ayrshire KA9 2NR
United Kingdom
Tel.:
.................................................................. +44 1292 692412
Strumble HMU status
(recorded message) ...................................... +44 1292 692760
Fax: ................................................................. +44 1292 692754
E-mail: ....................................................... natcma@nats.co.uk
Information on the responsibilities of the CMA and the procedures
applicable to it are contained in ICAO NAT Doc 001— NAT
SPG Handbook, available at the following address: <www.icao.
int/EURNAT/Pages/EUR-and-NAT-Document.aspx >.
1.20.6 Data Link Mandate (DLM) Airspace
1.20.6.1 General Information
The objectives of the NAT Data Link Mandate are to enhance
communication, surveillance, and ATC intervention capabilities
in the NAT region. ADS-C provides conformance monitoring
of aircraft adherence to cleared routes and flight levels,
significantly enhancing safety. ADS-C also facilitates SAR
operations, including the capability to locate the site of an accident
in oceanic airspace. CPDLC substantially improves air-ground
communications capability, and therefore, controller intervention
capability.
1.20.6.2 Data Link Mandate (DLM) Flight Levels
DLM airspace encompasses FL 290 to FL 410, inclusive, throughout
the NAT region.
1.20.6.3 Flights Permitted to Operate Within NAT DLM
Airspace
The following flights are permitted in NAT DLM airspace:
(a) Flights equipped with and prepared to operate FANS 1/A
(or equivalent) CPDLC and ADS-C data link systems (see ICAO Doc 7030 3.3.2 and 5.4.2);
(i) The appropriate equipage to be indicated in Item 10 of the ICAO flight plan is:
(A) D1; and
(B) One of the following: J5, or J7.
(b) Non-equipped flights that file STS/FFR, HOSP, HUM,
MEDEVAC, SAR, or STATE in item 18 of the flight plan.
NOTE : Such flights may not receive an ATC clearance that
matches flight-planned requests, depending on tactical situations.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
NATFigure 1.5—ADS-B Required Airspace
1.20.6.4 Operational Policies
Non-equipped aircraft may request to climb or descend through
NAT DLM airspace. Such requests will be considered on a
tactical basis.
Altitude reservation requests will be considered on a case-by-
case basis irrespective of the equipage status of the requesting
aircraft.
1.20.6.5 Equipment Failure of Either ADS-C or CPLDC
Systems
(a) Prior to departure:
(i) Resubmit the flight plan to remain clear of NAT DLM
airspace.
(b) After departure but prior to entering DLM airspace:
(i) Notify ATC prior to entering DLM airspace.
(ii) Requests to operate in DLM airspace will be
considered on a tactical basis.
(c) After entering NAT DLM airspace:
(i) Notify ATC immediately.
(ii) Tactical consideration will be given to allow the
flight to continue in NAT DLM airspace. Flights
may be required to exit NAT DLM airspace if this
is warranted due to traffic.
1.20.7 Height Monitoring
For the NAT, the use of ADS-B height monitoring data is
the sole source of data for the NAT CMA height monitoring
activities. Operators can refer to the NAT CMA Web site to
obtain more information related to the ongoing ADS-B height monitoring: < https://natcma.com/height-monitoring-2/ >.
1.20.7.1 In-flight Procedures
Prior to an overflight of the Strumble HMU, pilots are requested
to transmit “for HMU flight” to London Control on initial
contact and, if they are not RVSM approved, a request for a level
between FL2 90 and FL 410 (inclusive) should be made. The
controller will endeavour to allow the aircraft to route through
the HMU coverage area in straight and level flight, if operational
requirements so permit.1.20.7.2 Post-flight Procedures
ATC is not aware of whether an aircraft has been successfully
monitored by the HMU. Operators wishing to ascertain this
information may send a fax to the NAT CMA or complete and
submit the HMU request form, which is available at < http://
natcma.com/height-monitoring-2/strumble-hmu/ >. Please note
that operators are encouraged to use the NAT CMA Web site.
Operator queries for specific overflights may be made to the
NAT CMA. Such queries should include the Mode S or A codes and approximate time of overflight.
1.21 STRATEGIC LATERAL OFFSET
PROCEDURE (SLOP)
The strategic lateral offset procedure (SLOP) is now a standard
operating procedure (SOP) throughout the North Atlantic (NAT)
region. This procedure mitigates collision risk and wake
turbulence encounters. Pilots conducting oceanic flights within
the NAT region with automatic offset programming capability
are recommended to fly lateral offsets up to 2 NM right of
centreline.
The introduction of very accurate aircraft navigation systems,
along with sophisticated flight management systems (FMS), has
drastically reduced the number of risk-bearing lateral
navigation (LNAV) errors reported in NAT airspace.
Paradoxically, the capability of aircraft to navigate to such a
high level of accuracy has led to a situation in which aircraft on
the same track, but at different levels, are increasingly likely to
be in lateral overlap. This results in an increased risk of collision
if an aircraft departs from its cleared level for any reason.
SLOP reduces risk by distributing aircraft laterally. It is applicable
within the New York oceanic, Gander oceanic, Shanwick oceanic,
Santa Maria oceanic, Nuuk, and Reykjavik flight information
regions (FIRs), and within the Bodø oceanic FIR when flights are conducted more than 185 km (100 NM) seaward from the shoreline.
SLOP conforms to direction in the International Civil Aviation
Organization’s (ICAO) Procedures for Air Navigation Services–
Air Traffic Management (Doc 4444) and is subject to the following
guidelines:
(a) Aircraft without automatic offset programming capability must fly the route centreline.
(b) Operators capable of programming automatic offsets may
fly the centreline or an offset up to a maximum of 2 NM
right of centreline.
(c) Offsets to the left of centreline are not permitted.
(d) An aircraft overtaking another aircraft should offset within
the confines of this procedure, if capable, so as to minimize
the amount of wake turbulence for the aircraft being
overtaken. The pilot should take into account wind, estimated
wake vortex drift, and time to descend. (Nominal descent rates for wakes are 300-600 ft/min.)
(e) Pilots should use whatever means are available (e.g. traffic
alert and collision avoidance system [TCAS], communications,
TC AIM March 20, 2025NATvisual acquisition) to determine the best flight path to fly.
Pilots may contact other aircraft on frequency 123.45 MHz,
as necessary, to coordinate the best wake turbulence offset
option.
(f) Pilots may apply an offset outbound after the oceanic entry point and must return to the centreline before the oceanic exit point. Position reports transmitted via voice should be
based on the waypoints of the current air traffic control (ATC)
clearance and not on the offset positions.
(g) There is no ATC clearance required for this procedure, and it is not necessary that ATC be advised.
2.0 INTERNATIONAL AIR-GROUND SERVICE
Gander international flight service station (IFSS) is the only
Canadian aeronautical station that provides international
aeronautical telecommunication services.
2.1 HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) AEROMOBILE
OPERATIONS IN THE NORTH
ATLANTIC (NAT)
All North Atlantic (NAT) high frequencies (HF) are organized
into groups known as families. The families are identified as
NAT family A, B, C, D, E and F.
For information related to the service provided by Gander international flight service station
(IFSS), refer to
AIP GEN section 3.4 Communication Services under 3.4.3 Types
of Service : HF. For further details regarding HF procedures in the
NAT Region, refer to the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) NAT Doc 003, High Frequency Management
Guidance Material for the North Atlantic Region , Appendix B-2.
For information specific to Gander procedures, you can refer to
AIP ENR section 7.5.1, and for HF operations in the Anchorage
Arctic, refer to AIP ENR section 7.5.2.
2.2 AVAILABILITY OF SINGLE
SIDEBAND (SSB)
All international high frequency (HF) equipment is operated
on single sideband (SSB) J3E emission. In all cases, the upper
sideband (USB) is employed.
2.3 SELECTIVE CALLING
SYSTEM (SELCAL)
The selective calling system (SELCAL) is installed on all
international frequencies at Gander Radio. SELCAL provides
an automatic and selective method of calling any aircraft. Voice
calling is replaced by the transmission of code tones to the aircraft
over the international radiotelephone channels. A single selective
call consists of a combination of four pre-selected audio tones
requiring approximately two seconds of transmission time. The
tones are generated in the ground station coder and are received
by a decoder connected to the audio output of the airborne
receiver. Receipt of the assigned tone code (SELCAL code)
activates a light or chime signal in the cockpit of the aircraft.It is the responsibility of the flight crew to ensure that Gander Radio is informed of the SELCAL code available based on the
airborne equipment, if they intend to communicate with Gander
Radio. This may be done in connection with the off-ground
report or when they are transferring in flight from one network to another.
SELCAL standards and procedures are found in the International
Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) Annex 10, Volume II.
The worldwide administration of SELCAL code assignments
has been delegated to Aviation Spectrum Resources, Inc.
SELCAL code application forms may be obtained at:
<www.asri.aero/selcal >.
2.4 USE OF GENERAL PURPOSE
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF)
OR SATELLITE VOICE
COMMUNICATIONS (SATVOICE)
IN LIEU OF INTERNATIONAL HIGH
FREQUENCY (HF) AIR-GROUND
FREQUENCIES
When operating in Canada or in the Gander oceanic
control area (OCA), SATVOICE may be used for any
communication service. SATVOICE is intended to enhance
available communication for flight crews and controllers alike
and may be used for any communication service.
While it is considered a form of direct controller–pilot
communication (DCPC), VHF voice, HF and controller–pilot
data link communications (CPDLC) remain the primary means
of communication.
General purpose VHF communications facilities have been
provided by Canada, Denmark and Iceland in order to supplement
HF radio coverage in the NAT region. General purpose VHF
coverage is shown on the following charts. It should be noted
that:
(a) charts depict approximate coverage areas only;
(b) coverage at lower altitudes will be less than depicted; and
(c) the minimum altitude for continuous VHF coverage across
the NAT is considered to be 30 000 ft (see the following
charts).
Figure 2.1—NAT VHF Coverage at 10 000 ft
É
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
NATFigure 2.2—NAT VHF Coverage at 20 000 ft
É
Figure 2.3—NAT VHF Coverage at 30 000 ft
É
Minimum altitude for continuous VHF
coverage across the North Atlantic is considered to be 30 000 feet.
2.5 ARINC 424 IDENTIFIERS FOR
HALFDEGREE WAYPOINTS IN THE GANDER OCEANIC CONTROL
AREA (OCA)
Refer to AIP ENR section 7 for procedures in the Gander OCA.
TC AIM March 20, 2025SARSAR—SEARCH AND
RESCUE
1.0 RESPONSIBLE AUTHORITY
1.1 GENERAL
Search and rescue (SAR) service in Canada was established in
accordance with the provisions of the International Civil Aviation
Organization’s (ICAO) Annex 12. The Canadian Forces are
responsible for conducting SAR operations for aeronautical
incidents in Canada.
Aeronautical SAR service is provided through three joint rescue
coordination centres (JRCC), located at Victoria, B.C.,
Trenton, Ont., and Halifax, N.S. The JRCCs control all rescue
units in their region through an extensive civil/military
communications network. The addresses of the JRCCs are:
VICTORIA
(serving British Columbia and the Yukon)Joint Rescue Coordination Centre Victoria
P.O. Box 17000 Station Forces
Victoria BC V9A 7N2Tel. (toll-free within region):
......................... 1-800-567-5111
Tel.: ....................................................................... 250-413-8933
Tel. (toll-free cellular): ....................................... #SAR or #727
TRENTON
(serving Alberta, Manitoba, Northwest Territories,
western Nunavut, Ontario, western Quebec, Saskatchewan)
Joint Rescue Coordination Centre Trenton
P.O. Box 1000 Station Forces
Astra ON K0K 3W1Tel. (toll-free):
.................................................. 1-800-267-7270
Tel.: ........................................................................ 613-965-3870
HALIFAX(serving New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador,
Nova Scotia, eastern Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, eastern Quebec)
Joint Rescue Coordination Centre Halifax
P.O. Box 99000 Station Forces
Halifax NS B3K 5X5 Tel. (toll-free):
.................................................. 1-800-565-1582
Tel.: ....................................................................... 902-427-8200
NOTE :
All JRCCs will accept collect telephone calls dealing with missing
or overdue aircraft. 1.2 TYPES OF SERVICE AVAILABLE
Aeronautical search and rescue (SAR) service is available
continuously throughout Canada and the Canadian territorial
coastal water areas of the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic oceans.
Canadian Forces SAR units are equipped with helicopters and
fixed-wing aircraft to conduct searches and provide rescue
services, including rescue specialists (search and rescue
technicians) who are capable of parachuting into remote locations.
These rescue personnel can render initial medical aid and provide
emergency supplies and survival support. The Civil Air Search
and Rescue Association (CASARA), a nationwide volunteer
organization, assists the Canadian Forces with aeronautical
SAR cases.
Workload permitting, joint rescue coordination centre (JRCC)
personnel are prepared to present briefings on SAR services and
techniques to the public and aviation groups on request. Visits
to JRCCs are encouraged, as long as prior notice is provided.
Other major SAR providers in Canada include:
(a) The Canadian Coast Guard, which has primary responsibility
for marine incidents along Canada’s ocean coasts, in all
waterways in the Arctic, and in the waters of the Great Lakes
St. Lawrence Seaway System;
(b) Provincial and territorial governments, which, through
their police service, respond to SAR incidents involving
persons on land, or on inland waterways;
(c) Parks Canada’s warden service, which is responsible for
ground or inland water SAR within National Parks;
(d) Trained volunteers across Canada who also play a key role
in providing SAR services to the public.
As mutual aid is one of the strengths of Canada’s SAR system, the JRCCs may call upon any of these other providers, as well as the private sector, to assist with an aeronautical SAR case.
1.3 SEARCH AND RESCUE (SAR)
AGREEMENTS
Two bilateral agreements relating to aeronautical search and
rescue (SAR) exist between Canada and the United States. The first permits public aircraft of either country that are engaged
in aeronautical SAR operations to enter or leave the other country
without being subject to normal immigration or customs
formalities. The second agreement permits vessels and wrecking
appliances of either country to render aid and assistance on
specified border waters and on the shores and in the waters of the other country along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts within
a distance of 30 NM from the international boundary on
those coasts.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
SARIn situations not covered by the agreements above, requests from
the United States for aircraft of their own registry to participate
in a SAR operation within Canada may be addressed to the
nearest joint rescue coordination centre (JRCC). The JRCC would
reply and issue appropriate instructions.
Figure 1.1—Search and Rescue Regions (SRR)
2.0 FLIGHT PLANNING
2.1 GENERAL
In addition to signals from emergency locator transmitters (ELTs),
the flight plan and flight itinerary are the primary sources of
information for search and rescue (SAR) operations. Therefore,
proper flight planning procedures must be followed and the
filed routes adhered to in order to ensure early detection and
rescue.
In Canada, the area covered in a visual search will typically
extend to a maximum of 15 NM on either side of the flight-
planned route, starting from the aircraft’s last known position
and extending to its destination. In mountainous regions, search
areas will be defined to best suit the terrain and the planned
route of flight. It is therefore critical to the safety of pilots that
they maintain their route as planned, and advise air traffic
service (ATS) of any en route change or deviation as soon as
practicable.
Refer to RAC 3.0 for details relating to filing and closing various
plans or itineraries.
2.2 REQUEST FOR SEARCH AND
RESCUE (SAR) ASSISTANCE
As soon as information is received that an aircraft is overdue,
operators or owners should immediately alert the nearest joint
rescue coordination centre (JRCC) or any air traffic
service (ATS) unit, giving all known details. The alerting call
should not be delayed until after a small-scale private search has
taken place. Such a delay could deprive those in need of urgent
assistance at a time when it is most needed. 2.3 MISSING AIRCRAFT NOTICE (MANOT)
When an aircraft is reported missing, the appropriate joint rescue
coordination centre (JRCC) will issue a missing aircraft
notice (MANOT) to the air traffic service (ATS) units that are providing services in or near the search area. MANOTs will be communicated to pilots planning to overfly the search area by notices posted on flight information boards, orally during the filing of flight plans, or by radiocommunication.
Pilots receiving MANOTs are requested to maintain a thorough
visual lookout and, insofar as it is practicable, a radio watch on
121.5 MHz when operating in the vicinity of the track the missing
aircraft had planned to follow.
Once a MANOT has been issued, a major search effort will be
initiated. Such an operation will be published in a NOTAM, and
will involve a large number of military and civilian aircraft flying
in a relatively confined area. Aircraft that are not participating
in the search will be requested to keep a sharp lookout for other
traffic, report any probable crash sightings to a flight information
centre (FIC) or JRCC, and remain clear of active search areas, if possible.
On termination of the search, another MANOT will be issued
and designated as final.
TC AIM March 20, 2025SARTable 2.1—Initial MANOT Message Required Information
Required Information Example
A. MANOT number
Type of MANOT– SAR operation
– JRCC responsible A. MANOT SIX SAR-FSOX Initial-JRCC Victoria
B. Type of Aircraft– Registration
– Colour B. Cessna 180 C-FSOX red with white wings and black lettering
C. Number of crew and/or passengers C. Pilot, plus 3
D. Route D. Fort St. John to Abbotsford
E.
Departure date/time (local) E. 1 May—10:00 PST
F. Last known position (LKP) date/time (local) F. Prince George 1 May—11:31 PST
G. Fuel exhaust time G. Fuel exhaust time 1 May—15:00 PST
H. Frequency of ELT H. 121.5 MHz and 243 MHz
2.4 AIDING PERSONS IN DISTRESS
When a pilot observes an aircraft, ship or vessel in distress, the
pilot shall, if possible:
(a) keep the craft in sight until his presence is no longer
necessary;
(b) report the following information to the joint rescue
coordination centre (JRCC) or air traffic service (ATS) unit:
(i) time of observation,
(ii) position of craft,
(iii) general description of scene, and
(iv) apparent physical condition of survivor(s).
NOTE :
See SAR 4.8 concerning the obligations of an aircraft to render assistance to ships or vessels in distress.
Pilots should be familiar with the distress signal that may be
used by small craft. It consists of a rectangular, fluorescent
orange-red cloth panel on which a black square and disc
are displayed. Figure 2.1—Distress Signal Panel
Figure 2.2—Procedures for Signaling Vessels
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
SAR3.0 EMERGENCY LOCATOR
TRANSMITTER (ELT)
3.1 GENERAL
Emergency locator transmitters (ELTs) are required for most
general aviation aircraft (see CAR 605.38). They operate on a
primary frequency of 121.5, 243, or 406 MHz, and help search
crews locate downed aircraft to rescue survivors.
Pilots are strongly encouraged to switch from old analog
121.5 MHz ELTs to the newer 406 MHz digital ELTs since position
information from a 406 MHz ELT is calculated and relayed to
the appropriate joint rescue coordination centre (JRCC) for
action. The 406 MHz beacon is associated with a unique user; therefore, identification is rapid and resolution of a false alarm may only require a few phone calls. In addition, activation of a
406 MHz ELT is detected by satellites, whereas, a 121.5 MHz
signal relies on the aircraft being within the range of an air
traffic service (ATS) facility or on another aircraft passing by at
high altitude. Search and rescue (SAR) response could be delayed
for several hours when a 121.5 MHz ELT is activated. Survivability
decreases with time and, on numerous occasions, lives have been
saved as a result of the early detection possible with a 406 MHz
beacon. The 121.5 MHz signal common to all ELTs also produces
a distinctive siren-like tone that can be heard on a radio receiver
tuned to this frequency. This signal helps incoming SAR responders pinpoint an aircraft’s position. During routine
operations, hearing a 121.5 MHz signal may also alert pilots to the inadvertent activation of their ELT. Therefore, pilots should
briefly monitor the frequency after each flight to ensure their
ELT is not emitting a signal.
Properly maintained ELTs with serviceable batteries should
provide continuous operation for a minimum of 24 hr at a wide range of temperatures. Batteries that remain in service beyond
their recommended life may not provide sufficient power to
produce a usable signal. ELTs that contain outdated batteries
are not considered to be serviceable.
All ELTs currently operating on 406 MHz can be detected by
COSPAS-SARSAT satellites. It is vital to note that effective
February 1, 2009, COSPAS-SARSAT satellites will only detect
406 MHz ELT signals. A 406 MHz ELT is now required to ensure
that the COSPAS-SARSAT system is automatically notified in the event of an aircraft crash. However, 121.5 MHz signals are still used for short-range location during SAR operations.
3.2 TYPES OF EMERGENCY LOCATOR
TRANSMITTER (ELT)
There are five types of emergency locator transmitter (ELT):
(a) TYPE A or AD (automati c ejectable or automatically
deployable) —This type automatically ejects from the aircraft
and is set in operation by inertia sensors when the aircraft
is subjected to a crash deceleration force acting through the
aircraft’s flight axis. This type is expensive and is seldom
used in general aviation. (b) TYPE F or AF (fixed [no t ejectable] or automatic fixed) —
This type is automatically set in operation by an inertia
switch when the aircraft is subjected to crash deceleration
forces acting in the aircraft’s flight axis. The transmitter
can be manually activated or deactivated, and in some cases,
may be remotely controlled from the cockpit. Provision may
also be made for recharging the batteries from the aircraft’s
electrical supply. An additional antenna may be provided
for portable use of the ELT. Most general aviation aircraft
use this ELT type, which must have the function switch
placed to the “ARM” position for the unit to function
automatically in a crash.
(c) TYPE AP (automatic portable) —This type is similar to
Type F or AF, except that the antenna is integral to the unit for portable operation.
(d) TYPE P (personal) —This type has no fixed mounting and
does not transmit automatically. A manual switch is used to start or stop the transmitter.
(e) TYPE W or S (water-act ivated or survival) —This ty pe
transmits automatically when immersed in water. It is
waterproof, floats, and operates on the surface of the water. It has no fixed mounting. It should be tethered to survivors or life rafts.
3.3 INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE
REQUIREMENTS
Installation of an emergency locator transmitter (ELT), as required
by CAR 605.38, must comply with Chapter 551 of the
Airworthiness Manual .
For maintenance, inspection, and test procedures, refer to
CAR 605 and CAR 571.
3.4 EMERGENCY LOCATOR
TRANSMITTER (ELT) OPERATING
INSTRUCTIONS (NORMAL USE)
Pre-flight
(Where practicable):
(a) inspect the emergency locator transmitter (ELT) to ensure
that it is secure, free of external corrosion, and that antenna
connections are secure;
(b) ensure that the ELT function switch is in the “ARM” position;
(c) ensure that ELT batteries have not reached their expiry date;
and
(d) listen to 121.5 MHz to ensure the ELT is not transmitting.
In-flight Monitor 121.5 MHz when practicable. If an ELT signal is heard,
notify the nearest ATS unit of:
(a) position, altitude and time when signal was first heard;
(b) ELT signal strength;
(c) position, altitude and time when contact was lost; and
(d) whether the ELT signal ceased suddenly or faded.
TC AIM March 20, 2025SARPilots should not attempt a search and rescue (SAR) operation.
If unable to contact anyone, pilots should continue attempts to gain radio contact with an air traffic service (ATS) unit, or land at the nearest suitable aerodrome where a telephone is located.
NOTE :
If the signal remains constant, it may be your ELT.
Post-flight
Listen to 121.5 MHz. If an ELT is detected, and your ELT has
not been switched to “OFF”, deactivate it. For those ELT models
that do not have an “OFF” switch, disconnect and re-set the unit
per the manufacturer’s instructions. Notify the nearest ATS unit
or joint rescue coordination centre (JRCC) of the time the signal
was first heard, the actions you have taken and whether the
signal has ceased or is on-going. If you still hear an ELT on
121.5 MHz after you have deactivated your ELT, it may not be
yours. Notify the nearest ATS unit or JRCC.
3.5 EMERGENCY LOCATOR
TRANSMITTER (ELT) OPERATING
INSTRUCTIONS (EMERGENCY USE)
Emergency locator transmitters (ELTs) in general aviation aircraft
contain a crash activation sensor, or G-switch, which is designed
to detect the deceleration characteristics of a crash and
automatically activate the transmitter. However, it is always
safest to place the ELT function switch to “ON” as soon as possible
after the crash, if practicable.
Geostationary satellites will detect an unobstructed 406 MHz
ELT within minutes of activation; there are no satellite-based
means of detecting a 121.5 MHz signal. In addition to geostationary
satellites, polar orbiting low altitude satellites continually overfly
Canada and will also detect a 406 MHz beacon within 90 min of activation, producing a position report.
Some military and commercial aircraft also monitor 121.5 or
243 MHz and will notify air traffic service (ATS) or search and rescue (SAR) agencies of any ELT transmissions they hear.
In case of emergency, do not delay ELT activation until flight-
planned times expire, as such delays will only delay rescue. Do
not cycle the ELT through “OFF” and “ON” positions to preserve
battery life, as irregular operation reduces localization accuracy
and will hamper homing efforts. Once your ELT has been switched
to “ON”, do not switch it to “OFF” until you have been positively
located, and the SAR forces have directed you to turn it off.
If you have landed to wait out bad weather, or for some other
non-emergency reason, and no emergency exists, do not activate
your ELT. However, your aircraft will be reported overdue, and a search will begin if the delay will extend beyond:
(a) 1 hr past the estimated time of arrival (ETA) filed on a flight
plan; or
(b) the SAR time specified, 24 hr after the duration of the flight,
or the ETA specified on a flight itinerary. To avoid an unnecessary search, notify the nearest ATS unit of your changed flight plan or itinerary. If you cannot contact an
ATS unit, attempt to contact another aircraft on one of the
following frequencies in order to have that aircraft relay the
information to ATS:
(a) 126.7 MHz;
(b) local visual flight rules (VFR) common frequency;
(c) local area control centre (ACC) instrument flight rules (IFR)
frequency listed in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS);
(d) 121.5 MHz; or
(e) high frequency (HF) 5 680 kHz, if so equipped.
If you cannot contact anyone, a search will begin at the times
mentioned above. At the appropriate time, switch your ELT to
“ON”, and leave it on until search crews locate you. Once located,
use your aircraft radio on 121.5 MHz (turn the ELT off if there
is interference) to advise the SAR crew of your condition and
intentions.
ELTs and the COSPAS-SARSAT system work together to speed
rescue. The ELT “calls for help”; COSPAS-SARSAT hears that
call and promptly notifies SAR authorities, who then dispatch
help.
NOTE :
Delays in activating your ELT will delay your rescue.
3.6 MAXIMIZING THE SIGNAL
If the emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is a portable model
with its own auxiliary antenna, and can be safely removed from
the aircraft, it should be placed as high as possible on a level
surface to reduce obstructions between it and the horizon. Raising
an ELT from ground level to 2.44 m (8 ft) may increase the range
by 20 to 40 percent. The antenna should be vertical to ensure
optimum radiation of the signal. Placing the transmitter on a
piece of metal, or even the wing of the aircraft, if it is level, will provide the reflectivity to extend transmission range. Holding
the transmitter close to the body in cold weather will not
significantly increase battery power output. In addition, as the
body will absorb most of the signal energy, such action could
reduce the effective range of the transmission.
If the ELT is permanently mounted in the aircraft, ensure that
it has not been damaged and is still connected to the antenna. If it is safe to do so (i.e. no spilled fuel or fuel vapours), confirm
the ELT’s operation by selecting 121.5 MHz on the aircraft radio
and listening for the audible siren-like tone.
NOTE :
Since aircraft are easier to see than people are, the search will
be conducted to locate the aircraft first. If the aircraft lands in
an uninhabited area, stay with the aircraft and the ELT. If possible,
have smoke, flares or signal fires ready to attract the attention
of search crews who are homing to the ELT. Smoke, flares and signal fires should be sited with due regard for any spilled fuel resulting from the crash.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
SAR3.7 ACCIDENTAL EMERGENCY LOCATOR
TRANSMITTER (ELT) TRANSMISSIONS
To forestall unnecessary search and rescue (UNSAR) missions,
all accidental emergency locator transmitter (ELT) activations shall be reported to the nearest air traffic service (ATS) unit, or the nearest joint rescue coordination centre (JRCC), giving the
location of the transmitter, and the time and duration of the
accidental transmission and the ELT shall be switched off. ELT alarms trigger considerable activity within ATS and SAR units.
Although some accidental ELT transmissions can be resolved
without launching SAR or Civil Air Search and Rescue
Association (CASARA) aircraft, such as a properly-registered
406 MHz beacon, the JRCCs will adopt the safe course. Promptly
notifying ATS or a JRCC of an accidental ELT transmission may
prevent the unnecessary launch of a search aircraft. If promptly
reported, there is no charge or penalty associated with the
accidental triggering of an ELT.
3.8 TESTING PROCEDURES
When originally installed in an aircraft, and when parts of the
emergency locator transmitter (ELT) system are moved or
changed, an ELT will be tested in accordance with CAR 571.
Every few months, or as recommended by the manufacturer,
pilots should test their ELT. Testing procedures for ELTs will
vary depending upon the type.
3.8.1 406 MHz Emergency Locator
Transmitters (ELTs)
Since the digital emergency signals from 406 MHz ELTs are
detected almost immediately by COSPAS-SARSAT satellites,
the transmitters should never be activated in their operational mode except in an emergency.
406 MHz ELTs should only be tested in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. Most 406 MHz ELTs are equipped
with an integral self-test function. The manufacturer’s instructions
describe how to carry out this self-test and interpret its results. The instructions should be followed closely to avoid false alerts.
Activation of the self-test will transmit a 406-MHz, digitally-
altered test signal to the Canadian Beacon Registry. If the ELT
is appropriately registered, the test signal will cause an e-mail
to be sent to the address on file. This will confirm both a successful
self-test as well as the status of the registration. The self-test
function may also transmit a 121.5 MHz test signal. In this case,
ensure that the test is conducted at the top of the hour (UTC)
within the first five minutes.
3.8.2 121.5/243 MHz Emergency Locator
Transmitters (ELTs)
Any testing of an ELT that operates only on 121.5 MHz or 243
MHz shall only be conducted during the first 5 min of any
UTC hour, and restricted in duration to not more than 5 s.
Such tests can be done between two stations separated by at least
half a kilometre, or by a single aircraft, using its own radio
receiver.(a) Two-station 121.5/243 MHz ELT test:
(i) position the aircraft about one-half kilometre from
the tower, FSS or other aircraft that will monitor
121.5 MHz. Ensure the listening station is clearly
visible from the aircraft, as ELT transmissions are
line-of-sight. Intervening obstacles, such as hills,
buildings, or other aircraft, may prevent the listening
station from detecting the ELT transmission.
(ii) using the aircraft radio or other pre-arranged signals,
establish contact with the listening station. When
the listening station confirms that it is ready, switch the 121.5/243 MHz ELT function to “ON”. After no
more than 5 s, turn the ELT function switch to “OFF”.
The listening station should confirm that the ELT
was heard.
(iii) reset the ELT function switch to “ARM”.
(iv) tune the aircraft radios to 121.5 MHz to confirm
that the ELT stopped transmitting.
(v) if the listening station did not hear the ELT, investigate
further before flying the aircraft.
When conducting the two-station test at a busy airport, take
due regard of tower or FSS workload. Keep the voice radio
transmissions to a minimum. If the “listening” station does not hear the ELT transmission, it may be necessary to move
the aircraft to another location on the airfield to conduct
the test.
It will often be impractical to coordinate a 121.5/243 MHz ELT
test with a tower, FSS, or other aircraft. In such circumstances, pilots can use the following procedures to test their ELTs. Such
tests are to be conducted in the first 5 min of any UTC hour,
and test transmissions must be limited to 5 s or less.
(b) Single-station ELT test:
(i) tune the aircraft radio receiver to 121.5 MHz.
(ii) switch the ELT to “ON” just long enough to hear the
tone, and immediately return the function switch
to “A R M”.
NOTE S:
1. It is best to have another person in the cockpit to ensure the minimum “on-air” test period.
2. Do not exceed the 5 s “on-air” time.
(a) recheck 121.5 MHz on the ai rcraft receiver to ensure
that the ELT stopped transmitting.
When conducting a single-aircraft test, it is possible that the
aircraft radios will hear the ELT output, even though the ELT
power transistor is defective, and will not be detected by a receiver
half a kilometre away. However, this test will uncover a totally unserviceable ELT, and is better than no test.
NOTE :
While all 406 MHz ELTs also transmit a 121.5 MHz homing
signal, testing of 406 MHz ELTs must follow the manufacturer’s
instructions provided with the unit.
TC AIM March 20, 2025SAR3.9 SCHEDULE OF REQUIREMENTS
The following schedule outlines the requirement to carry an
emergency locator transmitter (ELT). Gliders, balloons, airships,
ultralight aeroplanes and gyroplanes are exempt, as are aircraft
operated by the holder of a flight training unit operating certificate
that are engaged in flight training, and operated within 25 NM
of the departure aerodrome. Additional exemptions are contained
in CAR 605.38.
Table 3.1—ELT Requirements
Column I Column II Column III
Aircraft Area of Operation Minimum
Equipment
1. All aircraft except
those exempted. Over land One ELT of
type AD, AF, AP, A, or F.
Large multi -engine
turbo -jet aeroplanes
engaged in an air transport service carrying passengers. Over water at a distance from land that requires the carriage of life raft pursuant to
CAR 602.63. Two ELTs of type W or S, or one of each.
3. All aircraft that require an ELT other than those set out in
item 2. Over water at a distance from land that requires the carriage of life raft pursuant to
CAR 602.63. One ELT of type W or S.
If an ELT becomes unserviceable, the aircraft may be operated
according to the operator’s approved minimum equipment
list (MEL). Where no MEL has been approved, the aircraft may
be operated for up to 30 days, provided:
(a) the ELT is removed at the first aerodrome at which repairs or removal can be accomplished;
(b) the ELT is promptly sent to a maintenance facility;
(c) and a placard is displayed in the cockpit stating that the
ELT has been removed, and the date of removal (see
CAR 605.39).
Despite these exemptions, all pilots are reminded of the rugged, inhospitable terrain that covers much of Canada.
CAUT ION :
Although some flights without ELTs may be legal, they are not
advisable.
ELTs are designed to speed rescue to survivable crashes, and
they should function automatically. However, if you are aware
of their capabilities and limitations, you can improve the
performance of your ELT, and thus assist search and rescue (SAR).4.0 AIRCRAFT EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE
4.1 DECLARING AN EMERGENCY
An emergency condition is classified in accordance with the
degree of danger or hazard being experienced, as follows:
(a) Distress —A condition of being threatened by serious and/
or imminent danger and requiring immediate assistance.
(b) Urgency —A condition concerning the safety of an aircraft
or other vehicle, or of some person on board or within sight,
which does not require immediate assistance.
The radiotelephone distress signal, MAYDAY, and the
radiotelephone urgency signal, PAN PAN, must be used at the
beginning of the first distress or urgency communication,
respectively, and, if considered necessary, at the beginning of
any subsequent communication.
4.2 ACTION BY THE PILOT DURING
EMERGENCY CONDITIONS
Pilots should:
(a) precede the distress or urgency message by the appropriate radiotelephone signal, preferably spoken 3 times;
(b) transmit on the air-ground frequency in use at the time;
(c) include in the distress or urgency message as many as possible
of the following elements:
(i) the name of the station addressed (time and
circumstances permitting),
(ii) the identification of the aircraft,
(iii) the nature of the distress or urgency condition,
(iv) the intention of the person in command, and
(v) the present position, altitude or flight level, and heading.
NOTES :
1. The above procedures do not preclude the possibility of the following courses of action:
(a) the pilot making use of any available frequency, or of
broadcasting the message;
(b) the pilot using any means at his/her disposal to attract
attention and make known his/her conditions;
(c) any person taking any means at his/her disposal to assist
the emergency aircraft.
2. The station addressed will normally be that station
communicating with the aircraft.
3. International emergency frequencies are 121.5 and 243.0 MHz. In Canada, 126.7 MHz should, whenever
practicable, be continuously monitored in uncontrolled
airspace. When aircraft are equipped with dual very high
frequency (VHF) equipment, it is strongly recommended
that frequency 121.5 MHz be monitored at all times.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
SAR4. 121.5 MHz may also be used to establish communications
when the aircraft is not equipped with the published
frequencies or when equipment failure precludes the use of
normal channels. See COM 1.12 for information about
communicating with air traffic service (ATS) on 121.5 MHz.
4.3 TRANSPONDER ALERTING
If unable to establish communication immediately with an air
traffic control (ATC) unit, a pilot wishing to alert ATC to an
emergency situation should adjust the transponder to reply on
Mode A/3, Code 7700. Communication with ATC should be
established as soon as possible thereafter.
In the event of a communication failure, the transponder should
be adjusted to reply on Mode A/3, Code 7600, to alert ATC to
the situation. This action does not relieve the pilot of the
requirement to comply with CAR 602.137 .
In the event of unlawful interference, the transponder should
be adjusted to reply to Mode A/3, Code 7500, to alert ATC to
the situation (see RAC 1.9.8).
4.4 RADAR ALERTING MANOEUVRES
RAC 1.5.7 describes the radar assistance that is available through
Canadian Forces facilities; however, when lost or in distress and
unable to make radio contact, a pilot should attempt to alert all available radar systems as follows:
(a) activate the identification, friend or foe (IFF) system and
selective identification feature (SIF) to EMERGENCY;
(b) guard emergency frequencies;
(c) fly two triangular patterns as depicted, resume course and repeat at 5-min intervals.
Figure 4.1—Radar Alerting Manoeuvres
Since the greater the altitude of the aircraft, the better its chance
of being detected, low-flying aircraft should attempt to climb. Also, if flying in limited visibility or at night, landing lights and navigation lights should be turned on to assist the interceptor. Once radar contact is established, and if it is possible to do so,
a rescue aircraft will be dispatched to intercept. Upon successful
interception, the interceptor and distressed aircraft should attempt radio contact. If this is not possible, use the visual
interception signals (see SAR 4.7). If, in a particular case, it is
not possible for the Canadian Forces to send out an intercepting aircraft, flying the triangular pattern will serve to position the distressed aircraft and thus narrow any search area.
NOTE :
The opportunity for an aircraft to be detected by radar increases
with altitude.
Figure 4.2 shows the area of radar coverage in Canada provided
by both Department of National Defence (DND) and
NAV CANADA installations. Pilots should be aware that if they
are flying in an area outside of radar coverage, flying a triangular
pattern for alerting purposes would not be a valid manoeuvre.
Figure 4.2—Canadian Radar Coverage
Provided by NAV CANADA and DND
4.5 EMERGENCY RADIO FREQUENCY
CAPABILITY
Where an aircraft is required by the laws of Canada to install
two-way very high frequency (VHF) radiocommunication
equipment, no person shall operate that aircraft unless the radiocommunication equipment is capable of providing
communication on VHF aeronautical emergency frequency
121.5 MHz.
A person operating an aircraft within a sparsely settled area, or
a Canadian aircraft over water at a horizontal distance of more
than 50 NM from the nearest shoreline, should continuously
monitor the VHF aeronautical emergency frequency 121.5 MHz
unless:
(a) that person is carrying out communications on other VHF aeronautical frequencies; or
(b) aircraft electronic equipment limitations or essential cockpit
duties do not permit simultaneous monitoring of the two VHF aeronautical frequencies.
TC AIM March 20, 2025SAR4.6 INTERCEPTION PROCEDURES
(CANADIAN AVIATION
REGULATION (CAR) 602.144)
(1) No person shall give an interception signal or an instruction
to land except
(a) a peace officer, an officer of a police authority or an
officer of the Canadian Forces acting within the scope of their duties; or
(b) a person authorized to do so by the Minister pursuant
to subsection (2).
(2) The Minister may authorize a person to give an interception
signal or an instruction to land if such authorization is in
the public interest and is not likely to affect aviation safety.
(3) The pilot-in-command of an aircraft who receives an
instruction to land from a person referred to in subsection (1)
shall, subject to any direction received from an air traffic control unit, comply with the instruction.
(4) The pilot-in-command of an intercepting aircraft and the
pilot-in command of an intercepted aircraft shall comply
with the rules of interception set out in the Canada Flight
Supplement [and repeated in Schedules I and II]. SCHEDULE I
PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED IN THE EVENT
OF INTERCEPTION
An aircraft which is intercepted by another aircraft shall
immediately:
(a) follow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft,
interpreting and responding to visual signals [in accordance
with Schedule II];
(b) notify, if possible, the appropriate air traffic services unit;
(c) attempt to establish radio communication with the
intercepting aircraft or with the appropriate intercept control
unit by making a general call on aeronautical emergency
frequency 121.5 MHz and repeating this call on emergency
frequency 243.0 MHz, if practicable giving the identity and
position of the aircraft and the nature of the flight; and
(d) if equipped with a transponder, select Mode A Code 7700,
unless otherwise instructed by the appropriate air traffic
services unit.
If any instructions received by radio from any sources conflict with those given by the intercepting aircraft by visual or radio
signals, the intercepted aircraft shall request immediate
clarification while continuing to comply with the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
SARSeries Intercepting Aircraft Signal Meaning Intercepted Aircraft Response Meaning
1. DAY—Rocking wings from a position
in front and, normally, to the left of the intercepted aircraft, and after acknowledgement, a slow level turn, normally to the left, on to the desired heading. You have been intercepted. Follow me. AEROPLANES:
DAY—Rocking wings and following. Understood; will
comply.
NIGHT—Same and, in addition, flashing navigational lights at irregular intervals.
DAY or NIGHT—Flares dispensed in
immediate vicinity. NIGHT—Same and, in addition, flashing navigational lights at irregular intervals.
NOTES:
1. Meteorological conditions or terrain may require the intercepting aircraft to take up a position in front and to the right of the intercepted aircraft, and to make the subsequent turn to the right.HELICOPTERS: DAY or NIGHT—Rocking aircraft, flashing navigational lights at irregular intervals, and following.
2. If the intercepted aircraft is not able to keep pace with the intercepting aircraft, the latter is expected to fly a series of racetrack patterns and to rock its wings each time it passes the intercepted aircraft.NOTE :
Additional action by intercepted aircraft is prescribed in SAR 4.7, Schedule 1.
2. DAY or NIGHT—An abrupt breakaway manoeuvre from the intercepted aircraft, consisting of a climbing turn of 90 degrees or more, without crossing the line of flight of the intercepted aircraft. You may proceed. AEROPLANES:
DAY or NIGHT—Rocking wings.
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT—Rocking aircraft. Understood; will
comply.
3. DAY—Circling aerodrome, lowering landing gear, and overflying runway in direction of landing or, if the intercepted aircraft is a
helicopter, over flying the hel icopter landing
area.
NIGHT—Same, and in addition, showing
steady landing lights. Land at this aerodrome. AEROPLANES:
DAY—Lowering landing gear,
following the inter cepting airc raft,
and if, after overflying the runway,
landing is considered safe, proceeding to land.
NIGHT—Same, and in addition,
showing steady landing lights
(if carried).HELICOPTERS: DAY or NIGHT— Following the
intercepting aircraft and proceeding to land, showing a steady landing light (if carried). Understood; will comply. SCHEDULE II
SIGNALS FOR USE IN THE EVENT OF INTERCEPTION
Table 4.1(a)— Signals Initiated by Intercepting Aircraft and Response by Intercepted Aircraft
TC AIM March 20, 2025SARTable 4.1(b)—Signals Initiated by Intercepted Aircraft and Response by Intercepting Aircraft
Series Intercepted Aircraft Signal Meaning Intercepting Aircraft Response Meaning
4. AEROPLANES:
DAY—Raising landing gear while passing
over landing runway at a height exceeding
300 m (1 000 ft) but not exceeding 600 m
(2 000 ft) above the aerodrome level, and
continuing to circle the aerodrome.
NIGHT—Flashing landing lights while
passing over landing runway at a height
exceeding 300 m (1 000 ft) but not
exceeding 600 m (2 000 ft) above the
aerodrome level, and continuing to circle the aerodrome. If unable to flash landing lights, flash any other lights available. Aerodrome you have designated is inadequate. DAY or NIGHT—If it is desired that the intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear and uses the Series 1 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
If it is decided to release the
intercepted aircraft, the intercepting
aircraft uses the Series 2 signals
prescribed for intercepting aircraft. Understood, follow me.
Understood, you
may proceed.
5. AEROPLANES:
DAY or NIGHT—Regular switching on
and off of all available lights but in such a manner as to be distinct from flashing lights. Cannot comply. DAY or NIGHT—Use Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft. Understood.
6. AEROPLANES:
DAY or NIGHT—Irregular flashing of all
available lights.
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT—Irregular flashing of all available lights. In distress. DAY or NIGHT—Use Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft. Understood.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
SAR4.7 DOWNED AIRCRAFT PROCEDURES
4.7.1 Ground-to-Air Signals
Even if no ELT or distress signal has been received, a visual
search will commence at the time indicated in the flight plan or
flight itinerary. The search in Canada will typically extend up
to 15 NM on either side of the flight-planned route, starting
from the aircraft’s last known position and concluding just
beyond its destination. In mountainous regions, the search area will be defined to best suit the terrain and route of flight.
Some searches may last at least 24 hr before rescue is accomplished.
Make the accident site as conspicuous as possible. Searchers will
be looking for anything out of the ordinary, and their eyes will be drawn to any unnatural feature on the ground. The aircraft
has the best chance of being spotted if large portions of its wings
and tail are painted in vivid colours. Keep the aircraft cleared of snow.
As soon as possible after landing, and with due concern for
spilled fuel or vapours, build a campfire. Collect a large pile of green material (e.g. tree boughs, fresh leaves, grasses) to quickly
place on the fire, should an aircraft be seen or heard. Three
signal fires forming a triangle is the standard distress signal, but
even one large smoky fire should attract the attention of searchers.
One of the best high-visibility items now available on the market
is a cloth panel of brilliant fluorescent colour, often referred to
as a “conspicuity panel.” It is staked to the ground during the
day and used as a highly effective ground signal. It can also be
used as a lean-to shelter and can supply some warmth as a blanket.
Other means of attracting attention are reflecting sunlight using
signal mirrors or shiny pieces of metal during daylight; or using flashlights, headlamps, strobes, or even camera flashes during hours of darkness.
The following symbols are to be used to communicate with aircraft
when an emergency exists. Symbols 1 to 5 are internationally
accepted; 6 to 9 are for use in Canada only.Table 4.2—Ground-to-Air Visual Signals
to Be Used in Case of Emergency
N0. MESSAGE CORE
SYMBOL
1. REQUIRE ASSISTANCE V
2. REQUIRE MEDICAL ASSISTANCE X
3. NO or NEGATIVE N
4. YES or AFFIRMATIVE Y
5. PROCEEDING IN THE DIRECTION
6. ALL IS WELL LL
7. REQUIRE FOOD AND WATER F
8. REQUIRE FUEL AND OIL L
9. NEED REPAIRS W
NOTES :
1. Use strips of fabric or parachutes, pieces of wood, stones or any other available material to make the symbols.
2. Endeavour to provide as big a colour contrast as possible
between the material used for the symbols and the
background against which the symbols are exposed.
3. Symbols should be at least 8 ft in length or longer, if possible.
Care should be taken to lay out symbols exactly as depicted to avoid confusion with other symbols.
4. A space of 10 ft should separate the elements of symbol 6.
4.7.2 Survival
Ability to assist the search can depend on the success of survival
efforts. The emergency equipment detailed in CARs 602.61,
602.62 and 602.63 emphasizes being prepared for the geographical
location and anticipated seasonal climatic variations.
If the aircraft lands in an uninhabited area, stay near the aircraft;
the search is to locate the aircraft. Past experience has demonstrated
that persons with a knowledge of survival techniques have saved
their own and others’ lives. Similarly, survivors invariably
comment that a better knowledge of how to stay alive would
have been invaluable.
There are several good books on survival skills widely available
from bookstores and through the Internet.
The Emergency section of the CFS contains procedures to follow
when sighting a downed aircraft, a ship in distress or when
receiving an ELT signal.
TC AIM March 20, 2025SAR4.8 CANADA SHIPPING ACT, 2001
(2001, C. 26) EXTRACT—PART 5,
SECTIONS 130–133
SEARCH AND RESCUE
Designation of rescue coordinators
130. (1) The Minister may designate persons as rescue
coordinators to organize search and rescue operations.
Power of rescue coordinators
(2) On being informed that a person, a vessel or an
aircraft is in distress or is missing in Canadian waters
or on the high seas off any of the coasts of Canada
under circumstances that indicate that they may be in
distress, a rescue coordinator may
(a) direct all vessels within an area that the rescue
coordinator specifies to report their positions;
(b) direct any vessel to take part in a search for that
person, vessel or aircraft or to otherwise render
assistance;
(c) give any other directions that the rescue coordinator
considers necessary to carry out search and rescue
operations for that person, vessel or aircraft; and
(d) use any lands if it is necessary to do so for the
purpose of saving the life of a shipwrecked person.
Duty to comply
( 3) Every vessel or person on board a vessel in Canadian
waters and every vessel or person on board a vessel in any waters that has a master who is a qualified person
shall comply with a direction given to it or them under
subsection (2).
Answering distress signal
131. (1) Subject to this section, the master of a vessel in
Canadian waters and every qualified person who is the
master of a vessel in any waters, on receiving a signal from any source that a person, a vessel or an aircraft is
in distress, shall proceed with all speed to render
assistance and shall, if possible, inform the persons in distress or the sender of the signal. Distress signal—no assistance
(2) If the master is unable or, in the special circumstances
of the case, considers it unreasonable or unnecessary to proceed to the assistance of a person, a vessel or an
aircraft in distress, the master is not required to proceed
to their assistance and is to enter the reason in the
official log book of the vessel.
Ships requisitioned
(3) The master of any vessel in distress may requisition
one or more of any vessels that answer the distress call
to render assistance. The master of a requisitioned vessel
in Canadian waters and every qualified person who is the master of a requisitioned vessel in any waters shall
continue to proceed with all speed to render assistance
to the vessel in distress.
Release from obligation
(4) The master of a vessel shall be released from the
obligation imposed by subsection (1) when the master
learns that another vessel is complying with a requisition
referred to in subsection (3).
Further release
(5) The master of a vessel shall be released from an
obligation imposed by subsection (1) or (3) if the master
is informed by the persons in distress or by the master
of another vessel that has reached those persons that
assistance is no longer necessary.
Assistance
132. The master of a vessel in Canadian waters and every
qualified person who is the master of a vessel in any
waters shall render assistance to every person who is
found at sea and in danger of being lost.
Aircraft treated as if vessel
133. Sections 130 to 132 apply in respect of aircraft on or
over Canadian waters as they apply in respect of vessels
in Canadian waters, with any modifications that the
circumstances require.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
SAR
TC AIM March 20, 2025MAPMAP—AERONAUTICAL
CHARTS AND
PUBLICATIONS
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
The Minister of Transport is responsible for the development
and regulation of aeronautics and the supervision of all matters
connected with aeronautics.
The responsibility for the collection, evaluation and dissemination
of aeronautical information published in the AIP Canada , the
Canada Flight Supplement (CFS), the Canada Water Aerodrome
Supplement (CWAS), the Canada Air Pilot (CAP) and in
aeronautical charts has been delegated by the Minister of
Transport to NAV CANADA.
2.0 AERONAUTICAL PUBLICATIONS
2.1 AIP CANADA
The AIP Canada is published and disseminated by NAV CANADA;
it is an International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
compliant publication intended primarily to satisfy international
requirements for the exchange of aeronautical information of a
lasting nature. It constitutes the basic information source for
permanent and long-duration temporary Canadian aeronautical
information.
AIP Canada consists of Part 1—General (GEN), Part 2—
En Route (ENR), and Part 3—Aerodromes (AD). Each part is
divided into sections, which are further divided into subsections;
the publication contains information relevant to aircraft operation
in Canadian airspace. Amendments to AIP Canada are published
every 56 days. AIP Canada also consists of AIP Canada Supplements,
aeronautical information circulars and NOTAMs.
Additional AIP Canada information is provided in the following
documents and charts:
(a) Canada Flight Supplement (CFS);
(b) Canada Water Aerodrome Supplement (CWAS);
(c) Canada Air Pilot (CAP) [seven volumes];
(d) en route low altitude charts (LO charts);
(e) en route high altitude charts (HI charts);
(f) terminal area charts (TAC);
(g) ICAO Type A charts (aerodrome obstacles);
(h) aeronautical charts for visual navigation (VNC and VTA); and
(i) Designated Airspace Handbook (DAH) [TP 1820].
These documents and charts are designated supplements and
form an integral part of the AIP Canada in that they provide the pre-flight and in-flight information necessary for the safe
and efficient movement of aircraft in Canadian airspace.
Any correspondence concerning the content of the AIP Canada is
to be referred to:
AIP Canada Co-ordinator
NAV CANADA
1601 Tom Roberts Avenue Ottawa ON K1V 1E5
Tel.:
........................................................................ 613-248-4157
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-248-4093
E-mail: .............................................. aipcoord@navcanada.ca
2.2 AIP CANADA SUPPLEMENTS
While permanent changes are published in the Transport Canada
Aeronautical Information Manual (TC AIM) and AIP Canada ,
temporary operational changes of long duration (three months
or longer), as well as information of short duration that contains
extensive text and/or graphics, are published in an
AIP Canada Supplement in accordance with the International
Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) Annex 15.
2.3 AIP CANADA AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION CIRCULARS
Aeronautical information circulars (AICs) provide advance
notification of major changes to legislation, regulations,
procedures or purely administrative matters where the text is
not part of the Transport Canada Aeron autical Information
Manual (TC AIM) or AIP Canada .
In accordance with the International Civil Aviation
Organization’s (ICAO) Annex 15, an AIC shall be issued whenever
it is desirable to promulgate:
(a) a long-term forecast of any major change in legislation,
regulations, procedures or facilities;
(b) information of a purely explanatory or advisory nature liable
to affect flight safety;
(c) information or notification of an explanatory or advisory
nature concerning technical, legislative or purely
administrative matters.
2.4 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
REGULATION AND CONTROL (AIRAC)
CANADA
The Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC)
Canada notice is issued weekly by NAV CANADA, Aeronautical
Information Management, to provide advance notification to
chart makers and producers of aeronautical information
concerning changes within Canadian domestic airspace (CDA).
This notice ensures that all users of Canadian airspace have the
same information on the same date.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MAP2.5 VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
Visual flight rules (VFR) aeronautical information is found in
the Transport Canada Aeron autical Information
Manual (TC AIM), AIP Canada , VFR navigation charts (VNC),
VFR terminal charts (VTA) and the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS) or Canada Water Aerodrome
Supplement (CWAS).
2.5.1 VFR Navigation Chart (VNC)
Information specific to the en route portion of the flight is printed
on the aeronautical charts. This includes:
(a) topography;
(b) hydrography;
(c) aerodromes;
(d) NAVA I Ds ;
(e) airways and other controlled airspace;
(f) en route hazards, such as:
(i) advisory areas
(ii) restricted areas
(iii) obstructions.
Complete coverage of Canada is available in the VNC
(1:500 000 scale).
2.5.2 VFR Terminal Area Chart (VTA)
To satisfy special operational requirements at certain high density
traffic airports with complex airspace structures, VTA are
available (1:250 000 scale). VTA are produced for Vancouver,
Edmonton, Calgary, Winnipeg, Toronto, Ottawa and Montréal.
2.5.3 Canada Flight Supplement (CFS)
Other aeronautical information required for VFR flight, but not
suitable for depiction on visual aeronautical charts, is published
in the CFS. The CFS supports and complements the visual charts
for all of Canada and some NAT destinations and includes:
(a) a complete list of NAVAIDs associated with airports;
(b) the current status of individual airports;
(c) the availability of facilities and services at airports;
(d) the telephone numbers for flight planning services;
(e) general procedural information; and
(f) aerodrome sketches.
2.5.4 Canada Water Aerodrome
Supplement (CWAS)
The CWAS provides tabulated data and graphical information
in support of Canadian VFR charts. It contains an aerodrome/facilities directory of all water aerodromes shown on Canadian
VFR charts and lists communications station data, radio aids
and other supplemental data.2.5.5 Aeronautical Charts
AIP Canada GEN 3.2 details the aeronautical chart series
available.
2.6 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
Instrument flight rules (IFR) aeronautical information consists of two parts: firstly, en route information which is published on
the en route low altitude charts (LO charts) and the en route
high altitude charts (HI charts); and secondly, arrival and
departure information which is published in the Canada Air
Pilot (CAP) (seven volumes). All operational information
specifically pertinent to the conduct of the en route portion of flight is found on the en route charts (airports, navigation aids
[NAVAIDs], air routes, airways, minimum en route
altitudes [MEAs], etc.). Aeronautical information specifically
pertinent to the conduct of the arrival or departure portion of
flight (instrument approach procedures [IAPs], standard
instrument departure [SID] procedures, and noise abatement
procedures) is published in the CAP.
In addition, terminal area charts (TAC) are available, depicting
the terminal areas at the larger national airports. TAC are intended
to assist in the transition from the en route portion of flight to
the arrival portion, or from the departure portion to the en route
portion, at those terminals where the airspace structure is
sufficiently complex. TAC do not depict any aeronautical
information that is not already depicted on the en route charts, the IAP or departure procedure charts.
The en route charts and CAP are supported and complemented
by the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS). It contains an aerodrome/
facilities directory of all IFR airports, detailing the facilities and
services available at these airports; it also provides information
on communications, navigational facilities, ATS surveillance,
and special notices and procedures. The CFS contains the IFR
information required for use in flight, but that is not suitable
for depiction on the en route charts or for inclusion in the CAP.
AIP Canada GEN 3.2 details the aeronautical chart series
available.
3.0 NOTAM
3.1 GENERAL
A NOTAM is a notice that contains information concerning the
establishment or condition of, or any changes in, any aeronautical
facility, service, procedure, or hazard, the timely knowledge of
which is essential to personnel involved in flight operations. A
NOTAM is originated and issued promptly whenever the
information to be distributed is of a temporary nature and of
short duration, or when operationally significant permanent
changes or temporary changes of long duration are made at short
notice, except for extensive text and/or graphics (see MAP 2.2). NOTAMs are distributed by teletype on the aeronautical fixed
service (AFS) or by voice advisory using radio communications.
NOTAMs can be used to advertise changes to the information
on aeronautical charts or in aeronautical information publications.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MAP3.2 NOTAM FORMAT
All Canadian NOTAMs, with the exception of the runway surface
condition NOTAM (RSC NOTAM), are presented in the
internationally recognized format prescribed by the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annex 15. This format bases
its dissemination on series and comprises “items” (fields) that
are used for parsing based on user requirements. Not all items
are mandatory or permissible.
3.2.1 Format Description
Figure 3.1—NOTAM Format: Example 1
1. Aeronautical fixed service (AFS) message priority and
addressing (recipients)
2. Date and time (DDHHMM) and addressing (originator)
3. NOTAM Series, number, and year of issuance
4. NOTAM type (New, Replacement, Cancellation)
5. Item Q): Coded line for custom briefings
6. Item A): Location indicator(s)
7. Item B): Start date and time
8. Item C): End date and time
9. Item D): Schedule
10. Item E): NOTAM text
Figure 3.2—NOTAM Format: Example 2
1. Item F): Lower vertical limit
2. Item G): Upper vertical limit3.2.2 Item Q Description
Figure 3.3—NOTAM: Item Q
1. FIR within which the event is occurring
2. NOTAM Code (always starts with “Q”), subject, and
condition of the subject
3. Type of traffic affected: IFR (I), VFR (V), or IFR and VFR (IV)
4. Briefing purpose: Notify users immediately (N), include in
briefings (B), concerns flight operations (O), or
miscellaneous (M)
5. Scope of impact: Aerodrome (A), Enroute (E), Aerodrome and Enroute (AE), Navigation warning (W)
6. Lower vertical limit expressed in flight level
7. Upper vertical limit expressed in flight level
8. Latitude and longitude of subject in degrees and minutes
9. Subject radius of area of influence in nautical miles
3.2.3 Items Description
3.2.3.1 NOTAM Number and Type
The NOTAM number starts with the NOTAM series letter,
followed by 4 digits (NOTAM number), a stroke, and the year.
For example: F0002/19 means the 2nd NOTAM issued in 2019
in series “F”.
3.2.3.2 Item Q) Coded Line
This mandatory line is intended to be used by flight planning system users and developers for parsing and tailored briefings.
For a detailed explanation on the use of item Q, consult the
Canadian NOTAM Operating Procedures (CNOP).
3.2.3.3 Item A) Location Indicator(s)
Item A) is mandatory and must contain a four-letter location
indicator of either an aerodrome (based on the NOTAM subject)
or one or more FIR. Since the item only accepts letters, CXXX
is entered in item A) for aerodromes location indicators that
contain 3 letters and 1 number (for example, CEB5). When this
occurs, the location indicator and name of the aerodrome appear
in item E) NOTAM text.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MAP3.2.3.4 Items B) and C) Start and End Time
Item B) is mandatory and always contains a 10-digit date-time
group expressed as YYMMDDHHMM. All dates and times are
always in UTC. For example: 1910021300 means October 2, 2019,
at 1300Z.
Item C) is mandatory and can be presented in 3 forms:• C) YYMMDDHHMM – should be used when the end time
is known precisely. The NOTAM will expire without human
intervention when the time is reached.
• C) YYMMDDHHMMEST – should be used when the end
time is not known with certainty (for example, in the case
of equipment outages). EST means estimated or approximate.
When the end time is reached, if there is no human
intervention, the NOTAM will remain intact. Therefore,
the NOTAM must be revised (NOTAMR) or cancelled
(NOTAMC) before the time is reached.
• C) PERM – used when the NOTAM promulgates a permanent
change to aeronautical information. Human intervention
is required to remove the NOTAM. Therefore, the NOTAM
must be revised (NOTAMR) or cancelled (NOTAMC) when
the NOTAM is no longer needed.
3.2.3.5 Item D) Schedule
Item D) is optional, and it is inserted only when the information
contained in a NOTAM occurs during more than one period
within the overall “in force” period. All dates and times are
always in UTC. The start of the first time period corresponds
to the start date-time group (item B) and the end of the last
period corresponds to the end date-time group (item C), unless days are used and the NOTAM is in force for more than a week.
The periods are in chronological order. A date appears only
once. The hyphen “–” is used to express a range and means “to”. A space between schedule elements means “and”.
Example 1:B) 1912241700 C) 1912262230
E) RWY 03/21 CLSD
Example 2:
D) DAILY 1700-2230
B) 1912241700 C) 1912262230E) RWY 03/21 CLSD
Example 3:
B) 1905142200 C) 1905170900
D) DAILY 2200-0900E) RWY 03/21 CLSD
Example 4:
B) 1901141200 C) 1901191300
D) JAN 14 1200-16 1730,
JAN 17 0100-19 1300
Example 5:
D) JAN 14-16 1200-1730,
JAN 17-19 0100-1300
Example 6:
D) AUG 14 1200-1730,
AUG 16 0700-1200 1630-2200,
AUG 18 1200-1730
Example 7:
D) AUG 15-18 1000-1900,
AUG 19-21 0800-1400
TC AIM March 20, 2025MAPExample 8:
B) 1908112030 C) 1908170430
D) AUG 11 2030-0300,
AUG 12 2000-0200,
AUG 13-16 2100-0430
E) RWY 03/21 CLSD
Example 9:
DEC 08 10 11 13 1200-2200
Example 10:FEB 20-24 1200-1900,
FEB 26-28 1300-1900,MAR 02-05 1000-1300
Example 11:
B) 1912080000 C) 1912172359
D) DEC 08-12 14-17 H24E) RWY 12/30 CLSD
Example 12(a):
B) 1907010000 C) 1907211700
D) MON WED FRI H24,
SAT SUN 0600-1700
E) RWY 12/30 CLSD
Example 12(b):
B) 1906290600 C) 1907192359
D) MON WED FRI H24,
SAT SUN 0600-1700
E) RWY 12/30 CLSD
NOTE :
In examples 12(a) and (b), the schedule is the same but the start
date-time group and end date-time group differ based on the
start day and end day.
Example 13:
1. SR-SS*
2. SR MINUS25 -SS
3. SR MINUS25 -1600
4. 0800-SS
5. 0800-SS PLUS25
*SR means sunrise and SS means sunset.
3.2.3.6 Item E) NOTAM Text
Item E) is mandatory and contains the subject and condition of
the subject, completed where necessary with ICAO-approved
abbreviations, indicators, identifiers, call signs, frequencies,
numbers, and plain language.
3.2.3.7 Items F) and G) Lower and Upper Vertical
Limits
Items F) and G) are mandatory if the NOTAM is a navigation
warning. Item F) lower vertical limit can be expressed as “SFC” (surface), in feet above ground level (AGL), in feet above mean sea level (AMSL), or as flight level (FL). Item G) upper vertical
limit can be expressed as “UNL” (unlimited), in feet AGL, in feet
AMSL, or as flight level (FL).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MAP3.3 NOTAM TYPES
NOTAM can be issued as a new NOTAM (NOTAMN), a replacing
NOTAM (NOTAMR), or a cancelling NOTAM (NOTAMC).
Replacements and cancellations must occur within the same
NOTAM series:
N0241/19 NOTAMNF0344/19 NOTAMR F0213/19H0007/19 NOTAMC H7004/18
3.4 NOTAM ISSUED UNDER A FLIGHT
INFORMATION REGION (FIR) OR AN AERODROME
If a NOTAM subject affects an aerodrome directly or is 5 NM
or less from an aerodrome, item A) contains the location indicator
of an aerodrome or CXXX (see MAP 3.2.3.3). If a NOTAM
subject affects multiple aerodromes, if it is beyond 5 NM from
any aerodrome, if it affects airspace, or if it is a navigation
warning, item A) contains one or more flight information
regions (FIR) (up to 7). More details on the application of an
aerodrome or FIR in item A) can be found in the Canadian
NOTAM Operating Procedures (CNOP) and in the AIP Canada .
It is necessary that all airspace users review both pertinent
aerodrome and FIR NOTAMs.
3.5 NOTAM DISTRIBUTION
Canadian NOTAMs are distributed to flight information
centres (FIC), flight service stations (FSS), and aircraft operators
on the aeronautical fixed service (AFS). The distribution is tailored
to specific user requirements. (For details, see Table 3.1 in
this chapter). NOTAMs can also be found on the NAV CANADA
website.Series are assigned in accordance with NOTAM regions,
dissemination categories, and subject categories. There are 18
series letters used in Canada: C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N,
O, P, Q, R, U, V.
There are three NOTAM regions:
• The Western Region consists of the Vancouver and
Edmonton flight information regions (FIR).
• The Central Region consists of the Winnipeg and Toronto
FIRs except for three locations where services are available
in English and French: CNC9-Perth (Great War Mem
Hosp) (Heli), CTA4-St-Bruno-de-Guigues, and CSR8-La
Sarre.
• The Eastern Region consists of Montréal, Moncton, and
Gander FIRs in addition to the three locations in the
Toronto FIR where services are available in English and
French: CNC9-Perth (Great War Mem Hosp) (Heli),
CTA4-St-Bruno-de-Guigues, and CSR8-La Sarre.
There are three dissemination categories, each containing six
series:
• International: disseminated to international stakeholders,
to the USA, and within Canada;
• International – USA: disseminated to the USA and within
Canada; and
• National: disseminated within Canada only.
Details on NOTAM regions, dissemination categories, and series
can be found in AIP Canada paragraph GEN 3.1.3.
A monthly numerical checklist of current Canadian NOTAMs
series is generated automatically on the first day of each month and contains all the valid NOTAM numbers within a series, in
addition to the valid AIP Canada amendments, AIP supplements,
and AIC numbers.
Table 3.1—NOTAM Dissemination Categories
Western Region Central Region Eastern Region
INTL C, F INTL D, G INTL E, H
INTL-USA I, L INTL-USA J, M INTL-USA K, N
NATIONAL O, R NATIONAL P, U NATIONAL Q, V
TC AIM March 20, 2025MAP3.6 CRITERIA FOR ISSUING A NOTAM
A NOTAM should be published with sufficient lead time for the
affected parties to take any required action, except in the cases
of unplanned unserviceability, volcanic activity, the release of
radioactive material or toxic chemicals, and other events that
cannot be foreseen. The lead time is at the discretion of the
originator but does not exceed 14 days. Whenever possible, at
least 24 hours’ advance notice is desirable, to permit timely
completion of the notification process and to facilitate airspace
utilization planning. For planned events, outages, and activities,
no less than 6 hours’ lead time is provided.
A NOTAM shall be originated and issued promptly whenever
the information to be distributed is of a temporary nature and of short duration, or when operationally significant permanent
changes or temporary changes of long duration are made at short
notice, except in the case of extensive text and/or graphics.
A NOTAM will be originated and issued in the following cases:
(a) \establishment, closure, or significant changes in operation
of aerodrome(s) or runways;
(b) establishment, withdrawal, or significant changes in
operation of aeronautical services (AGA, AIS, ATS, COM,
MET, SAR, etc.);
(c) establishment, withdrawal, or significant changes in
operational capability of radio navigation and air/ground
communication services. This includes: an interruption or
return to operation, a change of frequencies, a change in
notified hours of service, a change of identification, a change
of orientation (directional aids), a change of monitoring
capability or location of any radio navigation and air/ground
communication services, or limitations of relay stations
including operational impact, affected service, frequency, and area;
(d) unavailability of back-up and secondary systems, having a direct operational impact;
(e) establishment or withdrawal of or significant changes made
to visual aids;
(f) interruption of or return to operation of major components
of aerodrome lighting systems;
(g) establishment or withdrawal of or significant changes made
to procedures for air navigation services;
(h) occurrence or correction of major defects or impediments in the manoeuvring area;
(i) changes to and limitations on the availability of fuel, oil,
and oxygen;
(j) major changes to search and rescue (SAR) facilities and
services available;
(k) establishment, withdrawal, or return to operation of hazard
beacons marking obstacles to air navigation;
(l) changes in regulations requiring immediate action; for
example, Designated Airspace Handbook (DAH) (TP 1820)
amendments; (m) presence of hazards that affect air navigation (including
obstacles, military exercises and operations, intentional and
unintentional radio frequency interferences, rocket launches,
displays, fireworks, rocket debris, races, and major
parachuting events outside promulgated sites);
(n) conflict zones that affect air navigation (to include, if possible,
information that is as specific as possible regarding the
nature and extent of threats of that conflict and the proposed
mitigation measure);
(o) planned laser emissions, laser displays, and search lights if pilots’ night vision is likely to be impaired;
(p) erection or removal of or changes to obstacles to air navigation
in the takeoff/climb, missed approach, and approach areas,
and on the runway strips;
(q) establishment or discontinuance (including activation or
deactivation), as applicable, or changes in the status of
restricted, danger, or advisory areas;
(r) establishment or discontinuance of areas or routes or
portions thereof where the possibility of interception exists
and where the maintenance of guard on the emergency very
high frequency (VHF) 121.5 MHz is required;
(s) allocation, cancellation, or change of location indicators;
(t) changes in the aerodrome/heliport rescue and fire fighting category provided;
(u) outbreaks of epidemics necessitating changes in notified
requirements for inoculations and quarantine measures;
(v) observations or forecasts of space weather phenomena, the
date and time of their occurrence, the flight levels where
provided, and portions of the airspace that may be affected by the phenomena;
(w) an operationally significant change in volcanic activity; the
location, date, and time of volcanic eruptions; and/or the
horizontal and vertical extent of volcanic ash cloud, including
direction of movement, flight levels, and routes or portions of routes that could be affected;
(x) release into the atmosphere of radioactive materials or toxic
chemicals following a nuclear or chemical incident; the
location, date, and time of the incident; the flight levels and routes or portions thereof which could be affected; and the direction of movement;
(y) establishment of operations of humanitarian relief missions,
such as those undertaken under the auspices of the United Nations, together with procedures and/or limitations that affect air navigation;
(z) implementation of short-term contingency measures in
cases of disruption, or partial disruption, of air traffic services
and related supporting services;
(aa) unavailability of eteorological data; or
(ab) other operationally significant circumstances.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MAP3.7 AUTOMATIC QUERY/RESPONSE—
CANADIAN NOTAM DATABASE
Canadian NOTAMs in all 18 series are available by automatic
query/response via the aeronautical fixed service (AFS) to
Canadian and international users. Foreign NOTAMs are not
stored in the Canadian NOTAM database but are available by
automatic query/response via the AFS through the European
AIS Database (EAD). Details for query/response messages can
be found in AIP Canada paragraph GEN 3.1.3.
Example 1:
GG CYHQYNYX…………………Message priority and recipient
of the query
160830 LFFAYNYX……………..Date and time of query
(ddhhmm) and sender of query (France NOF)
RQN CYHQ C0123/19………….Query designator, NOTAM
nationality, subject of query (number 0123 of year 2019 in NOTAM
Series C).
Example 2:
GG CYHQYNYX281530 LFFAYNYX
RQN CYHQ C0400/19 C0410/19 C0421/19 C0470/19-C0499/19
3.8 RUNWAY SURFACE CONDITION (RSC)/
RSC NOTAM
NOTAMs concerning runway surface conditions (RSC) and the
Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI) are presented in the
RSC NOTAM format. In this format, RSC can be reported for
the full runway length or by runway thirds. CRFI can be reported
as an average for the full runway length or as averages by runway
thirds. It is possible for information to be reported by full runway
length and by runway thirds, for different runways within the
same RSC NOTAM. RSC NOTAMs are issued in the standard
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) NOTAM
format (not SNOWTAM) with all the key information being
presented in Item E). They are issued only for aerodromes under
the NOTAM Series S, A or B and are disseminated according to the dissemination category of that aerodrome.
Example of an RSC NOTAM reporting by average:
(A1723/20 NOTAMNQ) CZUL/QFAXX/IV/NBO/A/000/999/5604N07622W005A) CXXX B) 2012161315 C) 2012162115E) CAAA SUMSPOT/SUNNY SUMSPOT MUNI
RSC 07/25 50 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW AND 25 PCT COMPACTED
SNOW.
160FT WIDTH. REMAINING WIDTH COMPACTED SNOW.
VALID DEC 16 1300 – DEC 16 2100.ADDN NON-GRF/TALPA INFO:CRFI 07/25 -3C .40 OBS AT 2012161245.RMK: NEXT OBS AT DEC 16 1500.)Example of an RSC NOTAM reporting by thirds:(A1667/20 NOTAMNQ) CZUL/QFAXX/IV/NBO/A/000/999/5604N07622W005A) CXXX B) 2012161315 C) 2012162115E) CAAA SUMSPOT/SUNNY SUMSPOT REGIONAL
RSC 07 5/3/3 50 PCT 1/8IN DRY SNOW AND 25 PCT
COMPACTED SNOW, 50 PCT
COMPACTED SNOW AND 50 PCT 1/4IN DRY SNOW, 25 PCT
COMPACTED SNOW AND 25 PCT 1/4IN DRY SNOW. 160FT WIDTH. 6IN SNOW DRIFTS 300FT FM
THR 07. REMAINING WIDTH COMPACTED SNOW. VALID
DEC 16 1300 – DEC 16 2100.
RSC 25 3/3/5 25 PCT COMPACTED SNOW AND 25 PCT 1/4IN
DRY SNOW, 50 PCT
COMPACTED SNOW AND 50 PCT 1/4IN DRY SNOW, 50 PCT
1/8IN DRY SNOW AND 25 PCT
COMPACTED SNOW. 160FT WIDTH. 6IN SNOW DRIFT
300FT FM THR 07. REMAINING WIDTH COMPACTED
SNOW. VALID DEC 16 1300 – DEC 16 2100.ADDN NON-GRF/TALPA INFO:CRFI 07 -3C .40/.32/.30 OBS AT 2012161245.CRFI 25 -3C .30/.32/.40 OBS AT 2012161245.RMK: ALL TWY 1/8IN DRY SNOW.RMK: CLEARING/SWEEPING IN PROGRESS.)
4.0 PROCUREMENT OF
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS
4.1 GENERAL
The following is a list of links to aviation-related resources and publications:
(a) The Forms Catalogue , available at < http://wwwapps.tc.
gc.ca/Corp-Serv-Gen/5/Forms-Formulaires/English.aspx >,
provides access to a number of Transport Canada (TC)
forms. To search specifically for aviation forms, go to the
Forms Search page and, under Transportation Mode, select
Air in the dropdown menu.
(b) The Aviation Safety Letter [TP 185] is available at < www.
tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/publications/tp185-menu-5395.htm>.
(c) The Designated Airspace Handbook (DAH) [TP 1820] is
available on the NAV CANADA Web site at < https://www.
navcanada.ca/en/aeronautical-information/operational-guides.aspx#093dcf9f312e43df922dec86e7f295d7 >.
(d) The Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) are available
on the Department of Justice (DOJ) Web site at < http://
laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/sor-96-433/ >.
TC AIM March 20, 2025MAPTC priced publications, CDs, DVDs and forms are available
from the TC Publications Order Desk. Contact the Order Desk
for information about ordering; change of address; the TCCA
e-Bulletin service; and print-on-demand options and pricing.
Print-on-demand copies of the Transport Canada Aeron autical
Information Manual (TC AIM) [TP 14371] and Aviation Safety
Letter (TP 185) are available for order.
TC Publications Order Desk
Tel. (toll-free in North America): ................ 1-888-830-4911
............................................................................... 613-991-4071
Chief, Operational Support Services
Transport Canada (AAFBD)
2655 Lancaster Road
Ottawa ON K1B 4L5
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-991-1653
E-mail: .................................................. publications@tc.gc.ca
Web site: ....... www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/publications/
menu.htm
4.2 NAV CANADA PUBLICATIONS
Fit for Purpose: A Guide to Using NAV CANADA Aer onautical
Publications is a NAV CANADA publication that describes the
intended use of and limitations to their publications. Fit for
Purpose can be accessed on the NAV CANADA Web site by
selecting “Aeronautical Information Products” and clicking on
“Aeronautical Publications Guide” under “Related Links”.
See MAP 4.2.1 and MAP 4.2.2 for the lists of NAV CANADA
publications available for individual purchase or by subscription.
4.2.1 Individual Purchase
The following publications are available for individual purchase:
(a) VFR Navigation Charts (VNC)
(b) VFR Terminal Area Charts (VTA)
(c) Terminal Area Charts (TAC)
(d) En Route Low Altitude Charts (LO charts)
(e) En Route High Altitude Charts (HI charts)
(f) ICAO Type A Charts*
(g) Canada Air Pilot (CAP)*
(h) Restricted Canada Air Pilot (RCAP)*
(i) Canada Flight Supplement (CFS)
(j) Canada Water Aerodrome Supplement (CWAS)*
*This publication is available in electronic form. See the
NAV CANADA online store for details.Individual aeronautical charts and publications can be obtained
from authorized distributors or from NAV CANADA’s online
store. Authorized distributors can be found by clicking on
“Aeronautical Information Products” and then selecting “Purchase
Information” at < www.navcanada.ca > and in Section C of
the CFS. You can also call AEROPUBS at 1 -866-731-PUBS (7827)
for the distributor nearest you. Distributors may offer products at different prices.
4.2.2 Subscriptions
The following charts and publications are revised regularly in
accordance with the AIRAC cycle. Please see the NAV CANADA
online store for more details.
(a) En Route Low Altitude Charts (LO charts)
(b) En Route High Altitude Charts (HI charts)
(c) Terminal Area Charts (TAC)
(d) Canada Air Pilot (CAP)*
(e) Restricted Canada Air Pilot (RCAP)*
(f) Canada Flight Supplement (CFS)*
(g) AIP Canada *
*This publication is available in electronic form. See the
NAV CANADA online store for details.
Subscriptions are available from NAV CANADA’s online store
or through the Aeronautical Publications Sales and Distribution
Unit (AEROPUBS).
NAV CANADA
Aeronautical Publications Sales and Distribution Unit
P.O. Box 9840 Station T
Ottawa ON K1G 6S8
Tel. (toll-free): ................................... 1-866-731-PUBS (7827)
Fax (toll-free): ................................................. 1-866-740-9992
Fax: ...................................................................... 613-563-4049
E-mail: ............................................. aeropubs@navcanada.ca
Web site: ................................................... www.navcanada.ca
Online store: ............................ http://products.navcanada.ca
Payment Methods and Shipping and Handling:
For up-to-date information about payment methods and shipping
and handling fees, please visit the NAV CANADA online store
or contact the NAV CANADA Aeronautical Publication Sales
and Distribution Unit using one of the methods listed above.
All sales are final. For more information, see the FAQ page at
the NAV CANADA online store.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
MAP5.0 CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS
FOR INTERNATIONAL FLIGHTS
Foreign air rules, procedures and customs requirements may
be different from those applicable in Canada. Failure to comply
with foreign customs requirements may cause unnecessary delay
and embarrassment. Failure to comply with foreign air rules
and procedures may cause a near miss or an accident. Therefore,
pilots who are planning flights to other countries must ensure
they obtain the required current aeronautical information for
each country to be visited.
Most countries publish a State aeronautical information
publication (AIP) as well as aeronautical charts and publications
similar to those used in Canada. For the address from which
aeronautical information for foreign states may be obtained,
refer to Aeronautical Information Services Provided By States
(ICAO Doc 7383). To obtain this document, you may contact:
Document Sales Unit
International Civil Aviation Organization
999 Robert-Bourassa Boulevard
Montréal QC H3C 5H7
Tel.: ...................................................................... 514-954-8022
Fax: ........................................................................ 514-954-6769
E-mail: ................................................................ sales@icao.int
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRALRA—LICENSING,
REGISTRATION AND
AIRWORTHINESS
1.0 FLIGHT CREW LICENSING
1.1 GENERAL
The Aeronautics Act and Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs)
contain Canadian aeronautics legislation, regulations and
standards for flight crew licensing.
NOTES :
1. The information provided in this chapter is intended only
as a guide. Contact a Transport Canada (TC) regional
licensing office for specific concerns.
2. In the event of a discrepancy between the information found
in this chapter and the CARs, the CARs shall take precedence.
The CARs or any bilateral flight crew licensing agreement with
an International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) contracting
state, contain(s) complete licensing requirements and specific
details for individual permits, licences, ratings and medical
requirements. Flight crew licensing regulations and standards
are found in:
(a) CAR 401 and CAR Standard 421;
(b) CAR 404 and CAR Standard 424; or
(c) bilateral flight crew licensing agreements.
An aviation document booklet (ADB), designed to hold aviation-
related documents, is evidence that a flight crew member is
qualified for certain permits, licences, certificates and ratings.
The permits, licences and medical certificates are attached as
labels to the ADB. The ADB includes the holder’s photograph
and other security features for positive authentication.
Licences in the ADB conform to the standards set forth in ICAO
Annex 1. All Canadian differences to ICAO standards are
published in AIP Canada GEN 1.7. Permits do not conform to
ICAO standards and are valid only in Canadian airspace, unless
authorized by the country in which the flight is conducted.
Permit and licence holders must hold a Restricted Operator
Certificate with an Aeronautical Qualification in accordance
with the requirements of Industry Canada, if they are going to operate radiotelephone equipment on board an aircraft.
1.2 AVIATION DOCUMENT BOOKLET (ADB)
Canadian permit and licence holders must hold an aviation
document booklet (ADB).
A first-time Canadian permit or licence applicant must also
apply for an ADB at the same time. A passport-style photograph
must be submitted with Form 26-0726, Application for an Aviation
Document Booklet .The 24-page ADB is divided into different sections and includes
the holder’s licensing information, as well as ADB-associated
legal text and abbreviations. Three sections clearly show the
holder’s licence(s) and permit(s), competency records, and medical
certificate(s).
The ADB allows for multiple permits, licences, rating renewals
and medical certificates throughout its validity period.
Transport Canada (TC) has started issuing ADBs that are valid
for 10 years. Since licence holders with operational language
proficiency must be retested every five years, they will continue
to be issued ADBs valid for up to five years. The C anadian
Aviation Regulations (CARs) will be amended to reflect this
change.More information on the booklet can be found on the following
Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) Web page: < https://
www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/aviation/licensing-pilots-personnel/applying-aviation-document-booklet.html >.
1.3 AVIATION LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
All flight crew licences are required by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to be annotated with a language proficiency rating.
ICAO language proficiency requirements apply to any language
used for radiotelephony communications in international operations; therefore, pilots on international flights shall
demonstrate an acceptable level of language proficiency in either
English or the language used by the station on the ground.
Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) annotates flight crew
licences to indicate English, French or both to show that the
holder has met the requirements for aviation language proficiency,
provided that the holder has been assessed at an expert or
operational level.
(a) Expert level corresponds to ICAO level 6. The expert level
does not expire, and requires no further testing for the
licence holder.
(b) Operational level corresponds to ICAO levels 4 and 5. The
operational level is the minimum required proficiency level
for radiotelephony communication; a licence holder with
an operational level of language proficiency must be retested
every five years.
(c) Those persons assessed at below operational level (ICAO
levels 1-3) do not qualify for a Canadian flight crew licence.
1.4 PERMITS AND LICENCES ISSUED
BY TRANSPORT CANADA CIVIL
AVIATION (TCCA)
1.4.1 Permits
(a) Student Pilot Permit
(b) Gyroplane Pilot Permit
(c) Ultralight Aeroplane Pilot Permit
(d) Recreational—Aeroplane Pilot Permit
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRA1.4.2 Licences
(a) Glider Pilot Licence
(b) Balloon Licence
(c) Private Pilot Licence—Aeroplane
(d) Private Pilot Licence—Helicopter
(e) Commercial Pilot Licence—Aeroplane
(f) Commercial Pilot Licence—Helicopter
(g) Airline Transport Pilot Licence—Aeroplane
(h) Airline Transport Pilot Licence—Helicopter
(i) Flight Engineer Licence
NOTE :
The qualifications relating to AMEs and air traffic controllers
are outlined in:
(a) CAR Subpart 402 and CAR Standard 422
(b) CAR Part V Airworthiness Manual Chapter 566
1.5 DEFINITIONS OF FLIGHT EXPERIENCE
For the purposes of flight training or flight proficiency to meet
the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) requirements, the
following definitions apply.
(a) Dual instruction flight time is the flight time during which
a person is receiving flight instruction from a person
qualified in accordance with the CARs.
(i) Pilot flying time is flight time during which a licensed
pilot, for proficiency purposes, shows the required
pilot-in-command (PIC) skills while carrying out
duties as if they were the PIC of the aircraft.
(ii) Pilot monitoring/pilot-not-flying time is flight time
during which a licensed pilot, for proficiency
purposes, shows the required co-pilot or second-in-
command skills while carrying out duties as if they were the co-pilot of the aircraft.
(b) Solo flight time is the flight time necessary to acquire a
flight permit, licence or rating.
(i) For a pilot, the flight time during which the pilot is the sole flight crew member.
(ii) For a student pilot permit holder, the flight time
during which the permit holder is the sole occupant
of an aircraft while under the direction and
supervision of a qualified flight instructor for the
appropriate category of aircraft.(c) Instrument flight time is any flight time in an aircraft
while piloting the aircraft by sole reference to the flight
instruments. This flight time can be accumulated while
operating under instrument flight rules (IFR) in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC), or in visual meteorological
conditions (VMC) during flight training by means which limit a pilot’s ability to see outside the cockpit environment
such as while under a hood or wearing limited vision goggles.
(d) Instrument ground time is instrument time in a flight
simulation training device (FSTD) approved by
Tranport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) for flight training
purposes while controlling the simulator by sole reference to the flight instruments.
(e) Pilot-in-command (PIC) flight time is flight time in an
aircraft as the pilot with responsibility and authority for
the operation and safety of the aircraft.
(f) PIC under supervision flight time is flight time, other than
for receiving flight instruction, acquired by a co-pilot under
a TCCA approved pilot training program while acting as
PIC under supervision of a PIC. PIC under supervision
flight time can only be credited if it is obtained in accordance
with CAR Standard 421.11, see < https://tc.canada.ca/en/
corporate-services/acts-regulations/list-regulations/canadian-aviation-regulations-sor-96-433/standards/standard-421-flight-crew-permits-licences-ratings-canadian-aviation-regulations-cars#421_11 > .
(g) Co-pilot flight time is flight time as a co-pilot in an aircraft
certified as requiring a co-pilot, as specified in the flight
manual or by the air operator certificate (AOC), or flight
time in an aircraft that must be operated with a minimum of two crew (as certified by TCCA).
NOTE :
Every holder of or applicant for a flight crew permit, licence or
rating shall maintain a personal log in accordance with
CAR 401.08, see < http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/
SOR-96-433/FullText.html#s-401.08 >.
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRA1.6 SUMMARY OF REQUIREMENTS FOR
PERMITS
The following tables summarize the licensing and medical fitness
requirements for all flight crew permits. For more information,
refer to CAR Standard 421
1.6.1 Student Pilot Permits (SPP)
NOTE S:
1. SPP holders must hold a valid and appropriate medical
certificate to exercise the privileges of their permit.
2. Medical certificates associated with a permit have a validity
period per CAR 404.04. In order to continue exercising
permit privileges, a holder must renew the relevant medical
certificate(s) before the end of the validity period.
3. When the Category 4 Medical Declaration is used for the Student Pilot Permit—Aeroplane, the declaration must be signed by a physician licensed to practice in Canada.
Table 1.1—SPP Requirements
SPP CATEGORY AGEMEDICAL
CATEGORYKNOWLEDGE
AND
EXAMINATIONEXPERIENCE SKILL
Gyroplane 14 1 or 3 PSTAR* 90% Per skill Certified for solo
Ultralight
Aeroplane14 1, 3 or 4 CAR 421.19(2)(d)(i) Per skill Certified for solo
Glider 14 1, 3 or 4 CAR 421.19(2)(d)(ii) Per skill Certified for solo
Balloon 14 1 or 3 PSTAR 90% Per skill Certified for solo
Aeroplane 14 1, 3 or 4 PSTAR 90% Per skill Certified for solo
Helicopter 14 1 or 3 PSTAR 90% Per skill Certified for solo
*PSTAR is the computer code for the Student Pilot Permit or Private Pilot Licence for Foreign and Military Applicants, Aviation Regulations written examination.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRA1.6.2 Pilot Permits
NOTE S:
1. Permit holders must hold a valid and appropriate medical
certificate to exercise the privileges of their permit.
2. Medical certificates associated with a permit have a validity
period per CAR 404.04. In order to continue exercising
permit privileges, a holder must renew the relevant medical
certificate(s) before the end of the validity period.
3. When the Category 4 Medical Declaration is used for the
Recreational Pilot Permit—Aeroplane, the declaration must
be signed by a physician licensed to practice in Canada.
Table 1.2—Pilot Permit Requirements
PERMIT
CATEGORYAGEMEDICAL
CATEGORYKNOWLEDGE
AND
EXAMINATIONEXPERIENCE
(Minimum
instruction flight
time)SKILL
Gyroplane
(GYP)17 1 or 340 hr ground
school and
GYROP* 60%Total - 45 hr
including:
Dual - 12 hr
Solo - 12 hrFlight
demonstration
and
letter from
instructor
Ultralight
Aeroplane
(ULP-A)16 1, 3 or 420 hr ground
school and
ULTRA* 60%Total - 10 hr
including:
Dual - 5 hr
Solo - 2 hrFlight
demonstration
and
letter from
instructor
Recreational-
Aeroplane
(RPP-A)16 1, 3 or 4RPPAE* or
PPAER* 60%Total - 25 hr
including:
Dual - 15 hr
Solo - 5 hrFlight test
*GYROP is the computer code for the Pilot Permit—Gyroplane written examination.
ULTRA is the computer code for the Pilot Permit—Ultralight Aeroplane written examination.
RPPAE is the computer code for the Pilot Permit—Recreational Aeroplane written examination.
PPAER is the computer code for the Private Pilot Licence—Aeroplane written examination.
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRA1.7 SUMMARY OF REQUIREMENTS FOR
LICENCES
1.7.1 Pilot Licence
The following tables summarize the licensing and medical fitness
requirements for all flight crew licences. For more information,
refer to CAR Standard 421.
NOTES :
1. Licence holders must hold a valid and appropriate medical
certificate to exercise the privileges of their licence.
2. Medical certificates associated with a licence have a validity
period per CAR 404.04. In order to continue exercising
licence privileges, a holder must renew the relevant medical
certificate(s) before the end of the validity period.
Table 1.3—Glider and Balloon Licence Requirements
LICENCE
CATEGORYAGEMEDICAL
CATEGORYKNOWLEDGE
AND
EXAMINATIONEXPERIENCE
(Minimum instruction
flight time) SKILL
Glider
(GPL)16 1, 3 or 415 hr
ground school and
GLIDE* 60%Total - 6 hr
including:
Dual - 1 hr
Solo - 2 hrFlight
demonstration
and
letter from
instructor
Balloon
(BPL)17 1 or 310 hr
ground school and
PIBAL * 60%Total - 16 hr including:
Untethered - 11 hr
including a minimum of:
Dual - 3 hr
Solo - 1 hrFlight
demonstration
and
letter from
instructor
*GLIDE is the computer code for Pilot Licence—Glide written examination.
PIBAL is the computer code for the Pilot Licence—Balloon written examination.
1.7.2 Private Pilot Licence (PPL)
Table 1.4—PPL Requirements
LICENCE
CATEGORYAGEMEDICAL
CATEGORYKNOWLEDGE
AND
EXAMINATIONEXPERIENCE
(Minimum instruction
flight time) SKILL
Aeroplane
(PPL-A)17 1 or 340 hr
ground school and
PPAER* 60%Total - 45 hr including:
Dual - 17 hr
Solo - 12 hrFlight test
Helicopter
(PPL-H)17 1 or 340 hr
ground school and
PPHEL* 60%Total - 45 hr including
Dual - 17 hr
Solo - 12 hrFlight test
*PPAER is the computer code for the Private Pilot Licence—Aeroplane written examination.
PPHEL is the computer code for the Private Pilot Licence—Helicopter written examination.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRA1.7.3 Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL)
Table 1.5—CPL Requirements
LICENCE
CATEGORYAGEMEDICAL
CATEGORYKNOWLEDGE AND
EXAMINATIONEXPERIENCE
(Minimum instruction
flight time)SKILL
Aeroplane
(CPL-A)
If a PPL-A is held.18 180 hr ground school
and CPAER* 60%Total - 200 hr including:
PIC - 100 hr
AND
Commercial
flight training - 65 hr
consisting of:
Dual - 35 hr
Solo - 30 hrFlight test
Aeroplane (CPL-A)
For graduates
from an approved
integrated course.18 1A course completion
certificate in lieu of these requirementsA course completion
certificate in lieu of these
requirementsFlight test
Helicopter
(CPL-H)
If a PPL-H is held.18 140 hr ground school
and CPHEL* 60%Total - 100 hr including:
PIC - 35 hr
AND
Commercial flight training -
60 hr consisting of:
Dual - 37 hr
Solo - 23 hrFlight test
Helicopter (CPL-H)
If a PPL-H is not
held.18 180 hr ground school
and CPHEL 60%Total - 100 hr including:
PIC - 35 hr
AND
Commercial flight training -
100 hr including:
Dual - 55 hr
Solo - 35 hrFlight test
*CPAER is the computer code for the Commercial Pilot Licence—Aeroplane written examination.
CPHEL is the computer code for the Commercial Pilot Licence—Helicopter written examination.
1.7.4 Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL)
Table 1.6—ATPL Requirements
LICENCE
CATEGORYAGEMEDICAL
CATEGORYKNOWLEDGE
AND EXAMINATIONEXPERIENCE
(Minimum instruction
flight time)SKILL
Aeroplane
(ATPL-A)21 1SAMRA* 70%,
SARON* 70% and
INRAT* 70%Total - 1 500 hr including:
Aeroplane - 900 hr
PIC - 250 hrFlight test
for a Group 1 Instrument
Rating
Helicopter
(ATPL-H)21 1HAMRA* 70% and
HARON* 70%Total - 1 000 hr including:
Helicopter - 600 hr
PIC - 250 hrFlight test as PIC on a two-
crew helicopter
* SAMRA is the computer code for the Airline Transport Pilot Licence (Aeroplane)—Meteorology, Radio Aids to Navigation and Flight Planning written examination.
SARON is the computer code for the Airline Transport Pilot Licence (Aeroplane)—Air Law, Aeroplane Operation and Navigation General written examination.
INRAT is the computer code for the Instrument Rating.HAMRA is the computer code for the Airline Transport Pilot Licence (Helicopter)—Meteorology, Radio Aids to Navigation and Flight Planning written examination.HARON is the computer code for the Airline Transport Pilot Licence (Helicopter)— Air Law, Helicopter Operation and Navigation General written examination.
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRA1.7.5 Flight Engineer (FE) Licenc e
Table 1.7—FE Requirements
LICENCE
CATEGORYAGEMEDICAL
CATEGORYKNOWLEDGE
(Examination) EXPERIENCE
(Minimum Hours)SKILL
Flight Engineer
(FE)18 1 FLENG* 60% Total - 100 hrFlight demonstration
and
letter from instructor
Flight Engineer
(FE)
If a CPL-A is held.18 1 FLENG 60%Approved training program
Total - 50 hrFlight demonstration
and
letter from instructor
*FLENG is the computer code for the Flight Engineer Licence written examination.
1.8 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE
NATIONAL REGULATIONS AND THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL
AVIATION ORGANIZATION’S (ICAO)
ANNEX 1 STANDARDS AND
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
Licences conform to the standards set forth in the International
Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) Annex 1. All Canadian
differences to ICAO Standards are published in
AIP Canada GEN 1.7 (see < https://www.navcanada.ca/en/
aeronautical-information/aip-canada.aspx >).
1.9 MEDICAL FITNESS FOR PERMITS
AND LICENCES
The medical standards for civil aviation flight crew licences have
been established in accordance with the International Civil
Aviation Organization’s (ICAO’s) standards and recommended
practices and are outlined in Canadian Aviation
Regulations (CARs) Standard 424. A medical assessment is
required to allow permit or licence holders to exercise their
privileges.
NOTE :
A Category 4 Medical Certificate is issued for certain permits
and licences for use in Canadian airspace only.
Medical fitness for a Category 1, 2 or 3 Medical Certificate is
established by a medical examination conducted by a Canadian
Civil Aviation Medical Examiner (CAME) or an aviation medical
examiner designated by the licensing authority of an ICAO
contracting state.
If the medical examination is conducted by an aviation medical
examiner designated by the licensing authority of an ICAO
contracting state, the completed medical examination report
shall be forwarded to the following Transport Canada
Civil Aviation (TCCA) Medicine Branch address for review and
assessment:
Civil Aviation Medicine Branch
Transport Canada
330 Sparks Street
Place de Ville, Tower C, Room 617 Ottawa ON K1A 0N8Medical fitness for a Category 4 Medical Certificate is established by completing Form 26-0297, Medical Declaration
for Licences and Permits Requiring a Category 4 Medical Standard , available at < https:// www.tc.gc.ca/wwwdocs/
Forms/26-0297_0712-06_BO.pdf >. It is recommended that
pilots applying for a Category 4 Medical Certificate do so by e-mail to their appropriate regional service centre. E-mail addresses can be found at < https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/
civil-aviation-contacts-offices#headquarters_and_regional >.
Medical declarations should be sent to the regional service centre and not Civil Aviation Medicine to avoid unnecessary delays.
The age of the applicant and the type of permit or licence applied
for determine the frequency of the medical examinations needed
to meet the medical fitness requirements.
The validity period of a medical certificate is calculated from
the first day of the month following the date of the medical
examination or declaration.
1.9.1 Medical Validity Periods
The following table is an abridged list of the medical validity
periods provided in the CARs for the following permits, licences
and ratings.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRATable 1.8—Medical Validity Periods
Permit, licence or rating Under 40 years of age 40 years of age or older
Private pilot licence 60 months 24 months
Pilot licence — glider 60 months 60 months
Pilot licence — balloon 60 months 24 months
Pilot permit — recreational 60 months 24 months
Pilot permit — gyroplane 60 months 24 months
Pilot permit — ultra-light aeroplane 60 months 60 months
Flight instructor rating — glider 60 months 60 months
Flight instructor rating — ultra-light aeroplane 60 months 60 months
Passenger-carrying rating — ultra-light aeroplane 60 months 24 months
Flight engineer licence 12 months 12 months
Air traffic controller licence 24 months 12 months
Student pilot permit 60 months 60 months
NOTE :
The validity period of a medical certificate for a commercial
pilot licence, a multi-crew pilot licence — aeroplane and an
airline transport pilot licence, if the holder of the licence is acting
as a flight crew member for hire or reward, is 12 months. However,
the validity period is reduced to 6 months if
(a) the holder of the licence is 40 years of age or older and is
conducting a single-pilot operation with passengers on board;
or
(b) the holder of the licence is 60 years of age or older.
NOTE :
The holder of a commercial pilot license or an airline transport
pilot licence may exercise the privileges of a private pilot licence until the end of the validity period for the private pilot licences as specified in the table above.
Example:
A 39-year-old and a 40-year-old, who each hold a private pilot
licence, both renewed their medical certificate on July 29, 2020.
The 39-year-old’s medical certificate would be valid for 60 months
and would need to be renewed before August 1, 2025. The 40-year-
old’s medical certificate would be valid for 24 months and would
need to be renewed before August 1, 2022.
1.9.2 Medical Fitness—Renewals of Category 1,
2 or 3 Medical Certificates (Assessed Fit)
Category 1, 2 or 3 Medical Certificate renewals may be conducted
by a Canadian CAME or an Aviation Medical Examiner
designated by the licensing authority of an ICAO contracting state.
If the holder is assessed medically fit for that permit or licence by a CAME, the examiner will renew the medical certificate for
the full validity period by placing a date and signature stamp
on the applicable page of the ADB.If the medical examination is conducted by an Aviation Medical
Examiner designated by the licensing authority of an ICAO
contracting state, the completed medical examination report
shall be forwarded to the following TCCA Medicine Branch
address for review and assessment:
Civil Aviation Medicine Branch
Transport Canada 330 Sparks Street
Place de Ville, Tower C, Room 617 Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
If the holder is assessed medically fit for the permit or licence
by the TCCA Medicine Branch, a new medical certificate will be issued. See LRA 2.3 for more information.
1.9.3 Medical Fitness—Renewal of a Category 4
Medical Certificate
A pilot wishing to maintain a Category 4 Medical Certificate
shall complete Form 26-0297, Medical Declaration for Licences
and Permits Requiring a Category 4 Medical Standard , at least
60 days before the expiry date of their medical certificate. This
will allow TC licensing personnel enough time to issue a new
Category 4 Medical Certificate before the original medical
certificate expires. It is recommended that pilots applying for a
Category 4 Medical Certificate do so by e-mail to their appropriate
regional service centre. E-mail addresses can be found at
<https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/civil-aviation-contacts-
offices#headquarters_and_regional >. Medical declarations
should be sent to the regional service centre and not Civil Aviation
Medicine to avoid unnecessary delays.
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRA1.9.4 Medical Fitness—Assessed Unfit
The underlying goal of medical assessments is to allow permit
or licence holders to exercise their privileges. Some medical
certificate applicants may be assessed as unfit and will not be
issued a medical certificate.
In an unfit assessment where the applicant is on the borderline
of a medical standard, the applicant’s medical information will be reviewed by the Aviation Medical Review Board.
In this situation, flexibility may be applied to the medical standard
to allow the applicant to exercise the privileges of their permit or licence provided that aviation safety is not compromised. See LRA 2.4 and LRA 2.5 for more information.
1.10 REFUSAL TO ISSUE A PERMIT,
LICENCE, RATING OR MEDICAL CERTIFICATE
The Minister’s power to refuse to issue or amend a permit, licence,
rating or medical certificate is set out in the Aeronautics Act.
Grounds for refusing to issue are as follows:
(a) the applicant is incompetent per section 6.71 of the Act;
(b) the applicant fails to meet the qualifications or fulfill the
conditions necessary for the issuance or amendment of the
document per section 6.71 of the Act;
(c) public interest reasons per section 6.71 of the Act; and
(d) the applicant fails to pay monetary penalties per section 7.21
of the Act.
Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) takes care to determine
whether an application is merely incomplete or whether the
applicant does not meet the requirements set out in the Canadian
Aviation Regulations (CARs).
(a) If an applicant has not submitted all of the required material,
licensing personnel shall advise the applicant that the
application cannot be processed until the specified additional
documentation or information is provided.
(b) When all options are exhausted and the information
provided by the applicant demonstrates that the applicant
is not qualified for the requested document, licensing
personnel shall advise the applicant of the decision not to issue the document. Where the Minister decides to refuse to issue or amend a permit,
licence, rating or medical certificate in accordance with the
Aeronautics Act, the Minister will forward a Notice of Refusal
to Issue or Amend a Canadian Aviation Document Letter to the applicant. The letter states the grounds and specific reasons for the decision.
1.11 REINSTATEMENT OF A SUSPENDED
PERMIT, LICENCE OR RATING
To reinstate a flight crew permit, licence or rating that has been
suspended under subsection 7.1(1) of the Aeronautics Act , the
applicant shall provide proof that they have satisfied the conditions
for reinstatement.
1.12 RECENCY REQUIREMENTS
In addition to a valid medical certificate, flight crew must meet the
Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) requirements for recency
in order to exercise the privileges of their permit, licence or rating in accordance with CAR 401.05 and CAR 421.05.
The recency requirements address three time periods: five years,
two years, and six months. If a pilot wishes to act as
pilot-in-command (PIC) or co-pilot of an aircraft, they must
meet both the five-year and the two-year recency requirements.
If they wish to carry passengers, they must also meet the six-
month requirement.
For five-year recency, the pilot must have either:
(a) flown as pilot-in-command (PIC) or co-pilot within the
previous five years; or
(b) completed a flight review with an instructor and written
and passed the Student Pilot Permit or Private Pilot Licence
for Foreign and Military Applicants, Aviation Regulation
Examination, commonly known as PSTAR, within the
previous 12 months.
For the 24-month recurrent training program, the pilot must
have successfully completed a recurrent training program within
the previous 24 months, and therefore meet one of the following
seven conditions:
(a) complete a flight review with an instructor;
(b) attend a safety seminar conducted by Transport Canada
Civil Aviation (TCCA);
(c) participate in a TCCA-approved recurrent training program;
(d) complete a self-paced study program;
(e) complete a training program or pilot proficiency check (PPC)
as required by CARs Part IV, VI or VII;
(f) complete the requirements for the issue or renewal of a
licence, permit or rating; or
(g) complete the written exam for a licence, permit or rating.
Flight crew must also meet specific recency requirements for
other aircraft categories, instrument ratings and passenger
carrying operations. Refer to CAR 401.05 and CAR 421.05 for
more information.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRA1.13 FLIGHT CREW LICENSING
CONVERSION AGREEMENT BETWEEN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES
In June 2000, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral
aviation safety agreement to coordinate various aspects of their
respective aviation safety oversight systems for the benefit of
users in both countries. In the agreement, the two countries
developed technical annexes called implementation procedures
that address specific aviation safety activity areas.
The technical annex addressing pilot licensing is called
Implementation Procedures for Licensing. It authorizes pilots
holding certain licences or certificates from one country to
obtain a licence or certificate from the other country when
certain requirements are met.
In order to facilitate the certificate or licence conversion, the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and Transport Canada
Civil Aviation (TCCA) agreed to provide each other with a
verification of pilot licence or certificate authenticity and the
associated medical certificate(s) prior to starting the conversion.
TCCA considers that a FAA Airman Certificate holder, who has
complied with the respective TCCA licence conditions for
conversion set forth in the Implementation Procedures for
Licensing, shall be eligible for a TCCA licence.
NOTES :
1. It is intended that applicants following these implementation
procedures do not also need to meet the requirements of
the relevant CAR standards.
2. Licences or certificates that are endorsed “issued on the
basis of a foreign licence” are NOT eligible for this conversion
process.
The following FAA Airman Certificates may be converted using
the applicable implementation procedures:
(a) Private Pilot – Aeroplane or Rotorcraft
(b) Commercial Pilot – Aeroplane or Rotorcraft
(c) Airline Transport Pilot – Aeroplane or Rotorcraft
When an application is made to convert any of the above listed certificates, the ratings or qualifications already endorsed may also be transferred. The following ratings or qualifications may be converted using the applicable implementation procedures:
(a) instrument rating,
(b) applicable aircraft class or type ratings, and
(c) night rating or qualification.
After the conversion of any of the above airman certificates and
the issuance of the TCCA equivalent licence, a provision is made
in the implementation procedure for instrument rating renewal.
No flight test is required for applicants who go through this
conversion process.
More information on application guidelines for aeroplane or
rotorcraft licence conversion can be found on the following
TCCA Web page: < https://www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/aviation/
licensing-pilots-personnel/flight-crew-licenses-permits-ratings/
converting-us-canadian-pilot-licence.html >.TCCA applicants are required to fill out FAA Form AC 8060-71,
Verification of Authenticity of Foreign License and Medical Certification, and comply with other eligibility
requirements listed in FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 61-135A:
see < www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/index.
cfm/go/document.information/documentID/1027574 >.
1.14 FLIGHT CREW LICENSING
ADMINISTRATION
1.14.1 Flight Crew Licensing Change of Address
Request
TCCA shall be advised of any change of mailing address within seven days following the change in accordance with CAR 400.07. A completed Form 26-0760, Flight Crew
Licensing Change of Address Request , should be submitted to
the closest TCCA regional licensing office. A PDF copy of this form is available at
<http://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/Corp-Serv-Gen/5/forms-
formulaires/download/26-0760_BO_PD >.
1.14.2 Application for Re-Issue of Civil Aviation Licensing Document
If a permit or licence is not received in the mail, or is lost, stolen,
destroyed or rendered illegible, a completed Form 26-0738,
Application for Re-Issue of a Civil Aviation Licensing Document ,
should be submitted to the closest TCCA regional licensing
office. A PDF copy of this form is available at < https://wwwapps.
tc.gc.ca/Corp-Serv-Gen/5/forms-formulaires/download/26-0738_BO_PD >.
1.14.3 Flight Crew Licensing Declaration of Name
TCCA shall be advised of any change in your given name or
surname. A completed Form 26-0759, Flight Crew Licensing
Declaration of Name , should be submitted to the closest TCCA
regional licensing office. A PDF copy of this form is available at
<https://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/Corp-Serv-Gen/5/forms-formulaires/
download/26-0759_BO_PD >.
1.14.4 Change of Citizenship
TCCA shall be advised of any change in your citizenship.
A letter should be sent to the closest TCCA regional licensing office notifying them of the change. The letter must be accompanied by proof of new citizenship in accordance with CAR Standard 421.06.
2.0 CIVIL AVIATION MEDICINE
2.1 MEDICAL ASSESSMENT PROCESS
2.1.1 Medical Examination Report
All holders of Canadian pilot licences or permits or air traffic
controller licences must undergo a periodic medical examination
to determine their medical fitness to exercise the privileges of
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRAtheir permit or licence. This medical examination will normally
be carried out by a designated CAME. The frequency of the
medical examinations depends on the age of the applicant and
the type of permit or licence applied for. For some examinations,
supplementary tests, such as an audiogram or an electrocardiogram,
may be required. The schedule for periodic examinations can
be found in CAR 404.04(6) at < https://lois-laws.justice.gc.ca/
eng/regulations/SOR-96-433/FullText.html#s-404.04 >.
There are approximately 700 physicians who are designated by
TC as CAMEs. They are strategically located across the country and overseas.
If the examination is performed in a contracting ICAO state, it
must be completed by a medical examiner designated by Canada
or by that state. The resulting medical examination must meet
the Canadian physical and mental requirements. See
CAR Standard 424 at < https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/
acts-regulations/list-regulations/canadian-aviation-regulations-
sor-96-433/standards/
standard-424-medical-requirements-canadian-aviation-regulations-cars >.
Only designated Canadian CAMEs may validate a renewal
examination with the official CAME stamp and by signing the medical certification section in the ADB.
Local flying organizations usually have a list of examiners in
their immediate area. Examiner lists are also available from the regional office of Civil Aviation Medicine or on the TCCA Web
site: < http://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/saf-sec-sur/2/came-meac/l.
aspx?lang=eng >.
2.1.2 Category 4 Medical Decl aration
When applying for the issuance or revalidation of any of the
Canadian aviation documents listed below, the applicant may
apply to obtain a Category 4 Medical Certificate by completing
Form 26-0297, Medical Declaration for Licences and Permits
Requiring a Category 4 Medical Standard , at < https://wwwapps.
tc.gc.ca/Corp-Serv-Gen/5/forms-formulaires/download/26-0297_BO_PD >
(a) Student Pilot Permit—Aeroplane;
(b) Pilot Permit—Recreational;
(c) Pilot Permit—Ultralight Aeroplane;
(d) Student Pilot Permit—Glider; and
(e) Pilot Licence—Glider.
This medical declaration may be used to determine the applicant’s
medical fitness to exercise the privileges of their permit or licence.
The medical declaration may be completed unless the applicant has ever suffered from any of the conditions listed in Part B of
the declaration form, in which case they must undergo a medical
examination with a CAME.Form 26-0297, Medical Declaration for Licences and Permits
Requiring a Category 4 Medical Standard , is composed of three
parts.
(a) Part A—All applicants must complete this part of the form.
Part A requires the applicant to fill in their name, current address and other personal information.
(b) Part B—All ultralight and glider pilot applicants are required
to complete, sign and date Part B of the medical declaration
and have it signed by a witness. Applicants for a Student
Pilot Permit—Aeroplane and a Pilot Permit—Recreational are also required to complete, sign, and date Part B of the
medical declaration, but a witness signature is not required.
NOTE :
If the applicant has ever suffered from any of the conditions
listed in Part B, they must undergo a medical examination with a CAME. Failure to disclose a medical issue is a federal offence under the
Aeronautics Act.
(c) Part C (applies only to Student Pilot Permit—Aeroplane or
Pilot Permit—Recreational )—In addition to completing
Part B, Student Pilot Permit—Aeroplane and Pilot Permit—
Recreational holders need to have Part C of the medical
declaration completed by a physician licensed in Canada
or by a CAME. A witness signature is not required.
All Pilot Permit—Recreational applicants need to undergo a
resting 12-lead electrocardiogram after the age of 40, as well as
on the first medical examination after the age of 50, and then
every four years thereafter. The electrocardiogram tracing does
not need to be submitted with the medical declaration form, but
must be acknowledged as having been completed and read by
the signing physician.
When a Category 4 Medical Declaration is completed in full,
the candidate must submit the above-mentioned form to a TC
regional licensing office, where a medical certificate will be issued.
An applicant who has completed the Category 4 Medical
Declaration may not act as a flight crew member unless they
can produce the appropriate, valid medical certificate. Please
refer to CAR 401.03 for more details.
A pilot renewing a Category 4 Medical Declaration should
complete the declaration form 60 days before the expiry date of the medical certificate. This will allow TC licensing personnel
enough time to issue a new Category 4 Medical Certificate or
label for the ADB before the original medical certificate expires.
An applicant holding a Category 4 Medical Certificate may
exercise the privileges of the appropriate permit or licence while
flying in Canadian airspace only.
NOTE :
If an applicant wishes to obtain a private pilot licence or higher
or intends to pursue a career in aviation, it is advisable to forego a Category 4 application and apply directly for a Category 3 or 1 Medical Certificate in order to save time and money.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRA2.2 MEDICAL EXAMINATION
REQUIREMENTS
Table 2.1—Medical Categories and Requirements by Age
Licence or Permit
TypeMedical
CategoryMedical Report Audiogram Electrocardiogram
Age Requirement Age Requirement
Airline Transport
Senior Commercial
Commercial(Validates all other
categories)1 Under 40 Within 12 months of
issue or revalidationAt first examination then at 55 years oldUnder 30 At first examination
Over 40 Within 6 months of issue or revalidation30-40 At first examination and every 2 years thereafter
Over 40 At first examination and every year thereafter
NOTE: The holder of Medical Category 1 shall be considered fit for any permit or licence for its respective duration of validity unless otherwise specified.
Flight Navigator/
Flight Engineer
Air Traffic Controller2 Under 40 Within 2 years of
issue or revalidationAt first examination then at 55 years oldUnder 30 At first examination
Over 40 Within 12 months of issue or revalidation30-40 At first examination and every 2 years thereafter
Over 40 At first examination and every year thereafter
Student Pilot
Private PilotGyroplane Pilot
Balloon Pilot3 Under 40 Within five years of
issue or revalidation(If clinically indicated)Under 40 N.A.
Over 40 Within two years of issue or revalidationOver 40 At first examination and every four years thereafter
Ultralight Instructor
Glider Instructor4 All Within five years of
issue or revalidation(If clinically indicated)Under 40 N.A.
Over 40 At first examination and every five years thereafter
Glider Pilot
Ultralight Pilot4 All Medical Declaration
(Full medical examination report only if clinically indicated)(If clinically indicated)N.A.
Recreational Pilot
Student Pilot4 All Medical Declaration
or Form 26-0297 counter-signed by a physician(If clinically indicated)Under 40 N.A.
40-50 At first examination
Over 50 At first examination and every four years thereafter
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRAThese requirements can be found in the table entitled “Physical
and Mental Requirement” in CAR Standard 424 at
<https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/acts-regulations/
list-regulations/canadian-aviation-regulations-sor-96-433/
standards/standard-424-medical-requirements-canadian-aviation-regulations-cars >.
2.3 PERIODIC MEDICAL EXAM
CATEGORIES 1, 2 AND 3—MEDICALLY
FIT
When the examination has been completed, the examiner will
make a recommendation of fitness and will forward the medical
examination report to the regional aviation medical
officer (RAMO) at the appropriate regional office for review. If
the person is already the holder of a Canadian pilot permit or
licence or air traffic controller licence and is, in the opinion of
the examiner, medically fit, the examiner will extend the medical
validity of the holder’s permit or licence for the full validity
period by signing and stamping the aviation document
booklet (ADB) in the medical certification section.
The ADB is valid for five years.
2.4 AVIATION MEDICAL REVIEW BOARD
A small percentage of applicants will have medical issues that
place them outside the medical standard. In those cases, their
medical information may be reviewed by the Aviation Medical
Review Board. The Review Board—a group of specialists in
neurology, cardiology, psychiatry, ophthalmology, internal
medicine, otolaryngology and aviation medicine—meets regularly
in Ottawa to review complex cases and make recommendations to the regional aviation medical officer (RAMO).
2.5 UNFIT ASSESSMENT
Less than one percent of all applicants are assessed as unfit, a
decision that is not made lightly. The underlying goal of the
medical assessment is to allow permit/licence holders to maintain
their privileges within the bounds of aviation safety. Flexibility
may be applied to the medical standard if there is a counterbalancing
safety restriction and/or a change in periodicity of medical
surveillance that could be applied to a holder’s permit or licence,
which would compensate for the deviation from the standard.
For example, a pilot with certain medical conditions may be
restricted to flying with or as an accompanying pilot.
If an applicant is assessed as unfit, they will be informed by the
regional aviation medical officer (RAMO) in writing, and by
the Regional Technical Team Lead, Flight Operations at
Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA). If it is an initial
application, a medical certificate will not be issued. If the applicant
holds a medical certificate, it will either be suspended or cancelled.
If a medical certificate was previously held, a letter refusing to renew the document will be issued to the applicant.
If a medical certificate is refused, suspended, cancelled or not
renewed, the applicant or permit/licence holder may wish to
discuss and review their medical assessment with the RAMO.
Via teleconference and/or at a meeting, the RAMO will review,
with the applicant or permit/licence holder, the medical information relevant to the assessment. As a general rule, the
applicant or permit/licence holder may see these documents in
the presence of the RAMO and ask questions concerning the
content of the documents relative to the medical standards. In
the case of sensitive or complicated medical information, the
RAMO may elect to refer questions of a more clinical nature to
the applicant or permit/licence holder’s personal physician, who
can better explain the implications. In such cases, the applicant
or permit/licence holder will be asked to sign a Consent to
Release Form to designate a physician who will receive these
reports.
In addition, the applicant or licence/permit holder may invoke
the provisions outlined in the Canadian Aviation
Regulations (CARs) regarding reconsideration of assessment.
CAR 404.12 states that:
“(1) An applicant for the renewal of a medical certificate who
is assessed by the Minister as not meeting the requirements
referred to in subsection 404.11(1) may, within 30 days
after the date that the applicant receives the notification
referred to in subsection 404.11(2) ,
(a) request the Minister to reconsider the assessment; and
(b) submit additional information to the Minister regarding
the medical fitness of the applicant in support of the
request.
(2) Where the Minister is requested to reconsider an assessment
pursuant to subsection (1), the Minister shall
(a) take into consideration any additional information
regarding the medical fitness of the applicant; and
(b) immediately notify the applicant in writing of the result
of the reconsideration of the assessment.”
2.6 REVIEW BY THE TRANSPORTATION
APPEAL TRIBUNAL OF CANADA (TATC)
After the steps outlined above, if the applicant or permit/licence
holder wishes for the Transportation Appeal Tribunal of
Canada (TATC) to review the medical certification decision,
they must file a request by the date specified in the notice of
suspension, cancellation or non-renewal. The TATC will
acknowledge their request for review and subsequently set a
hearing date. Any questions on hearing procedures should be
directed to the TATC, which is independent from
Transport Canada (TC)If the applicant or permit/licence holder has new or additional
medical information, it is strongly suggested that they share it with the regional aviation medical officer (RAMO) before the
hearing; this information may be sufficient for the RAMO to
recommend reinstatement of the medical certificate and spare
the applicant or permit/licence holder the inconvenience of a
hearing before the TATC. Whether the applicant or permit/
licence holder elects to disclose this evidence or not, the right
to a hearing before the TATC is not affected, but the Tribunal
will decline to make a determination of the case if the new
evidence has not been reviewed by Civil Aviation Medicine.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRAIf the applicant or permit/licence holder does decide to proceed
with a review by the TATC, the following are the procedural steps.
The review will normally be heard by a single medical professional,
a member of the TATC. The TATC member considers the medical
evidence against the regulatory medical standards promulgated
by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the
Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) and appropriate Civil
Aviation Medicine guidelines. The member can either uphold
the Minister’s decision or request that the Minister reconsider
their decision. The TATC does not have the power to require
the Minister to issue a valid medical certificate to the applicant or permit/licence holder.
If the TATC member does not decide in the applicant or permit/
licence holder’s favour, this decision may be appealed to a three-
member board of the TATC. This board can only review the
evidence that was presented at the review hearing. No new
evidence can be considered at the appeal level. If the three-
member board of the TATC decides in the applicant or permit/
licence holder’s favour, the determination will be that the Minister
reconsider their decision. If the three-member board does not decide in the applicant or permit/licence holder’s favour, there is no further avenue of appeal to the TATC.
If either the single-member TATC or the three-member TATC
decides that the Minister reconsider their decision, TC does not have the right of appeal. The merits of the case, based only on the evidence available at the time of the original review, will be
reconsidered by the Minister. As part of the reconsideration
process, the Director, Standards will ask the Director, Civil
Aviation Medicine to review the case and provide them with a
recommendation regarding the applicant or permit/licence
holder’s medical fitness. The Director, Civil Aviation Medicine
does not normally participate in the medical review by the RAMO
or in the Aviation Medical Review Board recommendations and
is thus able to formulate an unbiased opinion after an independent
review of all of the medical evidence available at the time of the original decision. If the Director of Civil Aviation Medicine has been involved, the case will be referred outside the department for a second opinion.
A copy of this recommendation will then be sent to the applicant
or permit/licence holder who will have ten working days to
provide the Director, Standards with any comments they may
wish to make regarding the recommendation of the Director,
Civil Aviation Medicine.
After that time, a final decision will be made by the Director,
Standards regarding the medical assessment, and the applicant or permit/licence holder will be notified.3.0 FLIGHT CREW EXAMINATIONS
3.1 EXAMINATION OFFICES
Flight crew written examinations for recreational-level pilot
licences can be written at certain flight training units. Most
Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) regional offices and centres offer a written examination service. Visit the following
Tranport Canada (TC) Web page < https://www.tc.gc.ca/en/
services/aviation/licensing-pilots-personnel/flight-crew-licenses-
permits-ratings/flight-crew-examinations/
transport-canada-centres-authorized-examination-invigilators.
html > for contact information.
There are no TC examination facilities outside of Canada.
3.2 CHEATING ON AN EXAM
CAR 400.02 states that:
“(1) Except as authorized by an invigilator, no person shall, or
shall attempt to, in respect of a written examination,
(a) copy or remove from any place all or any portion of
the text of the examination;
(b) give to or accept from any person a copy of all or any portion of the text of the examination;
(c) give help to or accept help from any person during the examination;
(d) complete all or any portion of the examination on behalf
of any other person; or
(e) use any aid or written material during the examination.
(2) A person who commits an act prohibited under subsection (1)
fails the examination and may not take any other examination
for a period of one year.”
3.3 USE OF HAND-HELD CALCULATORS
OR COMPUTERS
The following is a list of rules regarding the use of hand-held
calculators or electronic computers during written examinations:
(a) An applicant may use a hand-held calculator for problem
solving, including those with a tape printout, if it has no
memory system.
(b) An applicant may use a hand-held electronic computer that
has been specifically designed for flight operations, including
a self-prompting type, provided it has been approved by
Transport Canada (TC) for examination purposes and the
computer memory bank is cleared before and after the
examination, in the presence of the examination invigilator.
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRA(c) Requests for hand-held electronic computer approval—along
with a functioning sample computer, all available software,
and, if applicable, instructions on how to completely clear
all memory without affecting any programming—should
be forwarded by the manufacturer to:
Transport Canada
Commercial Flight Standards (AARTF)
330 Sparks Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
The memory bank clearing instructions and the process
shall be simple enough to be completed with minimum
distraction to invigilators.
NOTES :
1. No computer capable of being used to type and store a
significant quantity of language text will be approved.
2. No device capable of accessing other applications or networks
will be approved.
(a) The Jeppesen/Sanderson PROSTAR and AVSTAR, the
Jeppesen TECHSTAR and TECHSTAR PRO, the
ASA CX-la Pathfinder, the ASA CX-2 Pathfin der, the
ASA CX-3, the Cessna Sky/Comp, the NAV-GEM, and
the Sporty’s E6B electron ic flight computers have been
approved for use with all flight crew personnel licensing
written examinations requiring numerical computations.
(b) An applicant may not use an instructional handbook or a user’s manual when writing a TC examination.
(c) Upon completion of a written examination, all printout
material shall be given to the invigilator.
4.0 AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION, MARKING, REGISTRATION
AND INSURANCE
4.1 GENERAL
No civil aircraft, other than hang gliders or model aircraft, shall
be flown in Canada unless they are registered in accordance
with Part II of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs), the
laws of an International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
member state, or a state that has a bilateral agreement with
Canada concerning interstate flying
To be eligible for registration in Canada, an aircraft must be of
a type that has been approved in Canada for issuance of a
certificate of airworthiness (C of A), special C of A or a flight
permit (except ultralight aeroplanes), and the owner must be
qualified to be the registered owner of a Canadian aircraft in
accordance with the Part II of the CARs.
4.2 AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION
Under CAR 201.01, Canadian-registered aircraft are required
to have an aircraft identification plate attached to the aircraft.
The fireproof plate bears information relating to the aircraft
manufacturer, model designation, type certificate number and serial number. A photograph of the identification plate, clearly
reproducing the information it contains, is required when
applying for a certificate of registration (C of R).
4.3 NATIONALITY AND REGISTRATION
MARKS
No person shall operate a registered aircraft in Canada unless
its nationality and registration marks are clean, visible and
displayed in accordance with the Canadian Aviation
Regulations ( CARs) or with the laws of the state of registry.
Canadian nationality and registration marks for new or imported
aircraft are issued, on request, by the appropriate
Transport Canada (TC) regional office. Should an applicant
request a specific mark that is not the next available mark, it is deemed to be a special mark and may be obtained, if available,
upon payment of a fee. Marks may be reserved for a one-year
period without being assigned to a specific aircraft, also upon payment of a fee.
Aircraft registration marks are composed of a nationality mark
and a registration mark. The Canadian nationality marks are
the capital letters “C” or “CF”. “CF” may only be issued for vintage
(heritage) aircraft manufactured prior to January 1, 1957. If the
nationality mark is “CF”, the registration mark is a combination
of three capital letters. If the nationality mark consists only of
the capital letter “C”, the registration mark is a combination of
four capital letters beginning with “F” or “G” for regular aircraft
(including amateur-built aircraft). The nationality mark shall
precede the registration mark and be separated from it by a
hyphen.
In the case of basic and advanced ultralight aeroplanes, the
registration mark is a combination of four capital letters beginning
with “I”.
Aircraft manufactured before January 1, 1957, are considered
to be vintage aircraft and are eligible to display either the “C”
or “CF” nationality mark. Aircraft manufactured after
December 31, 1956, will be issued only “C” nationality marks.
Aircraft manufactured after December 31, 1956, that now display
the “CF” nationality mark may continue to do so until such time
as the aircraft is next painted, after which the aircraft shall
display the “C” nationality mark (e.g. CF-XXX becomes C-FXXX ).
The TC regional office shall be notified, in writing, of any changes
to the mark.
The specifications for Canadian nationality and registration
marks are contained in CAR 202.01 and are in accordance with
CAR Standard 222. For details on the placement and size of
aircraft marks, see CAR 222.01.
CAR 202.04(1) provides for marks to be changed after an aircraft
has been registered. The aircraft may be removed from the register
if it is destroyed, permanently withdrawn from service or exported. It is the responsibility of the owner to notify TC
immediately if any of these events occur. The owner shall also
notify TC, in writing, within seven days of a change to the owner’s
name or permanent address.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRA4.4 CHANGE OF OWNERSHIP—CANADIAN-
REGISTERED AIRCRAFT
When the ownership of a Canadian-registered aircraft changes,
the registration is cancelled and the registered owner must notify
Transport Canada (TC) in writing no more than seven days
after the change. A pre-addressed postcard-type notice is provided
with the certificate of registration (C of R) for this purpose. The
C of R contains the forms and instructions necessary to apply for registration in the new owner’s name.
4.5 INITIAL REGISTRATION
To obtain an application for registration, the new owner should contact the applicable Transport Canada (TC) regional office.
The applicant can also access the forms (Form 26-0522 or Form 26-0521) online at < www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/
standards/maintenance-regsdocs-form-2943.htm>. No person
shall operate an aircraft in Canada unless it is registered.
4.6 IMPORTATION OF AIRCRAFT
The International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO)
Convention on International Civil Aviation (Doc 7300) and the
Canadian Avaition Regulations (CARs) state that an aircraft
cannot be registered in more than one state at the same time.
Therefore, persons proposing to import an aircraft into Canada and to have it registered should ascertain whether the aircraft
is eligible for import and registration prior to making any
commitments. Inquiries relating to importation and registration
can be addressed to the nearest Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) regional office, TC Centre or Minister’s
Delegate—Maintenance.
4.7 EXPORTATION OF AIRCRAFT
When a Canadian-registered aircraft is sold or leased to a person
who is not qualified to be the owner of a Canadian aircraft and the aircraft is not in Canada at the time of the sale or lease, or it is understood by the vendor or lessor that the aircraft is to be
exported, the vendor shall ensure that the requirements of
CAR 202.38 are satisfied. The vendor or lessor shall:
(a) remove the Canadian marks from the aircraft and, if applicable,
the aircraft address from the Mode S transponder and from the other avionics equipment of the aircraft;
(b) notify the Minister in writing, within seven days after the sale or lease, of the date of:
(i) the sale or lease;
(ii) the exportation, if applicable;
(iii) the removal of the Canadian marks; and
(iv) the removal of the aircraft address from the Mode S
transponder and from the other avionics equipment
of the aircraft, if applicable;
(c) provide the Minister with a copy of all of the agreements
that relate to the transfer of any part of the legal custody
and control of the aircraft resulting from the sale or lease; and (d) return the certificate of registration (C of R) of the aircraft to the Minister.
Transport Canada (TC) will remove the aircraft from the
Canadian Civil Aircraft Register and forward a Canadian
registration cancellation notification to the national aviation
authority of the country that is importing the aircraft upon
receipt of a request from the registered owner and only after the foregoing conditions have been met.
4.8 LIABILITY INSURANCE
Canadian and foreign aircraft operated in Canada or Canadian
aircraft operated in a foreign country are required to have public
liability insurance. In the case of most air operators (those
operating under CAR 703, CAR 704 and CAR 705), the specific requirement can be found in section 7 of the
Air Transportation
Regulations ; for other air operators, the requirement is outlined
in CAR 606.02. Public liability insurance protects the owner
and operator of the aircraft if the aircraft causes damage to
persons or property.
Similarly, passenger liability insurance is required in certain
circumstances, as indicated in section 7 of the Air Transportation
Regulations . Passenger liability insurance is required by operators
operating under the authority of an air operator certificate (AOC),
a flight training unit operator certificate, or a special flight
operations certificate (SFOC) for balloons with fare-paying
passengers. Certain privately operated aircraft require both
public and passenger liability insurance (see CAR 606.02(4) and
CAR 606.02(8)). Passenger liability insurance protects the owner
and operator of the aircraft if a passenger on board the aircraft suffers from injury or death.
Passenger liability insurance is not mandatory for aerial work
operators certified under CAR 702 as they do not carry passengers.
Details on the specific amounts of public liability insurance
required and how to calculate passenger liability insurance can be found in CAR 606.02.
5.0 AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
5.1 GENERAL
This subpart provides an explanation of the means by which
Transport Canada (TC) exercises regulatory oversight to ensure
the continuing airworthiness of Canadian-registered aircraft.
It focuses on the general intent of the regulatory process rather
than dealing with the applicable airworthiness requirements
and procedures in detail. Readers should consult the applicable Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) that are mentioned in
this section if a more detailed understanding of the current
airworthiness requirements and procedures is required.
It is the responsibility of the owner or pilot to ensure that
Canadian-registered aircraft are fit and safe for flight prior to
being flown. The primary regulatory control for meeting this
objective is achieved by making it unlawful for any person to
fly or attempt to fly an aircraft, other than a hang glider or an
ultralight aeroplane, unless flight authority in the form of a valid
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRAcertificate of airworthiness (C of A), special C of A, or flight
permit—whichever is applicable—has been issued for that aircraft
(see CAR 507.02, CAR 507.03, and CAR 507.04).
5.2 AIRCRAFT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
5.2.1 General
ICAO’s Convention on International Civil Aviation (Doc 7300) ,
signed in Chicago in 1944, mandates that every aircraft of a
contracting state engaged in international aerial navigation be
provided with a C of A issued or rendered valid by the state in which it is registered. This agreement has the following effects:
(a) to pro mote the idea of mutually acceptable aircraft design standards between contracting states;
(b) to provide all contracting states with the assurance that the
aircraft of any other contracting state flying over their
territories is certificated to a common minimum acceptable
level of airworthiness; and
(c) to achieve minimum acceptable standards in matters related
to the aircraft’s continuing airworthiness.
The ultimate objective of this agreement is to protect other
aircraft, third parties, and people on the ground from any hazards
associated with overflying aircraft.
5.2.2 Canadian Type Certificate
CAR 521 establishes the rules that govern the application for
and the issuance of a design approval document. The regulation
also enables the use of the Airworthiness Manual chapters that
establish the design standards for various categories of aircraft.
The standards may be defined as statements of the minimum
acceptable properties and characteristics of the configuration, material, performance and physical properties of an aircraft.
Applicants are issued a design approval document once they
have demonstrated that the type design of the aeronautical
product conforms to the applicable airworthiness and noise and
engine emission standards that are in force for the product. The design approval document certifies that the type design of the
product meets the applicable standards and includes the conditions and limitations prescribed by the airworthiness
authority as well as how the product meets the standards.
NOTE :
A design approval document is defined in CAR 521.01 as “a type
certificate, a supplemental type certificate, a repair design
approval, a part design approval or a Canadian Technical Standard
Order (CAN-TSO) design approval.”
All information concerning the approval of a type design or a
change to the type design of an aeronautical product can be
found in CAR 521 at < http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/
regulations/SOR-96-433/FullText.html#s-521.01 >. Guidance
material supporting this regulation can be found at < https://
www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/aviation/reference-centre/advisory-
circulars.html#500-series >.5.3 FLIGHT AUTHORITY AND NOISE
COMPLIANCE
5.3.1 General
CAR 605.03 prescribes that:
“(1) No person shall operate an aircraft in flight unless:
(a) a flight authority is in effect in respect of the aircraft;
(b) the aircraft is operated in accordance with the conditions
set out in the flight authority; and
(c) subject to subsections (2) and (3), the flight authority
is carried on board the aircraft.
(2) Where a specific-purpose flight permit has been issued
pursuant to Section 507.04, an aircraft may be operated
without the flight authority carried on board where:
(a) the flight is conducted in Canadian airspace; and
(b) an entry is made into the journey log indicating:
(i) that the aircraft is operating under a specific-
purpose flight permit, and
(ii) where applicable, any operational conditions that
pertain to flight operations under the specific-
purpose flight permit.
(3) A balloon may be operated without the flight authority carried
on board where the flight authority is immediately available to the pilot-in-command:
(a) prior to commencing a flight; and
(b) upon completion of that flight.”
A flight authority may be issued in the form of a C of A, a special
C of A or a flight permit. The specific requirements and procedures
for each are detailed in CAR 507 and its related standard.
5.3.2 Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A)
The C of A is issued for aircraft that fully comply with all standards
of airworthiness for:
(a) aeroplanes in the normal, utility, aerobatic, commuter and transport categories;
(b) rotorcraft in the normal and transport categories; and
(c) gliders, powered gliders, airships, and manned free balloons.
The C of A is transferable with the aircraft when sold or leased, provided the aircraft remains registered in Canada. The C of A
may provide an indication of the aircraft’s compliance status
with respect to the noise limitations specified in chapter 516 of
the Airworthiness Manual . When applying for a C of A, it is
advisable for the owner to have or obtain a copy of the applicable
type certificate data sheets. A copy of the data sheets can be
obtained from the type certificate holder. The data sheets may also be found online at < http://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/saf-sec-sur/2/
nico-celn/ >.
Nothing in the CARs or their associated standards relieves the
operator of a Canadian aircraft from the requirement to comply
with local regulations when operating outside Canada. An aircraft
for which the Minister has issued a C of A is considered to be
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRAfully compliant with article 31 of ICAO’s Convention on
International Civil Aviation (Doc 7300) , thereby meeting the
code established by ICAO in Annex 8. Regarding airworthiness,
aircraft meeting this code can be flown without further approval
in the airspace of any ICAO contracting state.
5.3.3 Special Certificate of
Airworthiness (Special C of A)
A special C of A may be issued for an aircraft in one of the
following classifications: restricted, amateur-built, limited or
owner-maintenance. The requirements and procedures for each
classification are specified in CAR 507 and its related standard.
An aircraft for which a special C of A is issued by the Minister
is not considered to be in compliance with all requirements of
the code in ICAO’s Annex 8 and cannot be flown in the airspace
of another country without special authorization by the civil
aviation authority of that other country.
CAR Standard 507, Appendix H lists aircraft types and models
that are eligible for a special C of A—owner-maintenance. This
special C of A allows owners to perform and certify maintenance
on their aircraft, provided the relevant requirements of the CARs
and the associated standards are met.
Aircraft owners who apply for a C of A for an aircraft for which
the last permanent flight authority issued was a special C of A—
owner-maintenance must meet the additional relevant
requirements set out in CAR Standard 507.02(3).
5.3.4 Flight Permit
CAR Standard 507.04 prescribes that:
(1) “Flight permits shall only be issued on a temporary
(12 months or less) basis where the aircraft in respect of
which an application is made does not conform to the
conditions of issue for a C of A or a Special C of A. A flight
permit is issued in one of the following classifications: [...]
(2) Flight Permit—Experimental
An experimental flight permit is issued for any aircraft,
excluding aircraft that are operated under a special
certificate of airworthiness in the owner-maintenance or amateur-built classification, which is manufactured for, or engaged in, aeronautical research and development, or for showing compliance with airworthiness standards.
(3) Flight Permit—Specific Purpose
A specific purpose flight permit is issued for an aircraft
which does not conform to applicable airworthiness
standards, but is capable of safe flight. It provides flight
authority in circumstances when a certificate of airworthiness
is invalidated, or there is no other certificate or permit
in force.
Information Note:
Specific purpose flight permits may be issued for:
(a) Ferry-flights to a base for repairs or maintenance;
(b) Importation or exportation flights; (c) Demonstration, market survey or crew training flights;
(d) Test purposes following repair, modification or maintenance;
or
(e) Other temporary purposes.”
5.3.5 Noise Compliance
CAR 507.20 to CAR 507.23 set out the requirements with respect
to the application for, as well as the issuance and suspension of,
certificates of noise compliance and validation of foreign
certificates of noise compliance. Further, CAR Standard 507.20(a)
states:
“In the case of a Canadian aircraft, the C of A shall be annotated
to indicate that:
(a) the aircraft complies with the applicable noise emission
standards and what those standards are; or
(b) the noise compliance requirements are not applicable to the
aircraft.”
5.4 MAINTENANCE CERTIFICATION
5.4.1 General
CAR 605.85 stipulates, in part, that “no person shall conduct a
take-off in an aircraft, or permit a take-off to be conducted in an aircraft that is in the legal custody and control of the person,
where that aircraft has undergone maintenance, unless the
maintenance has been certified by the signing of a maintenance release pursuant to section 571.10.” Details of the maintenance
activities performed or any outstanding work must also be entered
in the technical log.
Specific qualifications for personnel who can sign a maintenance
release are indicated in CAR 571 and its associated standard.
The owner of an amateur-built or owner-maintained aircraft
can perform the work and sign the maintenance release for their
own aircraft.
It is the owner’s responsibility to ensure that only personnel
meeting those qualifications sign a maintenance release for their
aircraft, engine, propeller or other installed component. The
standards and procedures applicable to a maintenance release
are contained in CAR Standard 571 at < https://tc.canada.ca/en/
corporate-services/acts-regulations/list-regulations/canadian-aviation-regulations-sor-96-433/standards/part-v-standard-571-maintenance >.
Elementary work does not require a maintenance release to be
signed by an AME. However, pursuant to CAR 571.03, any
elementary work performed on an aircraft must be detailed in
the technical record and accompanied by the signature of the
person who performed the work. The tasks and conditions
associated with elementary work are listed in CAR Standard 625,
Appendix A, see < https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/
acts-regulations/list-regulations/canadian-aviation-regulations-
sor-96-433/standards/standard-625-appendix-elementary-work-canadian-aviation-regulations-cars >.
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRA5.4.2 Certification of Maintenance Performed
Outside Canada
In the case of maintenance performed outside Canada (except for the annual inspection portion of the maintenance schedule
outlined in CAR Standard 625, Appendix B, Part I or II), a
maintenance release may be signed by a person who is authorized
under the laws of a state that is party to an agreement or a technical
arrangement with Canada if the agreement or arrangement
provides for such certification.
In the case of certifying of the 100-hr inspection performed
annually on the basis of the maintenance schedule outlined in
CAR Standard 625, Appendix B, a maintenance release can only
be signed by the holder of an appropriately-rated AME licence issued pursuant to CAR 403.
5.5 ANNUAL AIRWORTHINESS
INFORMATION REPORT (AAIR)
CAR 501.01 requires that the owner of a Canadian aircraft, other
than an ultralight aeroplane, submit an Annual Airworthiness
Information Report (AAIR). This report can be submitted online
through the Continuing Airworthiness Web Information
System (CAWIS) at < https://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/saf-sec-sur/2/
cawis-swimn/i.aspx?lang=eng > or by filling out Form 24-0059,
Annual Airworthiness Information Report , as specified in
Chapter 501 of the Airworthiness Manual .
An AAIR notice is sent to each registered aircraft owner several
weeks before the due date. The aircraft owner shall complete
the annual report by entering all required data and signing to
certify that the information supplied is correct.
Failure to receive an AAIR notice does not relieve the owner
from the requirement to submit a report. The owner should
therefore notify the appropriate Transport Canada (TC) regional
office or TC Centre if the form, or its online equivalent, has not been received two weeks before the anticipated due date.
An alternate due date may be granted in accordance with
CAR 501.03.
The owner of an aircraft that will be out of service for one or
more reporting periods (calendar years) is not required to submit
an AAIR for those periods, provided the appropriate section of
Form 24-0059, or its online equivalent, is completed and indicates
the date the aircraft is expected to return to service.
5.6 MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS
FOR CANADIAN-REGISTERED
AIRCRAFT
5.6.1 General
Under CAR 605, it is the responsibility of the owner or operator
(defined in CAR 101 as the person who has legal custody and
control of the aircraft) of aircraft other than ultralight aeroplanes
or hang gliders to ensure that their aircraft is properly equipped
for its intended uses and maintained in accordance with an
approved maintenance schedule; that the defects are recorded and properly rectified or the repairs are deferred; and that any applicable ADs have been addressed.It is also the responsibility of owners or operators to ensure that
the person intending to take off in the aircraft has the information
required to establish whether or not the aircraft is airworthy for the intended flight.
It is the responsibility of the pilot to be familiar with the available
information and to make an informed decision regarding the
aircraft and the intended flight.
CAR 605.94 requires the pilot-in-command to enter the
particulars of any abnormal occurrence to which the aircraft
has been subjected, as well as the particulars of any defect in
any part of the aircraft or its equipment that becomes apparent
during flight, in the journey log as set out in CAR 605, Schedule I.
In addition to the general rules in CAR 605, private operators must respect the maintenance requirements in CAR 604 and its
associated standard. Commercial air operators must respect the
requirements in CAR 706 and flight training units must respect
those in CAR 406.
5.6.2 Maintenance Schedules
CAR 605.86 prescribes, in part, that all Canadian aircraft except
ultralight aeroplanes or hang gliders shall be maintained in
accordance with a maintenance schedule that has been approved
by the Minister and that conforms to CAR Standard 625.
Appendices B, C and D to CAR Standard 625 are applicable to
the development of maintenance schedules.
Owners of non-commercially operated small aircraft and balloons
may choose to comply with Part I or II of Appendix B, as
applicable, and Appendix C to CAR Standard 625. They need
not submit any documents to the Minister for formal approval.
The maintenance schedule is considered to be approved for their
use by the Minister. Owners need only make an entry in the
aircraft technical records indicating that the aircraft is maintained
pursuant to the maintenance schedule. Owners should periodically
review the maintenance schedule to ensure that it meets the
requirements.
Operators of large aircraft, turbine-powered pressurized
aeroplanes, airships, any aeroplane or helicopter operated by a
flight training unit, or any commercially operated aircraft must
submit an application for approval of their maintenance schedule
to the Minister through the TC regional office with jurisdiction
over the area in which the applicant is located. The maintenance
schedule shall address the requirements of CAR Standard 625, Appendices C and D.
5.6.3 Maintenance Performance
CAR 571 is applicable to the performance of maintenance or
elementary work. It addresses how work should be done, as
opposed to what work should be done.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRA5.6.4 Aircraft Technical Records
CAR 605 and its related standard prescribe and set out the
requirements and procedures for keeping aircraft technical
records. Pursuant to CAR 605.92(1), every owner of an aircraft
shall keep the following technical records regarding the aircraft:
(a) a journey log;
(b) a separate technical record for the airframe, each installed
engine and each variable-pitch propeller; and
(c) an empty weight and balance report that meets the applicable
standards set out in CAR Standard 571.
The technical records may consist of separate technical records
for each component installed in the airframe, engine or propeller.
In the case of a balloon or a glider, or an aircraft operated under
a special C of A in the owner-maintenance or amateur-built
classification, all technical record entries, referred to above, may
be kept in the journey log.
5.6.5 Service Difficulty Reporting Program
By means of the service difficulty reporting program, reported service difficulties are collected, analyzed and used to identify
and rectify, as required, deficiencies of a design, manufacturing,
maintenance or operational nature, which might affect aircraft airworthiness.
TC utilizes a user-reporting system to collect service difficulty data.
The service difficulty reporting program provides a means for
AMEs and private aircraft owners or operators to report service
difficulties on a voluntary basis. Commercial or corporate air
operators, Canadian holders of design approval documents, and
approved organizations engaged in the manufacture, maintenance,
repair or overhaul of aeronautical products are subject to the
mandatory service difficulty reporting prescribed in CAR 521, Division IX.
Service difficulties encountered in the field that have caused or
may cause a safety hazard may be reported to the Minister using
either Form 24-0038, Service Difficulty Report , or the Internet-
based TC Web Service Difficulty Reporting System application
at <https://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/Saf-Sec-Sur/2/cawis-swimn/
wsdrs_h.aspx >.
The data collected by the service difficulty reporting program
is available to interested parties from TC headquarters and
regional offices and from the TC Web Service Difficulty Reporting
System application.
5.7 AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES (ADS)
5.7.1 General
Compliance with ADs is essential to airworthiness. Pursuant
to CAR 605.84, aircraft owners are responsible for ensuring that
their aircraft are not flown unless they meet the requirements
of any ADs relevant to the aircraft or to its engines, propellers
or equipment. Refer to CAR Standard 625, Appendix H, for
further details. When an AD is not complied with, the flight authority is not in effect and the aircraft is not considered to be airworthy.
Exemptions to AD compliance or the authorization of an
alternative means of compliance may be requested by an owner
pursuant to CAR 605.84(4). General information about
exemptions and alternative means of compliance is given in
Appendix H, subsection 3. Applications should be made to the nearest TC regional office or TC Centre in accordance with the
procedure detailed in CAR Standard 625, Appendix H,
subsection 4.
5.7.2 Availability of Airworthiness
Directives (ADs)
TC endeavours to notify owners of Canadian registered aircraft
of the issuance of any applicable AD or mandatory service bulletin
as outlined below. To this end, the owner must advise the nearest
TCCA office of any change of address in accordance with
CAR 202.51. However, TC cannot guarantee that it will receive all foreign ADs. Aircraft owners are responsible for obtaining
the relevant continuing airworthiness information applicable
to the type and model of aircraft—including installed equipment,
engine, propeller(s) (if any)—that they own.
Aircraft owners who wish to ascertain which ADs, if any, apply
in Canada for a particular type of aircraft, engine, propeller or other item of equipment may do so by checking this Web site: <https://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/Saf-Sec-Sur/2/cawis-swimn/AD_h.
aspx?lang=eng >.
5.7.3 Airworthiness Directive (AD) Schedule and
Compliance Records
Details of the scheduling provisions and compliance with any applicable ADs shall be entered in the aircraft technical record, in accordance with CAR 605, by persons authorized to do so.
6.0 THE TRANSPORTATION APPEAL TRIBUNAL OF
CANADA (TATC)
6.1 GENERAL
The process for enforcement of Canada’s Aeronautics Act came
into force in 1986. This process includes powers of suspension,
an administrative monetary penalty system and an independent
tribunal to review the decisions made by the Minister of Transport.
This process was expanded on June 30, 2003, when the
Transportation Appeal Tribunal of Canada Act and consequential
amendments to the Aeronautics Act were proclaimed in force.
The Transportation Appeal Tribunal of Canada (TATC) consequently replaced the Civil Aviation Tribunal and has
expanded jurisdiction and authority. The Appeal Tribunal has the authority to review the Minister’s decisions with respect to Canadian aviation documents and the assessment of monetary penalties.
TC AIM March 20, 2025LRAThe Tribunal process applies to five types of administrative
actions. One type of action is the refusal to issue or amend a
Canadian aviation document. There are also three types of
actions that are related to the powers of suspension or cancellation
of a Canadian aviation document. The fifth type of action is the
Minister’s power to assess monetary penalties for the contravention
of certain regulatory provisions. Decisions made by the Minister
of Transport to take any of these administrative actions may be
reviewed by a single member of the Tribunal and may be followed
by an appeal to a three-member panel.
The purpose of this scheme is to provide those affected by
administrative decisions with an opportunity for a fair hearing
before an independent body. The TATC is not a
Transport Canada (TC) agency. It is composed of individuals
with experience in many different aspects of the transportation
industry. Its members, who have aviation industry experience, will hear aviation cases as the need arises.
6.2 REFUSAL TO ISSUE OR AMEND A
CANADIAN AVIATION DOCUMENT
The Minister’s power to refuse to issue or amend a Canadian
aviation document is set out in the amended Aeronautics Act.
The four distinct grounds for those powers are as follows:
(a) incompetence of the applicant for the document
or amendment;
(b) failure to meet the qualifications or fulfill the conditions
necessary for the issuance or amendment of the document;
(c) public interest reasons; and
(d) failure by the applicant to pay monetary penalties for which
the Tribunal has issued a certificate.
Where the Minister decides to refuse to issue or amend a Canadian
aviation document, they must notify the applicant of the decision,
the grounds for the decision and the specific reasons those
grounds apply. The applicant has the right to request a review
of the Minister’s decision. The Notice of Refusal to Issue or
Amend a Canadian Aviation Document Letter must inform the
applicant of the steps they must follow to obtain a review.
At the review, the Tribunal will consider whether or not the
Minister’s decision is justified, based on the facts of the case.
Both the applicant and the Minister will be given full opportunity
to present evidence and make representations with respect to
the decision under review. The applicant may call their own
witnesses and cross-examine those called by the Minister. They
may also be represented by counsel or have another person
appear on their behalf.
In making its determination at the review, the Tribunal may
confirm the Minister’s decision or, if it finds the decision is
unjustified, it may refer the matter to the Minister for
reconsideration. 6.3 SUSPENSION, CANCELLATION OR
REFUSAL TO RENEW A CANADIAN AVIATION DOCUMENT
The powers to suspend, cancel or refuse to renew a Canadian
aviation document are set out in the amended Aeronautics Act.
The Minister has the power to:
(a) suspend or cancel a document for contravention of any
provision in Part I of the Act or the r egulations made under
the Act (e.g. the Canadian Aviation Regulations [CARs]);
(b) suspend a document on the grounds that an immediate
threat to aviation safety exists or is likely to occur;
(c) suspend, cancel or refuse to renew a document on the
grounds of:
(i) incompetence,
(ii) ceasing to meet the qualifications or fulfill the
conditions under which the document was issued
(this includes medical grounds), or
(iii) public interest reasons; and
(d) suspend or refuse to renew a document for failure to pay
monetary penalties for which the Tribunal has issued a
certificate of nonpayment.
Where the Minister decides to suspend, cancel or refuse to renew
a Canadian aviation document, they must notify the document
holder. The notice must include the decision, the grounds for
the decision and the specific reasons for those grounds. The
document holder has the right to request a review of the Minister’s
decision. The notice must also inform the applicant of the steps
they must follow to obtain a review.
The review process and the Tribunal’s authority are the same
as what is outlined in LRA 6.2 regarding the refusal to issue or
amend a Canadian aviation document. The only difference is
that in the case of a suspension or cancellation of a Canadian
aviation document on the grounds that the holder of the document
has contravened a provision of the Act or regulations, the Tribunal
may confirm the Minister’s decision or may substitute its own decision for that of the Minister.
6.4 MONETARY PENALTIES
The power to assess a monetary penalty applies only to those
regulations referred to as designated provisions. These offences,
generally of a regulatory nature, are designated and listed in
CAR 103, Schedule II. Where a person contravenes a designated
provision, the Minister may assess an appropriate fine to be paid
as a penalty for the contravention. A notice of assessment of
monetary penalty is then sent to inform the person that full
payment of the penalty will end the matter. The notice must also
inform the person of the steps they must follow to obtain a
review.
In the event that full payment is not received within 30 days and
no request for a review is filed with the Tribunal, the person will
be deemed to have committed the contravention and must pay the penalty assessed.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
LRAIf the alleged offender requests a review hearing, the process of
the hearing is the same as that set out in LRA 6.2 and LRA 6.3.
The Tribunal has the authority to confirm the Minister’s decision
to impose a penalty and its amount, or it may substitute its own decision for the Minister’s. If a contravention is confirmed, the
Tribunal will inform both the Minister and the alleged offender
of the decision and the amount of the penalty payable with
respect to the contravention.
6.5 APPEALS
If a party fails to appear or be represented at a review hearing without sufficient reason to justify their absence, that party is not entitled to request an appeal of the determination.
A person affected by the Tribunal’s review determination may
request an appeal of the determination. The Minister may also request an appeal of the Tribunal’s review determination with respect to a suspension or cancellation of a Canadian aviation document on the grounds of contravention of a provision of the
Act; contravention of the regulations; or with respect to a
monetary penalty. In all cases, the request for an appeal must
be made within 30 days after the Tr ibunal’s review determination.
The appeal is based on the merits of the decision and the appeal
panel is limited to considering the record of the evidence
introduced at the review hearing, other evidence that was not
available at the review hearing and oral arguments by the parties.
The appeal panel may allow the appeal or dismiss it. If the Tribunal
allows the appeal, it may send the matter back to the Minister
for reconsideration or, in the case of an alleged contravention
or monetary penalty, the Tribunal may substitute its own decision
for the review determination.
Further information regarding procedures before the
Transportation Appeal Tribunal of Canada (TATC) may be
obtained by consulting the Transportation Appeal Tribunal of
Canada Act, the Aeronautics Act (sections 6.6 to 7.21 and
sections 7.6 to 8.2), the Tr ibunal rules and CAR 103.
The TATC may be contacted at:
Transportation Appeal Tribunal of Canada
333 Laurier Avenue West Room 1201
Ottawa ON K1A 0N5
Tel.: ...................................................................... 613-990-6906
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-990-9153
E-mail: ............................................................... info@tatc.gc.ca
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRAIR—AIRMANSHIP
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 GENERAL
Airmanship is the application of flying knowledge, skill and
experience which fosters safe and efficient flying operations.
Airmanship is acquired through experience and knowledge.
This section contains information and advice on various topics
which help to increase knowledge.
1.2 PILOT VITAL ACTION CHECKLISTS
A number of aircraft accidents have been directly attributed to the lack of proper vital action checks by the pilots concerned. It
is essential that pretakeoff, prelanding and other necessary vital
action checks be performed with care.
While Transport Canada does not prescribe standard checks to
be performed by pilots, it is strongly recommended that owners
equip their aircraft with the manufacturer’s recommended
checklists. For any specific type of aircraft, only relevant items should be included in the checklists which should be arranged in an orderly sequence having regard to the cockpit layout.
1.3 AVIATION FUELS
1.3.1 Fuel Grades
The use of aviation fuel other than specified is contrary to a
condition of the Certificate of Airworthiness and, therefore, a
contravention of regulations. A fuel which does not meet the
specifications recommended for the aircraft may seriously damage
the engine and result in an in-flight failure. In Canada, fuels are
controlled by government specifications. Aviation fuel can usually
be identified by its colour.
Table 1.1—Fuel Grades and Colours
FUEL COLOUR
AVGAS 80/87
AVGAS 100/130
100 LL
Aviation Turbine Fuels
MOGAS P 87-90 (see NOTE 2)
MOGAS R 84-87 (see NOTE 2)red
green blue straw-coloured or undyed green undyed
NOTES :
1. Good airmanship ensures that positive identification of the
type and grade of aviation fuel is established before fuelling.
2. Transport Canada now approves the use of automotive
gasoline for certain aircraft types under specific conditions.
For additional information, refer to TP 10737E – Use of
Automotive Gasoline (MOGAS) for G eneral Aviation
Aircraft, available from your TC Airworthiness Regional
office. (See GEN 1.1.2 for addresses.) 1.3.2 Aviation Fuel Handling
A company supplying aviation fuel for use in civil aircraft is
responsible for the quality and specifications of its products up
to the point of actual delivery. Following delivery, the operator
is responsible for the correct storage, handling, and usage of
aviation fuel. A fuel dispensing system must have an approved filter, water separator or monitor to prevent water or sediment from entering aircraft fuel tanks. The use of temporary fuelling facilities such as drums or cans is discouraged. However, if such facilities are necessary, always filter aviation fuel using a proper filter and water separator with a portable pump bonded to the drum before bungs are removed.
The aircraft and fuelling equipment through which fuel passes
all require bonding. The hose nozzle must be bonded to the
aircraft before the tank cap is removed in over-wing fuelling.
All funnels or filters used in fuelling are to be bonded together
with the aircraft. Bonding prevents sparks by equalizing or
draining the electric potentials.
During the pre-flight check, a reasonable quantity of fuel should
be drawn from the lowest point in the fuel system into a clear
glass jar. A “clear and bright” visual test should be made to
establish that the fuel is completely free of visible solid
contamination and water (including any resting on the bottom
or sides of the container), and that the fuel possesses an inherent
brilliance and sparkle in the presence of light. Cloudy or hazy
fuel is usually caused by free and dispersed water, but can also
occur because of finely divided dirt particles. Free water may
also be detected by the use of water-finding paste available from
oil companies. If there is any suspicion that water exists in an
aircraft’s fuel system detailed checking of the entire system
should be carried out until it is proven clear of contamination.
Analysis by an approved laboratory is the only way to ensure
positive proof of compliance if doubt exists.
1.3.3 Fuel Anti-Icing Additives
All aviation fuels absorb moisture from the air and contain water
in both suspended particles and liquid form. The amount of
suspended particles varies with the temperature of the fuel.
When the temperature of the fuel is decreased, some of the
suspended particles are drawn out of the solution and slowly fall
to the bottom on the tank. When the temperature of the fuel
increases, water particles from the atmosphere are absorbed to maintain a saturated solution.
As stated in AIR 1.3.2, water should be drained from aircraft
fuel systems before flight. However, even with this precaution
water particles in suspension will remain in the fuel. While this is not normally a problem it becomes so when fuel cools to the
freezing level of water and the water particles change to ice
crystals. These may accumulate in fuel filters, bends in fuel lines,
and in some fuel-selectors and eventually may block the fuel
line causing an engine stoppage. Fuel anti-icing additives will
inhibit ice crystal formation. Manufacturer approved additives,
such as ethylene-glycol-monomethyl-ether (EGME), used in the
prescribed manner have proven quite successful. The aircraft
manufacturer’s instructions for the use of anti-icing fuel additives
should therefore be consulted and carefully followed.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIR1.3.4 Refuelling—Fires and Explosions
Pound for pound, aviation fuel is more explosive than dynamite.
It has different properties than automotive fuel so the rules you
follow when filling your car at the pump are not enough to keep
you safe when fuelling your aircraft. AVGAS used in piston
engines is also very different from jet fuel.
1.3.4.1 Understanding Flashpoint, Static and Auto-
ignition
The flashpoint of a volatile material is the lowest temperature
at which it can vaporize to form an ignitable mixture in air. The
flashpoint of AVGAS is well below freezing, making it extremely
flammable. To be explosive, the mixture must contain one to
six percent fuel vapour by volume when combined with air.
Mixtures below this range are too lean and those above are too
rich to ignite. The mixture in the space above the fuel in a gas-
tight compartment is usually too rich for combustion; but in
extremely cold conditions, the mixture may be lean enough to be explosive. Regardless of the temperature or type of fuel, it is
essential that aircraft be properly bonded to the refuelling
equipment and grounded to avoid the risk of a spark igniting
the fuel vapour when the fuel nozzle nears the fuel tank. All
other possible sources of ignition—smoking, portable electronics—should also be controlled. Do not refuel when
thunderstorms are in the vicinity.
For very light aircraft that may be refuelled using portable tanks,
it is also important to understand that plastic jerry cans cannot be easily grounded, and that fuel vapours remaining in empty tanks can be highly flammable.
The flashpoint of jet fuel is 38°C, so flammable fuel vapours are
present only at high ambient temperatures. It is less flammable than AVGAS but has other characteristics critical to refuelling
operations. All fuels generate static charges from agitation during
fuelling as well as from movement through fuel pumps, filters
and lines. Jet fuel accumulates more static charges than AVGAS.
Jet fuel, particularly Jet A-1, has low electrical conductivity and
requires time at rest to dissipate accumulated static charges.
Anti-static additives make jet fuel more conductive. The additives
do not reduce the generation of static charges, but allow the
charges to be dissipated faster. Proper bonding/grounding does not eliminate the static charges accumulated in jet fuel.
Jet A-1 also has a low auto-ignition temperature (220°C), which
is the lowest temperature at which it will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition
(such as a flame or spark). Jet A-1 fuel spills onto hot surfaces
such as exhaust pipes or brakes can result in spontaneous ignition.
NOTES :
1. Incidents of fuelling in enclosed spaces and/or with
inadequate bonding have resulted in death or injury. At low
temperature and humidity, a blower heater could cause
statically charged dust particles to build up and combine
with fuel vapours leading to catastrophic results.
2. Plastic fuel containers cannot be properly bonded or
grounded, which increases the chance of explosion and fire . 1.4 AIRCRAFT HAND FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
1.4.1 General
When selecting a hand fire extinguisher for use in aircraft,
consider the most appropriate extinguishing agent for the type and location of fires likely to be encountered. Take account of the agent’s toxicity, extinguishing ability, corrosive properties, freezing point, etc.
The toxicity ratings listed by the Underwriters’ Laboratories for
some of the commonly known fire extinguisher chemicals are as follows:
Bromotrifluoromethane (Halon 1301)
.............. – Group 6 0
Bromochlorodifluoromethane (Halon 1211) .....– Group 5a
Carbon dioxide ....................................................... – Group 5a
Common Dry Chemicals ..................................... – Group 5a
Dibromidifluoromethane (Halon 1202) ............. – Group 4*
Bromochlormethane (Halon 1011) ...................... – Group 4*
Carbon Tetrachloride (Halon 104) ...................... – Group 3*
Methyl bromide (Halon 1001) .............................. – Group 2*
*Should not be installed in an aircraft
It is generally realized that virtually any fire extinguishing agent
is a compromise between the hazards of fire, smoke, fumes and
a possible increase in hazard due to the toxicity of the extinguishing
agent used. Hand fire extinguishers using agents having a rating
in toxicity Groups 2 to 4 inclusive should not be installed in
aircraft. Extinguishers in some of the older types of aircraft do not meet this standard and for such aircraft it is recommended
that hand fire extinguishers employing agents in toxicity Group 5
or above be installed when renewing or replacing units and that
they be of a type and group approved by the Underwriters’
Laboratories. It is further recommended that instruction in the proper use, care and cautions to be followed be obtained from the manufacturer and the local fire protection agency.
1.4.2 Classification of Fires
Table 1.2—Fire Classification
Class A fires : Fires in ordinary combustible materials.
On these, water or solutions containing large percentages of water are most effective.
Class B fires : Fires in flammable liquids, greases, etc. On these a blanketing effect is essential.
Class C fires : Fires in electrical equipment. On these the use of a nonconducting extinguishing agent is of first importance.
1.4.3 Types of Extinguishers
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers: Carbon dioxide extinguishers
are acceptable when the principal hazard is a Class B or Class C
fire. Carbon dioxide portable installations should not exceed
five pounds of agent per unit to ensure extinguisher portability
and to minimize crew compartment CO2 concentrations.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRWater Extinguishers: Water extinguishers are acceptable when
the principal hazard is a Class A fire and where a fire might
smolder if attacked solely by such agents as carbon dioxide or
dry chemical. If water extinguishers will be subject to temperatures
below freezing, the water extinguisher must be winterized by
addition of a suitable anti-freeze.
Vaporizing Liquid Extinguishers: Vaporizing liquid type fire
extinguishers are acceptable when the principal hazard is a
Class B or Class C fire.
Dry Chemical Extinguishers: Dry chemical extinguishers using
a bi-carbonate of sodium extinguishing agent or potassium
bi-carbonate powder are acceptable where the principal hazard
is a Class B or Class C fire.
Dry chemical extinguishers using a so-called All Purpose
Monoammonium Phosphate are acceptable where the hazard
includes a Class A fire as well as Class B and Class C.
The size of the dry chemical extinguisher should not be less than
two lb. Only an extinguisher with a nozzle that can be operated
either intermittently or totally by the operator should be installed.
Some abrasion or corrosion of the insulation on electrical
instruments, contacts or wiring may take place as a result of
using this extinguisher. Cleaning and inspection of components
should be carried out as soon as possible.
Care should be taken when using this extinguisher in crew
compartments because the chemical can interfere with visibility
while it is being used and because the nonconductive powders may be deposited on electrical contacts not involved in the fire. This can cause equipment failure.
Halon Extinguishers: Halon 1211 is a colourless liquefied gas
which evaporates rapidly, does not freeze or cause cold burn,
does not stain fabrics nor cause corrosive damage. It is equally
effective on an A, B or C class fire and has proven to be the most effective extinguishant on gasoline based upholstery fires. The size of a Halon 1211 extinguisher for a given cubic space should not result in a concentration of more than 5%. Halon 1211 is at
least twice as effective as CO2 and is heavier than air (so it “sinks”).
Decomposed Halon 1211 “stinks” so it is not likely to be breathed
unknowingly.
Halon 1301 is less toxic than Halon 1211 but it is also less effective
and is excellent for B or C class fires. A short-coming appears
to be the lack of a visible “stream” on discharge; Halon 1301
turns into an invisible gas as it discharges.
1.5 PRESSURE ALTIMETER
1.5.1 General
The pressure altimeter used in aircraft is a relatively accurate
instrument for measuring flight level pressure but the altitude
information indicated by an altimeter, although technically
“correct” as a measure of pressure, may differ greatly from the
actual height of the aircraft above mean sea level or above ground.
In instances of aircraft flying high above the earth’s surface,
knowledge of the actual distance between the aircraft and the
earth’s surface is of little immediate value to the pilot except, perhaps, when navigating by pressure pattern techniques. In
instances of aircraft operating close to the ground or above the
highest obstacle en route, especially when on instruments, knowledge of actual ground separation or of “error” in the
altimeter indication, is of prime importance if such separation is less than what would be assumed from the indicated altitude.
An aircraft altimeter which has the current altimeter setting
applied to the subscale should not have an error of more than
±50 feet when compared on the ground against a known
aerodrome or runway elevation. If the error is more than ±50 feet,
the altimeter should be checked by maintenance as referenced in AIR 1.5.2.
1.5.2 Calibration of the Pressure Altimeter
Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate the “true” altitude
in the ICAO Standard Atmosphere. The maximum allowable
tolerance is ±20 feet at sea level for a calibrated altimeter. This tolerance increases with altitude.
The ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions are:
(a) air is a perfectly dry gas;
(b) mean sea level pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury;
(c) mean sea level temperature of 15°C; and
(d) rate of decrease of temperature with height is 1.98°C per
1 000 feet to the height at which the temperature becomes
-56.5°C and then remains constant.
1.5.3 Incorrect Setting on the Subscale
of the Altimeter
Although altimeters are calibrated using the Standard Atmosphere
sea level pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury, the actual sea level pressure varies hour to hour, and place to place. To enable the “zero” reference to be correctly set for sea level at any pressure
within a range of 28.0 to 31.0 inches of mercury, altimeters
incorporate a controllable device and subscale. Whether a pilot
inadvertently sets an incorrect pressure on the altimeter subscale
or sets the correct pressure for one area and then, without altering
the setting, flies to an area where the pressure differs, the result
is the same – the “zero” reference to the altimeter will not be
where it should be but will be “displaced” by an amount
proportional to 1 000 feet indicated altitude per 1 inch of mercury
that the subscale setting is in error. As pressure decreases with altitude, a subscale setting that is higher than it should be will
“start” the altimeter at a lower level, therefore, A TOO HIGH
SUBSCALE SETTING MEANS A TOO HIGH ALTIMETER
READING, that is the aircraft would be at a level lower than the
altimeter indicates; A TOO LOW SUBSCALE SETTING MEANS
A TOO LOW ALTIMETER READING, that is the aircraft would
be at a level higher than the altimeter indicates. As the first
instance is the more dangerous, an example follows:
A pilot at Airport A, 500 feet ASL, sets the altimeter to the airport’s
altimeter setting of 29.80 inches of mercury prior to departure
for Airport B, 1 000 feet ASL, some 400 NM away. A flight altitude
of 6 000 feet is selected for the westbound flight so as to clear a
4 800-foot mountain ridge lying across track about 40 NM from B.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRThe pilot does not change the altimeter subscale reading until
he makes radio contact with B when 25 NM out and receives an
altimeter setting of 29.20 inches of mercury. Ignoring other
possible errors (see below), when the aircraft crossed the mountain
ridge the actual ground clearance was only 600 feet, not 1 200 feet
as expected by the pilot. This illustrates the importance of having
the altimeter setting of the nearest airport along the route set
on the instrument.
1.5.4 Non-Standard Temperatures
The only time that an altimeter will indicate the “true” altitude of an aircraft at all levels is when ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions exist.
When the current altimeter setting of an airport is set on the
subscale of an altimeter, the only time a pilot can be certain that the altimeter indicates the “true” altitude is when the aircraft is on the ground at that airport.
When 29.92 inches of mercury is set on the subscale of an altimeter
within the Standard Pressure Setting Region, the altimeter will
indicate “true” altitude if ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions
exist or if the aircraft is flying at that particular level for which 29.92 inches of mercury would be the altimeter setting.
In general, it can be assumed that the altitude indication of an
altimeter is always in error due to temperature when an aircraft is in flight.
The amount of error will be approximately 4% of the indicated
altitude for every 11°C that the average temperature of the air
column between the aircraft and the “ground” differs from the
average temperature of the Standard Atmosphere for the same
air column. In practice, the average temperature of the air column
is not known and “true” altitude is arrived at from knowledge of the outside air temperature (OAT) at flight level and use of a
computer. The “true” altitude found by this method will be
reasonably accurate when the actual lapse rate is, or is near, that of the Standard Atmosphere, i.e. 2°C per 1 000 feet. During the
winter when “strong” inversions in the lower levels are likely
and altimeters “habitually” over-read, in any situation where
ground separation is marginal, a pilot would be well advised to
increase the altimeter error found using flight level temperature
by 50%. Consider the aircraft in the above example; assume that
the OAT at flight level in the vicinity of the mountain ridge was -20°C; what was the likely “true” altitude of the aircraft over the mountain ridge?
To calculate “true” altitude using a computer, the pressure altitude
is required. In this case, the altimeter indicates 6 000 feet with
29.80 inches of mercury set on the subscale, therefore, if the pilot
altered the subscale to 29.92 inches of mercury momentarily,
the pilot would read a pressure altitude of 6 120 feet. Although the indicated altitude is 6 000 feet, if the altimeter setting of the
nearest airport (B) was set, the indicated altitude would be
5 400 feet. With 29.20 inches of mercury set on the altimeter
subscale if the aircraft was on the ground at B, the altimeter
would indicate the “true” altitude of 1 000 feet; assuming no
pressure difference, it can be taken that the altimeter set to
29.20 inches of mercury would indicate the 1 000-foot level at
the mountain with no error due to temperature, therefore temperature error will occur only between the 1 000-foot level and the 5 400-foot level, i.e. 4 400 feet of airspace.
(a) Set pressure altitude, 6 120 feet, against OAT, -20°C, in the appropriate computer window.
(b) Opposite 4 400 feet (44) on the inner scale read 4 020 feet (40.2)
on the outer scale.
(c) Add the 1 000 feet previously deducted as being errorless
and find the “true” altitude of 4 020 feet + 1 000 feet =
5 020 feet ASL. The margin of safety is now just over 200 feet,
but this does not take into account variables which may
prevail as outlined immediately above and due to mountain
effect as explained below.
1.5.5 Standard Pressure Region
When flying within this region, the altimeter must be reset,
momentarily, to the altimeter setting of the nearest airport along
the route to obtain indicated altitude, or indicated altitude
calculated from the altimeter setting, and the steps given above followed, or, when over large expanses of water or barren lands where there are no airports, the forecast mean sea level pressure for the time and place must be used to get indicated altitude. In
the other instance, “airport” level would be zero, therefore
subtraction and addition of airport elevation would not be done.
The “true” altitude determined in such a case would be “true”
only if the forecast pressure used approximates the actual
sea level pressure. (If sea level pressure is not known and pressure
altitude is used also as indicated altitude, the resultant “true”
altitude will be the “true” altitude above the 29.92 level, wherever
it may be in relation to actual mean sea level).
1.5.6 Effect of Mountains
Winds which are deflected around large single mountain peaks
or through the valleys of mountain ranges tend to increase speed
which results in a local decrease in pressure (Bernoulli’s Principle).
A pressure altimeter within such an airflow would be subject to
an increased error in altitude indication by reason of this decrease
in pressure. This error will be present until the airflow returns
to “normal” speed some distance away from the mountain or
mountain range.
Winds blowing over a mountain range at speeds in excess of
about 50 kt and in a direction perpendicular (within 30°) to the
main axis of the mountain range often create the phenomena
known as “Mountain” or “Standing Wave”. The effect of a
mountain wave often extends as far as 100 NM downwind of
the mountains and to altitudes many times higher than the
mountain elevation. Although most likely to occur in the vicinity
of high mountain ranges such as the Rockies, mountain waves
have occurred in the Appalachians, elevation about 4 500 feet
ASL (the height of the ridge of our example).
Aware and the Air Command Weather Manual (TP 9352E) cover
the mountain wave phenomena in some detail; however, aspects
directly affecting aircraft “altitude” follow.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIR1.5.7 Downdraft and Turbulence
Downdrafts are most severe near a mountain and at about the
same height as the top of the summit. These downdrafts may
reach an intensity of about 83 ft/s (5 000 ft/min) to the lee of
high mountain ranges, such as the Rockies. Although mountain
waves often generate severe turbulence, at times flight through
waves may be remarkably “smooth” even when the intensity of
downdrafts and updrafts is considerable. As these smooth
conditions may occur at night, or when an overcast exists, or
when no distinctive cloud has formed, the danger to aircraft is
enhanced by the lack of warning of the unusual flight conditions.
Consider the circumstances of an aircraft flying parallel to a
mountain ridge on the downwind side and entering a smooth
downdraft. Although the aircraft starts descending because of
the downdraft, as a result of the local drop in pressure associated
with the wave, both the rate of climb indicator and the altimeter
will not indicate a descent until the aircraft actually descends
through a layer equal to the altimeter error caused by the
mountain wave, and, in fact, both instruments may actually
indicate a “climb” for part of this descent; thus the fact that the aircraft is in a downdraft may not be recognized until after the aircraft passes through the original flight pressure level which,
in the downdraft, is closer to the ground than previous to entering
the wave.
1.5.8 Pressure Drop
The “drop” in pressure associated with the increase in wind
speeds extends throughout the mountain wave, that is downwind
and to “heights” well above the mountains. Isolating the altimeter
error caused solely by the mountain wave from error caused by
non-standard temperatures would be of little value to a pilot.
Of main importance is that the combination of mountain waves
and non-standard temperature may result IN AN ALTIMETER
OVERREADING BY AS MUCH AS 3 000 FT. If the aircraft in our example had been flying upwind on a windy day, the actual
ground separation on passing over the crest of the ridge may
well have been very small.
1.5.9 Abnormally High Altimeter Settings
Cold dry air masses can produce barometric pressures in excess of 31.00 in. of mercury. Because barometric readings of 31.00 in. of mercury or higher rarely occur, most standard altimeters do not permit setting of barometric pressures above that level and
are not calibrated to indicate accurate aircraft altitude above
31.00 in. of mercury. As a result, most aircraft altimeters cannot be set to provide accurate altitude readouts to the pilot in these situations.
When aircraft operate in areas where the altimeter setting is in
excess of 31.00 in. of mercury and the aircraft altimeter cannot be set above 31.00 in. of mercury, the true altitude of the aircraft will be HIGHER than the indicated altitude.
Procedures for conducting flight operations in areas of abnormally
high altimeter settings are detailed in AIP Canada ENR 1.7. 1.6 CANADIAN RUNWAY FRICTION
INDEX (CRFI)
1.6.1 General
The following paragraphs discuss the slippery runway problem and suggest methods of applying runway coefficient of friction information to aircraft flight manual (AFM) data.
1.6.2 Reduced Runway Coefficients of Friction and Aircraft Performance
The accelerate-stop distance, landing distance and crosswind
limitations (if applicable) contained in the aircraft flight manual
(AFM) are demonstrated in accordance with specified
performance criteria on runways that are bare, dry, and that
have high surface friction characteristics. Unless some factor
has been applied, these distances are only valid under similar
runway conditions. Whenever a contaminant—such as water,
snow or ice—is introduced to the runway surface, the effective
coefficient of friction between the aircraft tire and runway is
substantially reduced. The stop portion of the accelerate-stop
distance will increase, the landing distance will increase and a
crosswind may present directional control difficulties. The
problem has been to identify, with some accuracy, the effect that
the contaminant has had on reducing the runway coefficient of friction and to provide meaningful information to the pilot, e.g. how much more runway is needed to stop and what maximum crosswind can be accepted.
1.6.3 Description of Canadian Runway Friction
Index (CRFI) and Method of Measurement
The decelerometer is an instrument mounted in a test vehicle
that measures the decelerating forces acting on the vehicle when
the brakes are applied. The instrument is graduated in increments
from 0 to 1, the highest number being equivalent to the theoretical
maximum decelerating capability of the vehicle on a dry surface.
These numbers are referred to as the CRFI. It is evident that
small numbers represent low braking coefficients of friction
while numbers on the order of 0.8 and above indicate the braking
coefficients to be expected on dry runways.
The brakes are applied on the test vehicle at 300-m (1 000-ft)
intervals along the runway within a distance of 10 m (30 ft) from
each side of the runway centreline at that distance from the
centreline where the majority of aircraft operations take place at each given site. The readings taken are averaged and reported as the CRFI number.
1.6.4 Description of Canadian Runway Friction
Index (CRFI) Reporting Method
Where an airport receives aeroplane operations in an air transport
service under Subpart 5 of Part VII of the CARs, CRFI is reported
by runway thirds for runways greater than or equal to 1 829 m (6 000 ft) in length.
CRFI may be reported by runway thirds for runways less than
1 829 m (6 000 ft) in length where the aerodrome is equipped to do so; however, CRFI will be reported by full runway lengths as a default.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRThe aerodrome’s airport winter maintenance plan should be
consulted for the latest information on CRFI reporting
methodology for a given runway.
1.6.5 Aircraft Movement Surface Condition
Reports (AMSCR)
AMSCRs are issued to alert pilots of natural surface contaminants—
such as snow, ice or slush—that could affect aircraft braking
performance. The RSC section of the report provides information
about runway conditions in plain language, while the CRFI
section describes braking action quantitatively using the
numerical format described in AIR 1.6.3.
Where runway information is reported in thirds, a runway
condition code (RWYCC) is reported for each third. RWYCCs
are on a scale of 0 to 6, where 0 represents the most slippery
conditions and 6 represents dry runway performance.
AMSCRs are issued when contaminants are present on a
movement area as follows:
(a) at the commencement of published AMSCR hours;
(b) a minimum of once every eight hours thereafter;
(c) when a significant change in a runway surface condition
occurs;
(d) following every accident or incident in which winter
conditions may have been a factor; and
(e) whenever the cleared width of the runway falls below full
width.
When available, a CRFI reading will be issued along with the
RSC in order to provide an overall descriptive picture of the
runway condition and to quantify braking action. Due to
mechanical and operational limitations, the runway friction
readings produced by decelerometers may be inaccurate under
certain surface conditions. As a result, runway friction readings
will be taken and a CRFI will be provided to ATS or to pilots
only when any of the following conditions are present:
(a) ice;
(b) wet ice consisting of a thin film of water on ice;
(c) compacted snow;
(d) slush on ice;
(e) dry snow not exceeding 2.5 cm (1 in.) in depth;
(f) de-icing chemical solution or sand on ice; or
(g) frost.
An RSC report must be issued for each CRFI measurement
provided.
The following changes relating to runway conditions are
considered significant:
(a) any change in the RWYCC (if applicable);
(b) a CRFI change of 0.05 or more;
(c) any change in the contaminant type;
(d) any change of 20% or more in the reportable contaminant coverage;(e) any change in contaminant depth of ⅛ in. for standing water
and slush, ¼ in. for wet snow, and ¾ in. for dry snow; and
(f) any other information that, according to assessment
techniques, is considered to be significant, for example
following the application or removal of sand or chemicals; following snow removal or sweeping; or following changes
in conditions caused by rapid increases or decreases in
temperature.
The depth of deposit is expressed in inches or feet or both. When
the depth is above 2 in., whole values are used. When the depth
is less than 2 in., fractions are used. The accepted fraction values
are ⅛, ¼, ½, ¾ and 1 ½; however, caution has to be exercised as
these values could be confused with CRFI measurements. When
the depth of deposit is below ⅛ in., the accepted depth is reported
as ⅛ in.
When clearing is not underway or expected to begin within the
next 30 minutes, a notation such as “Clearing expected to start
at (time in UTC)” will be added to the RSC report. When the
meteorological conditions cause runway surface conditions to
change frequently, the RSC NOTAM will include the agency
and telephone number to contact for the current runway
conditions.
The full range of RSC/CRFI information will be available as a
voice advisory from the control tower at controlled aerodromes and from the FSS at uncontrolled aerodromes.
Each new RSC NOTAM (AMSCR report) issued supersedes the
previous report for that aerodrome. An RSC NOTAM is valid for 8 hours or 24 hours, based on the most recent observation of either the RSC or CRFI, after which time it is removed from
the database. An RSC NOTAM may also be cancelled if the
reporting requirements are no longer met or the RSC NOTAM was issued in error.
NOTE :
The absence of an RSC NOTAM in no way indicates that runway
conditions are acceptable for operations.
The CRFI portion of the report is titled ADDN NON-GRF/
TALPA INFO: and is in the following format: title (CRFI), runway
number, temperature (in degrees Celsius), runway CRFI reading
by full runway length or by runway thirds, and the observation
time of the report using the 10-digit date-time group format in UTC (YYMMDDHHMM).
An RSC NOTAM is issued based on reporting requirements
rather than on dissemination criteria. Therefore, conditions
such as “dry” or “wet” will be disseminated if reported.
Information on taxiways and aprons, although not mandatory,
can be disseminated in an RSC NOTAM if deemed to have an impact on safe operations.
1.6.6 Wet Runways
Runway friction values are currently not provided during the
summer and when it is raining. Consequently, some discussion
of wet runways is in order to assist pilots in developing handling
procedures when these conditions are encountered.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRA packed-snow or ice condition at a fixed temperature presents
a relatively constant coefficient of friction with speed, but this is not the case for a liquid (water or slush) state. This is because water cannot be completely squeezed out from between the tire
and the runway and, as a result, there is only partial tire-to-
runway contact. As the aircraft speed is increased, the time in contact is reduced further, thus braking friction coefficients on
wet surfaces fall as the speed increases, i.e. the conditions in
effect become relatively more slippery, but will improve again
as the aircraft slows down. The situation is further complicated
by the susceptibility of aircraft tires to hydroplane on wet runways.
Hydroplaning is a function of the water depth, tire pressure and speed. Moreover, the minimum speed at which a non-rotating tire will begin to hydroplane is lower than the speed at which a
rotating tire will begin to hydroplane because a build up of water
under the non-rotating tire increases the hydroplaning effect.
Pilots should therefore be aware of this since it will result in a
substantial difference between the take-off and landing roll
aircraft performance under the same runway conditions. The
minimum speed, in knots, at which hydroplaning will commence
can be calculated by multiplying the square root of the tire pressure (PSI) by 7.7 for a non-rotating tire, or by 9 for a
rotating tire.
This equation gives an approximation of the minimum speed
necessary to hydroplane on a smooth, wet surface with tires that
are bald or have no tread. For example, the minimum hydroplaning
speeds for an aircraft with tires inflated to 49 PSI are calculated
as: Non-rotating tire: 7.7 X √49 = 54 kt; or
Rotating tire: 9 X √49 = 63 kt
When hydroplaning occurs, the aircraft’s tires are completely
separated from the actual runway surface by a thin water film and they will continue to hydroplane until a reduction in speed permits the tires to regain contact with the runway. This speed
will be considerably lower than the speed at which hydroplaning
commences. Under these conditions, the tire traction drops to almost negligible values, and in some cases, the wheel will stop
rotating entirely. The tires will provide no braking capability
and will not contribute to the directional control of the aircraft.
The resultant increase in stopping distance is impossible to
predict accurately, but it has been estimated to increase as much as 700 percent. Further, it is known that a 10-kt crosswind will
drift an aircraft off the side of a 200-ft wide runway in
approximately 7 sec under hydroplaning conditions.
Notwithstanding the fact that friction values cannot be given
for a wet runway and that hydroplaning can cause pilots serious difficulties, it has been found that, under light or moderate rain
conditions, well-drained runways seldom accumulate sufficient
standing water for hydroplaning to occur.
1.6.7 Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI)
Application to Aircraft Performance
The information contained in Tables 1.3 and 1.4 has been compiled
and is considered to be the best data available at this time because
it is based upon extensive field test performance data of aircraft
braking on winter-contaminated surfaces. The information
should provide a useful guide to pilots when estimating aircraft performance under adverse runway conditions. The onus for
the production of information, guidance or advice on the
operation of aircraft on a wet and/or contaminated runway rests
with the aircraft manufacturer. The information published in
the TC AIM does not change, create any additional, authorize changes in, or permit deviations from regulatory requirements. These Tables are intended to be used at the pilot’s discretion.
Because of the many variables associated with computing
accelerate-stop distances and balanced field lengths, it has not
been possible to reduce the available data to the point where
CRFI corrections can be provided, which would be applicable
to all types of operations. Consequently, only corrections for
landing distances and crosswinds are included pending further study of the take-off problem.
It should be noted that in all cases the Tables are based on
corrections to aircraft flight manual (AFM) dry runway data
and that the certification criteria does not allow consideration
of the extra decelerating forces provided by reverse thrust or
propeller reversing. On dry runways, thrust reversers provide
only a small portion of the total decelerating forces when
compared to wheel braking. However, as wheel braking becomes
less effective, the portion of the stopping distance attributable to
thrust reversing becomes greater. For this reason, if reversing is
employed when a low CRFI is reported, a comparison of the
actual stopping distance with that shown in Table 1.3 will make
the estimates appear overly conservative. Nevertheless, there
are circumstances—such as crosswind conditions, engine out
situations or reverser malfunctions—that may preclude their use.
Landing distances recommended in Table 1.3 are intended to
be used for aeroplanes with no discing and/or reverse thrust
capability and are based on statistical variation measured during
actual flight tests.
Notwithstanding the above comments on the use of discing and/
or reverse thrust, Table 1.4 may be used for aeroplanes with
discing and/or reverse thrust capability and is based on the
landing distances recommended in Table 1.3 with additional
calculations that give credit for discing and/or reverse thrust.
In calculating the distances in Table 1.4, the air distance from the screen height of 50 ft to touchdown and the delay distance
from touchdown to the application of full braking remain
unchanged from Table 1.3. The effects of discing and/or reverse thrust were used only to reduce the stopping distance from the
application of full braking to a complete stop. The recommen ded
landing distances stated in Table 1.4 take into account the
reduction in landing distances obtained with the use of discing
and/or reverse thrust capability for a turboprop-powered
aeroplane and with the use of reverse thrust for a turbojet-powered
aeroplane. Representative low values of discing and/or reverse thrust effect have been assumed and, therefore, the data may be
conservative for properly executed landings by some aeroplanes
with highly effective discing and/or thrust reversing systems.
The crosswind limits for CRFI shown in Figure 1.1 contain a
slightly different display range of runway friction index values
from those listed in Tables 1.3 and 1.4. However, the CRFI values
used for Figure 1.1 are exactly the same as those used for Tables 1.3 and 1.4 and are appropriate for the index value
increments indicated.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRTable 1.3—CRFI Recommended Landing Distances (No Discing/Reverse Thrust)
Reported Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI)
Landing
Distance
(Feet) Dry 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.18 Landing
Field
Length
(Feet)
Dry Landing
Field
Length
(Feet)
Dry
Unfactored Recommended Landing Distances (no Discing/Reverse Thrust) 60%
Factor70%
Factor
1 800 3 120 3 200 3 300 3 410 3 540 3 700 3 900 4 040 4 150 4 330 4 470 4 620 3 000 2 571
2 000 3 480 3 580 3 690 3 830 3 980 4 170 4 410 4 570 4 700 4 910 5 070 5 250 3 333 2 857
2 200 3 720 3 830 3 960 4 110 4 280 4 500 4 750 4 940 5 080 5 310 5 490 5 700 3 667 3 143
2 400 4 100 4 230 4 370 4 540 4 740 4 980 5 260 5 470 5 620 5 880 6 080 6 300 4 000 3 429
2 600 4 450 4 590 4 750 4 940 5 160 5 420 5 740 5 960 6 130 6 410 6 630 6 870 4 333 3 714
2 800 4 760 4 910 5 090 5 290 5 530 5 810 6 150 6 390 6 570 6 880 7 110 7 360 4 667 4 000
3 000 5 070 5 240 5 430 5 650 5 910 6 220 6 590 6 860 7 060 7 390 7 640 7 920 5 000 4 286
3 200 5 450 5 630 5 840 6 090 6 370 6 720 7 130 7 420 7 640 8 010 8 290 8 600 5 333 4 571
3 400 5 740 5 940 6 170 6 430 6 740 7 110 7 550 7 870 8 100 8 500 8 800 9 130 5 667 4 857
3 600 6 050 6 260 6 500 6 780 7 120 7 510 7 990 8 330 8 580 9 000 9 320 9 680 6 000 5 143
3 800 6 340 6 570 6 830 7 130 7 480 7 900 8 410 8 770 9 040 9 490 9 840 10 220 6 333 5 429
4 000 6 550 6 780 7 050 7 370 7 730 8 170 8 700 9 080 9 360 9 830 10 180 10 580 6 667 5 714
Application of the CRFI
The recommended landing distances in Table 1.3 are based on
a 95 percent level of confidence. A 95 percent level of confidence
means that in more than 19 landings out of 20, the stated distance
in Table 1.3 will be conservative for properly executed landings
with all systems serviceable on runway surfaces with the reported
CRFI.
Table 1.3 will also be conservative for turbojet- and turboprop-
powered aeroplanes with reverse thrust, and additionally, in the case of turboprop-powered aeroplanes, with the effect obtained from discing.
The recommended landing distances in CRFI Table 1.3 are based
on standard pilot techniques for the minimum distance landings
from 50 ft, including a stabilized approach at VRef using a glide
slope of 3° to 50 ft or lower, a firm touchdown, minimum delay
to nose lowering, minimum delay time to deployment of ground
lift dump devices and application of brakes, and sustained
maximum antiskid braking until stopped.
Landing field length is the landing distance divided by 0.6 (turbojets) or 0.7 (turboprops). If the aircraft flight
manual (AFM) expresses landing performance in terms of landing
distance, enter the Table from the left-hand column. However, if the AFM expresses landing performance in terms of landing
field length, enter the Table from one of the right-hand columns,
after first verifying which factor has been used in the AFM.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRTable 1.4—CRFI Recommended Landing Distances (Discing/Reverse Thrust)
Reported Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI)
Landing
Distance
(Feet) Dry0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.18 Landing
Field
Length
(Feet) Dry Landing
Field
Length
(Feet) Dry
Unfactored Recommended Landing Distances (Discing/Reverse Thrust) 60%
Factor 70%
Factor
1 200 2 000 2 040 2 080 2 120 2 170 2 220 2 280 2 340 2 380 2 440 2 490 2 540 2 000 1 714
1 400 2 340 2 390 2 440 2 500 2 580 2 660 2 750 2 820 2 870 2 950 3 010 3 080 2 333 2 000
1 600 2 670 2 730 2 800 2 880 2 970 3 070 3 190 3 280 3 360 3 460 3 540 3 630 2 667 2 286
1 800 3 010 3 080 3 160 3 250 3 350 3 480 3 630 3 730 3 810 3 930 4 030 4 130 3 000 2 571
2 000 3 340 3 420 3 520 3 620 3 740 3 880 4 050 4 170 4 260 4 400 4 510 4 630 3 333 2 857
2 200 3 570 3 660 3 760 3 880 4 020 4 170 4 360 4 490 4 590 4 750 4 870 5 000 3 667 3 143
2 400 3 900 4 000 4 110 4 230 4 380 4 550 4 750 4 880 4 980 5 150 5 270 5 410 4 000 3 429
2 600 4 200 4 300 4 420 4 560 4 710 4 890 5 100 5 240 5 350 5 520 5 650 5 790 4 333 3 714
2 800 4 460 4 570 4 700 4 840 5 000 5 190 5 410 5 560 5 670 5 850 5 980 6 130 4 667 4 000
3 000 4 740 4 860 5 000 5 160 5 340 5 550 5 790 5 950 6 070 6 270 6 420 6 580 5 000 4 286
3 200 5 080 5 220 5 370 5 550 5 740 5 970 6 240 6 420 6 560 6 770 6 940 7 110 5 333 4 571
3 400 5 350 5 500 5 660 5 850 6 060 6 310 6 590 6 790 6 930 7 170 7 340 7 530 5 667 4 857
3 600 5 620 5 780 5 960 6 160 6 390 6 650 6 960 7 170 7 320 7 570 7 750 7 950 6 000 5 143
3 800 5 890 6 060 6 250 6 460 6 700 6 980 7 310 7 540 7 700 7 970 8 160 8 380 6 333 5 429
4 000 6 070 6 250 6 440 6 660 6 910 7 210 7 540 7 780 7 950 8 220 8 430 8 650 6 667 5 714
Application of the CRFI
The recommended landing distances in Table 1.4 are based on
a 95 percent level of confidence. A 95 percent level of confidence
means that in more than 19 landings out of 20, the stated distance
in Table 1.4 will be conservative for properly executed landings
with all systems serviceable on runway surfaces with the reported
CRFI.
The recommended landing distances in Table 1.4 take into
account the reduction in landing distances obtained with the
use of discing and/or reverse thrust capability for a turboprop-
powered aeroplane and with the use of reverse thrust for a
turbojet-powered aeroplane. Table 1.4 is based on the landing
distances recommended in Table 1.3 with additional calculations
that give credit for discing and/or reverse thrust. Representative
low values of discing and/or reverse thrust effect have been
assumed, hence the data will be conservative for properly executed
landings by some aeroplanes with highly effective discing and/
or thrust reversing systems.The recommended landing distances in CRFI Table 1.4 are based
on standard pilot techniques for the minimum distance landings
from 50 ft, including a stabilized approach at VRef using a glide
slope of 3° to 50 ft or lower, a firm touchdown, minimum delay
to nose lowering, minimum delay time to deployment of ground
lift dump devices and application of brakes and discing and/or reverse thrust, and sustained maximum antiskid braking until stopped. In Table 1.4, the air distance from the screen height of 50 ft to touchdown and the delay distance from touchdown to
the application of full braking remain unchanged from Table 1.3.
The effects of discing/reverse thrust were used only to reduce
the stopping distance from the application of full braking to a complete stop.
Landing field length is the landing distance divided by 0.6
(turbojets) or 0.7 (turboprops). If the AFM expresses landing
performance in terms of landing distance, enter the Table from
the left-hand column. However, if the AFM expresses landing
performance in terms of landing field length, enter the Table from
one of the right-hand columns, after first verifying which factor has been used in the AFM.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRFigure 1.1—Crosswind Limits for CRFI
This chart provides information for calculating headwind and
crosswind components. The vertical lines indicate the
recommended maximum crosswind component for
reported CRFI.
Example:
CYOW CRFI 07/25 -4C .30 1201191200
Tower Wind 110° 20 kt.
The wind is 40° off the runway heading and produces a headwind
component of l5 kt and a crosswind component of l3 kt. The
recommended minimum CRFI for a l3-kt crosswind component
is .35. A takeoff or landing with a CRFI of .3 could result in
uncontrollable drifting and yawing. The CRFI depends on the surface type, as shown in Table 1.5(a)
a. It should be noted that:
(a) the CRFI values given in Table 1.5(a) are applicable to all
temperatures. Extensive measurements have shown that
there is no correlation between the CRFI and the surface
temperature. The case where the surface temperature is just
at the melting point (i.e. about 0°C) may be an exception,
as a water film may form from surface melting, which could
induce slippery conditions with CRFIs less than those in
Table 1.5(a).
(b) the CRFI may span a range of values for various reasons,
such as variations in texture among surfaces within a given
surface class. The expected maximum and minimum CRFIs
for various surfaces are listed in Table 1.5(b). Note that these
values are based on a combination of analyses of extensive measurements and sound engineering judgment.
(c) the largest range in CRFI is to be expected for a thin layer
(3 mm or less in thickness) of dry snow on pavement
(Table 1.5(a)). This variation may occur due to:
(i) non-uniform snow coverage; and/or
(ii) the tires breaking through the thin layer.
In either case, the surface presented to the aircraft may range
from snow to pavement.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRTable 1.5(a)—Expected Range of CRFI by Surface TypeDry Snow
on Various Substrates Snow Ice
.9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 1
Maximum braking CRFI The range is the 95 percent confidence interval of a large set of measured data
Dry snow on packed snow
Dry snow on ice
Dry snow on pavement
Sanded packed snow
Bare packed snow
Sanded ice
Bare ice
Minimum braking0snow depth greater than 3 mm to 25 mm
0.07 0.22 0.16 0.76snow depth greater than 3 mm to 25 mm
0.21 0.39snow depth greater than 3 mm to 25 mm
0.08 0.27snow depth 3 mm or less
snow depth 3 mm or less
snow depth 3 mm or less 0.12 0.31
Table 1.5(b)—Minimum and Maximum CRFI for Various Surfaces
SURFACE LOWER CRFI LIMIT UPPER CRFI LIMIT
Bare Ice No Limit 0.3
Bare Packed Snow 0.1 0.4
Sanded Ice 0.1 0.4
Sanded Packed Snow 0.1 0.5
Dry Snow on Ice (depth 3 mm or less) No Limit 0.4
Dry Snow on Ice (depth 3 to 25 mm) No Limit 0.4
Dry Snow on Packed Snow (depth 3 mm or less) 0.1 0.4
Dry Snow on Packed Snow (depth 3 to 25 mm) 0.1 0.4
Dry Snow on Pavement (depth 3 mm or less) 0.1 Dry Pavement
Dry Snow on Pavement (depth 3 mm to 25 mm) 0.1 Dry Pavement
1.7 JET AND PROPELLER BLAST DANGER
Jet aircraft are classified into three categories according to engine
size. The danger areas are similar to those shown in Figure 1.1
and are used by ground control personnel and pilots. The danger
areas have been determined for ground idle and take-off thrust
settings associated with each category.
As newer aircraft are designed to handle more weight, larger
engines are being used. Executive jets may have thrusts of up to 15 000 lb; medium jets may have thrusts of up to 35 000 lb; and
some jumbo jets now have thrusts in excess of 100 000 lb. Therefore,
caution should be used when interpreting the danger areas for
ground idle and take-off thrust settings, as some of the distances shown in Figure 1.1 may need to be increased significantly. Pilots should exercise caution when operating near active runways and
taxiways. With the use of intersecting runways, there is an increased
possibility of jet blast or propeller wash affecting other aircraft at
the aerodrome. This can occur while both aircraft are on the
ground or about to take off or land. Pilots taxiing in close proximity
to active runways should be careful when their jet blast or propeller
wash is directed towards an active runway. Pilots operating behind
a large aircraft, whether on the ground or in the take-off or landing
phase, should be aware of the possibility of encountering localized
high wind velocities.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRFigure 1.2—Jet Blast Danger Areas (Not To Scale)
(ENGINE THRUSTS: 25 000 LBS
UP TO 100 000 LBS)
(ENGINE THRUSTS: 10 000 LBS
UP TO 35 000 LBS)
(ENGINE THRUSTS
UP TO 15 000 LBS )
600 ft 1 600 ft450 ft 1 200 ft200 ft
500 ft
80 ft
150 ft275 ft250 ft
No information is available for supersonic transport aircraft or
for military jet aircraft. Many of these aircraft are pure-jet aircraft
with high exhaust velocities for their size, and may or may not
use afterburner during the take-off phase. Thus, great caution should be used when operating near these aircraft.
Lastly, it should be noted that light aircraft with high wings and
narrow-track undercarriages are more susceptible to jet blast
and propeller wash related hazards than heavier aircraft with
low wings and wide-track undercarriages. The following is a Table showing the expected speed of the blast
created by large turbo-prop aeroplanes:
Table 1.6—Expected Large Turbo-Prop Blast Speed
DISTANCE
BEHIND
PROPELLERS LEAVING
PARKED AREATAXIING TAKING OFF
ft kt kt kt
80 47 36 60–70
100 47 36 50–60
120 36 28 40–50
140 36 28 35–45
180 – – 20–301.8 MARSHALLING SIGNALS
Marshalling signals for the guidance of aircraft on the ground are set out in section 5 of ICAO Annex 2. These signals should be used in order to standardize signalling between ground and flight personnel when required for aircraft entering, departing or manoeuvring within the movement area of an aerodrome.
NOTES :
1. Marshalling signals are designed for use by the marshaller,
with hands illuminated as necessary to facilitate observation
by the pilot, and facing the aircraft in a position:
(a) for fixed-wing aircraft, on the left side of the aircraft,
where best seen by the pilot; and
(b) for helicopters, where the marshaller can best be seen by the pilot.
2. The aircraft engines are numbered from left to right, with
the No. 1 engine being the left outer engine. That is right
to left for a marshaller facing the aircraft.
3. Signals marked with an asterisk (*) are designed for use
with hovering helicopters.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRMarshalling Signals Diagram
Signal Description
1.Wingwalker/guide
Raise right hand above head
level with wand pointing up;move left-hand wand pointing down toward body.
NOTE:This signal provides
an indication by a person positioned at the aircraft wing tip, to the pilot/ marshaller/push-back operator, that the aircraft movement on/off a parking position would be unobstructed.
Identify gate
Raise fully extended arms straight above head with wands pointing up.
Proceed to next
marshaller as directed
by tower/ground control
Point both arms upward; move and extend arms outward to sides of body and point with wands to direction of next marshaller or taxi area.
Straight ahead
Bend extended arms at elbows and move wands up and down from chest height to head.
5. a)
Turn left (from pilot’s
point of view)
With right arm and wand extended at a 90-degree angle to body, make “come ahead” signal with left hand. The rate of signal motion indicates to pilot the rate of aircraft turn. Signal Description
5. b)Turn right (from pilot’s
point of view)
With left arm and wand extended at a 90-degree angle to body, make “come ahead” signal with right hand. The rate of signal motion indicates to pilot the rate of aircraft turn.
6. a)
Normal stop
Fully extend arms and wands at a 90-degree angle to sides and slowly move to above head until wands cross.
6. b)
Emergency stop
Abruptly extend arms and wands to top of head, crossing wands.
7. a)
Set brakes
Raise hand just above shoulder height with open palm. Ensuring eye contact with flight crew, close hand into a fist. Do not move until receipt of “thumbs up” acknowledgement from flight crew.
7. b)
Release brakes
Raise hand just above shoulder height with hand closed in a fist. Ensuring eye contact with flight crew, open palm. Do not move until receipt of “thumbs up” acknowledgement from flight crew.
8. a)
Chocks inserted
With arms and wands fully extended above head, move wands inward in a “jabbing” motion until wands touch. Ensure acknowledgement is received from flight crew.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRSignal Description
8. b)Chocks removed
With arms and wands fully
extended above head, move wands outward in a “jabbing” motion. Do not remove chocks until authorized by flight crew.
Start engine(s)
Raise right arm to head level with wand pointing up and start a circular motion with hand; at the same time, with left arm raised above head level, point to engine to
be started.
Cut engines
Extend arm with wand
forward of body at shoulder level; move hand and wand to top of left shoulder and draw wand to top of right shoulder in a slicing motion across throat.
Slow down
Move extended arms downwards in a “patting” gesture, moving wands up and down from waist to knees.
Slow down engine(s)on
indicated side
With arms down and wands toward ground, wave either right or left wand up and down indicating engine(s) on left or right side respectively should be slowed down.
Move back
With arms in front of body at waist height, rotate arms in a forward motion. To stop rearward movement, use signal 6.a) or 6.b).Signal Description
14. a)Turns while backing
(for tail to starboard)
Point left arm with wand down and bring right arm from overhead vertical position to horizontal forward position, repeating right-arm movement.
14. b)
Turns while backing
(for tail to port)
Point right arm with wand down and bring left arm from overhead vertical position to horizontal forward position, repeating left-arm movement.
Affirmative/all clear
Raise right arm to head level with wand pointing up or display hand with “thumbs up”; left arm remains at side by knee.
NOTE: This signal is also
used as a technical/servicing
communication signal.
*16.
Hover
Fully extend arms and wands at a 90-degree angle to sides.
*17.
Move upwards
Fully extend arms and wands at a 90-degree angle to sides and, with palms turned up, move hands upwards. Speed of movement indicates rate of ascent.
*18.
Move downwards
Fully extend arms and wands at a 90-degree angle to sides and, with palms turned down, move hands down-wards. Speed of movement indicates rate of descent.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRSignal Description
*19. a)Move horizontally left
(from pilot’s point of
view)
Extend arm horizontally at
a 90-degree angle to right side of body. Move other arm in same direction in a sweeping motion.
*19. b)
Move horizontally right
(from pilot’s point of
view)
Extend arm horizontally at a 90-degree angle to left side of body. Move other arm in same direction in a sweeping motion.
*20.
Land
Cross arms with wands downwards and in front of body.
Fire
Move right-hand wand in a “fanning” motion from shoulder to knee, while at the same time pointing with left-hand wand to area of fire.
Hold position/stand by
Fully extend arms and wands downwards at a 45-degree angle to sides. Hold position until aircraft is clear for next manoeuvre.
Dispatch aircraft
Perform a standard salute with right hand and/or wand to dispatch the aircraft. Maintain eye contact with flight crew until aircraft has begun to taxi.
Do not touch controls
(technical/servicing
communication signal)
Extend right arm fully above head and close fist or hold wand in horizontal position; left arm remains at side by knee.Signal Description
25.Connect ground power
(technical/servicing
communication signal)
Hold arms fully extended above head; open left hand horizontally and move finger tips of right hand into and touch open palm of left hand (forming a “T”). At night, illuminated wands can also be used to form the “T” above head.
Disconnect power
(technical/servicing
communication signal)
Hold arms fully extended above head with finger tips of right hand touching open horizontal palm of left hand (forming a “T”); then move right hand away from the left. Do not disconnect power until authorized by flight crew. At night, illuminated wands can also be used to form the “T” above head.
Negative (technical/
servicing
communication signal)
Hold right arm straight out at 90 degrees from shoulder and point wand down to ground or display hand with “thumbs down”; left hand remains at side by knee.
Establish
communication via
interphone (technical/
servicing
communication signal)
Extend both arms at 90 degrees from body and move hands to cup both ears.
Open/close stairs
(technical/servicing
communication signal)
With right arm at side and left arm raised above head at a 45-degree angle, move right arm in a sweeping motion towards top of left shoulder.
NOTE:This signal is intended
mainly for aircraft with the set of integral stairs at the front.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRTable 1.7—Aircraft Pilot Marshalling Signals
to a Marshaller
Meaning of Signal Description of Signal
Brakes engaged Raise arm and hand, with fingers
extended, horizontally in front of face, then clench fist.
Brakes released Raise arm, with fist clenched, horizontally in front of face, then extend fingers.
Insert chocks Arms extended, palms outwards, move hands inwards to cross in front of face.
Remove chocks Hands crossed in front of face, palms outwards, move arms outwards.
Ready to start the engine(s)Raise the appropriate number of fingers on one hand indicating the number of the engine to
be started.
2.0 FLIGHT OPERATIONS
2.1 GENERAL
This section provides airmanship information on various flight
operations subjects.
2.2 CROSSWIND LANDING LIMITATIONS
Approximately 10% of all aircraft accidents involving light aircraft
in Canada are attributed to pilot failure to compensate for
crosswind conditions on landing.
Light aircraft manufactured in the United States are designed
to withstand, on landing, 90° crosswinds up to a velocity equal
to 0.2 (20%) of their stalling speed.
This information in conjunction with the known stalling speed
of a particular aircraft makes it possible to use the following
crosswind component graph to derive a “general rule” for most
light aircraft manufactured in the United States. The aircraft
owner’s manual may give higher or limiting crosswinds. Examples
follow. Figure 2.1—Crosswind Landing Limitations
Table 2.1—Example of an Aircraft With
a Stalling Speed of 60 MPH
WIND-DEGREE PERMISSIBLE
WIND SPEEDS
90° (0.2 x 60 MPH stalling speed) 12 MPH
60° using crosswind component graph 14 MPH
30° using crosswind component graph 24 MPH
15° using crosswind component graph 48 MPH
Table 2.2—Example of an Aircraft With
a Stalling Speed of 50 KIAS
WIND-DEGREE PERMISSIBLE
WIND SPEEDS
90° (0.2 x 50 kt stalling speed) 10 kt
60° using crosswind component graph 12 kt
30° using crosswind component graph 20 kt
15° using crosswind component graph 40 kt
2.3 CARBURETOR ICING
Carburetor icing is a common cause of general aviation accidents.
Fuel injected engines have very few induction system icing
accidents, but otherwise no aeroplane and engine combination
stands out. Most carburetor icing related engine failure happens
during normal cruise. Possibly, this is a result of decreased pilot
awareness that carburetor icing will occur at high power settings
as well as during descents with reduced power. In most accidents involving carburetor icing, the pilot has not
fully understood the carburetor heat system of the aircraft and
what occurs when it is selected. Moreover, it is difficult to understand the countermeasures unless the process of ice
formation in the carburetor is understood. Detailed descriptions
of this process are available in most good aviation reference
publications and any AME employed on type can readily explain
the carburetor heat system. The latter is especially important
because of differences in systems. The pilot must learn to accept a rough-running engine for a minute or so as the heat melts and loosens the ice which is then ingested into the engine.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRFigure 2.2—Carburetor Icing
The following chart provides the range of temperature and
relative humidity which could induce carburetor icing.
+30º
+20º+10º
0º
-10º
-20º
Relative HumidityFOG/CLOUD
-20º -10º 0º +10º +20º +30º +40100%
80% 60%
40%
20 %Serious icing—any power
Moderate icing—cruise power
Serious icing—descent power
Serious icing—
descent power
Light icing—cruise
or descent powerWORLD WIDE
Approximative
upper limits of dew point
NW EUROPE
Dew point (°C)
Temperature (°C)
NOTE :
This chart is not valid when operating on MOGAS. Due to its
higher volatility, MOGAS is more susceptible to the formation of carburetor icing. In severe cases, ice may form at OATs up to 20°C higher than with AVGAS.
2.4 LOW FLYING
Warn ing—Intentional low flying is hazardous. Transport
Canada advises pilots that low flying, especially for weather avoidance, is a high-risk activity.
Before conducting any low flying, the pilot should be clear about
the purpose and legality of the exercise. Accordingly, all
preparations in terms of assessment of the terrain to be overflown,
obstacles along the flight path, weather conditions, aircraft
performance, and selection of appropriate charts are important for safe completion of the flight.
Normally, 300 ft AGL high objects or more (or lower ones if
deemed hazardous) are depicted on visual navigational charts.
However, because there is only limited knowledge over the
erection of man-made objects, there can be no guarantee that
all such structures are known. Also, an object which is known may not yet be included for the amendment cycle of the chart.
Thus, an additional risk is added to the already hazardous practice
of low flying.
Furthermore, even though structures assessed as potential
hazards to air navigation are required to be marked, including
special high-intensity strobe lighting for all structures 500 ft
AGL and higher, the majority of aircraft collisions with man-
made structures occur at levels below 300 ft AGL (see AGA 6.0).
Low flying can imply a constrained situation in which it may
be difficult to take the normal evasive action to widely avoid an
obstacle. In such an instance, guy wires that can be up to 45°
from a tower become of importance. There have been incidents in which the tower itself was avoided, but a guy wire was struck by the aircraft.2.4.1 Birds and Sensitive Fauna
Birds usually fly relatively low, and most birds fly below 500 ft. However, during migration, birds may climb to higher altitudes and can often be seen around 2 500 to 3 000 ft, although some may even climb up to 20 000 ft. While takeoff and landing are
considered to have the highest rate of wildlife strikes and damage,
en route aircraft have also reported damage from hitting birds. The speed at which the aircraft is travelling affects the amount of damage that the bird may cause, and it is recommended that aircraft do not travel at low altitudes when possible to decrease this potential risk.
Conversely, low flying can also pose a danger to wildlife and
farm animals. Refer to AIP Canada ENR paragraphs 5.6.5
and 5.6.6.
2.4.2 Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA)
Pilots need to be aware that RPA present a new hazard at low
altitudes. RPA are difficult to see at distances necessary to avoid
collision with other aircraft because they are relatively small
and for the most part present low contrast against the available
background. Several collisions with other aircraft have occurred
despite the requirement for RPA pilots to give way to traditional aircraft that are typically travelling at a much higher speed.
Because it is low flying, the RPA is exposed to the same hazards
identified herein and increasingly so with the introduction of
beyond visual line-of-sight (BVLOS) operations such as power
transmission line inspection and pipeline inspection. But RPA
have additional hazards in the form of objects (e.g. buildings)
that can result in loss of visual contact or disruption of the radio link. Refer to RPA 3.2.11.2.
2.4.3 Flying Near High-Voltage Power Lines
Wire-strikes account for a significant number of low flying
accidents. A number of these accidents occur over level terrian, in good weather, and at very low altitudes.
The line of structures of high voltage powerlines are easy to see,
but when flying in their vicinity, pilots must take the time to
look for what is really there and use safe procedures. The human
eye has limitations, so if the background landscape does not
provide sufficient contrast, pilots will not see a wire or cable.
Although hydro structures are big and generally quite visible, a
hidden danger exists in the wires between them.
Figure 2.3—Flying Near Powerlines
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRThe figure shown above emphasizes this point. The bundle of
current-carrying phase conductors is made up of several heavy wires. These heavy, sagging phase conductors are about 2 in. in diameter and are relatively visible, so they tend to distract pilots
from seeing the upper shield or lightning protection wires, which
are of much smaller diameter and may not be visible.
The shield wires do not sag the way the phase conductors do
and are difficult to pick out even in good visibility. The only way
to be safe is to avoid the span portion of the line and always
cross at a tower, maintaining a safe altitude and as much clearance
as possible.
(a) When following power lines, remain on the right-hand side
relative to the direction of the flight and watch for other
crossing powerlines and guy cables. Note that sometimes
only one side of the powerline is available to fly along safely (due to trees, obstacles, rising terrain, etc.).
(b) Expect radio and electrical interference in the vicinity of
powerlines.
(c) For operational low flying, do an overflight and map
check first.
(d) Leave yourself an “out”—cross at 45° to the line.
(e) Reduce speed in lower visibilities.
2.4.4 Transmission Line Catenaries
Transmission line catenaries pose a particular risk to low flying aircraft.
In contrast to distribution powerlines, which are usually of low
voltage and tend to follow a roadway, transmission powerlines are typically high voltage (more than 69 kV) and extend across
the countryside from a generating source to a distant load centre.
In the process, they cross over major roadways, rivers, valleys,
or straits for which the wires may or may not be marked depending
on height and local air traffic conditions. Pilots operating at low
altitudes must make themselves aware of these crossings and
exercise extreme caution.
Where markers are provided, they are usually placed on the
highest line, which is the shield wire for lightning protection.
However, because of design issues, the markers may be located on the lower phase conductors. The purpose of the markers is
not to indicate the height of the catenary, but rather the presence
of an obstacle, as shown in Figure 2.4 below.
As in the case of flying near powerlines (2.4.1), the pilot should
always fly above the height of the support structures .
Figure 2.4—Flying Over Catenaries
2.4.5 Logging Operations
Extensive use is made in logging operations of equipment potentially hazardous to aircraft operations. These include
highlead spars, grapple yarders and skyline cranes.
When highlead spars or grapple yarders are used, hauling and
guyline cables radiate from the top of the spar or boom. Cables may cross small valleys or be anchored on side hills behind the
spar. While spars generally do not exceed 130 ft AGL and are
conspicuously painted, the cable system may be difficult to see. This type of equipment operates from a series of logging roads.
Figure 2.5—Highlead Spar
By contrast, skyline cranes consist of a single skyline cable
anchored at the top and bottom of a long slope and supported
by one or several intermediate poles. This cable generally follows
the slope contour about 100 ft AGL but may also cross draws
and gullies and may be at heights in excess of 100 ft AGL. Skyline
cables are virtually invisible from the air. Their presence is
indicated by active or recently completed logging and the absence
of a defined series of logging roads, although a few roads may be present.
Pilots operating in areas where logging is prevalent must be
aware when operating below 300 ft AGL that these types of
equipment exist and do not always carry standard obstacle
paint markings.
2.4.6 Hydrokinetic Energy System
A situation similar to logging occurs for a hydrokinetic energy
system for which energy is produced by a barge carried by incoming and outgoing tides. The cable runs through an
underwater pulley base to a winch house located on the side of
the estuary. As the barge is pulled with the tide, the cable is
placed in tension and is exposed away from a cliff side, as shown
in Figure 2.6. Only the winch house may be marked. Pilots should
take care when flying in areas that may have such energy
systems installed.
Figure 2.6—Hydrokinetic Energy System
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIR2.4.7 Wind Farms with a Dimming System
Some wind farms may have a dimming system that changes the
intensity of the wind-turbine lighting according to measured
visibility. This is for the purpose of addressing residential
complaints about the glare received from beacon lights on the
nacelle. As visibility improves, lighting intensity is reduced. The
wind farm has numerous visibility sensors installed on selected
wind turbines so that the intensity reduction is not dependent
upon a single sensor. The determined intensity is that associated
with the worst reported visibility amongst the community of
visibility sensors.
Pilots should note that there can be a rare situation when the
weather condition they are flying in has not yet reached a sensor
on the wind farm. In short, the windfarm might be sensing, at
its location, a higher visibility than that of the pilot. In such a
situation, the reduced intensity of lights at the wind farm should
still be sufficient to provide adequate acquisition distance for
avoidance when flying at the night minimum of 3 statute miles (SM). However, choosing to fly at significantly below
minimum visibility can result in inadequate acquisition distance
being available. Therefore, pilots should avoid flying in reduced visibility in areas that may have a wind farm.
2.4.8 Blasting Operations
Blasting operations such as those associated with the logging
industry, mining, and construction are also a concern when it
comes to low flying. The trajectory of debris from blasting varies
with the type of explosive, the material being excavated, and
any tree canopies, if any. These blasting activities may not be
advertised by a NOTAM.
Figure 2.7—Blasting Operations
2.5 FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN RAIN
An error in vision can occur when flying in rain. The presence of rain on the windscreen, in addition to causing poor visibility,
introduces a refraction error. This error is because of two things:
firstly, the reduced transparency of the rain-covered windscreen
causes the eye to see a horizon below the true one (because of
the eye response to the relative brightness of the upper bright
part and the lower dark part); and secondly, the shape and pattern
of the ripples formed on the windscreen, particularly on sloping
ones, which cause objects to appear lower. The error may be
present as a result of one or other of the two causes, or of both, in which case it is cumulative and is of the order of about 5° in angle. Therefore, a hilltop or peak 1/2 NM ahead of an aircraft could appear to be approximately 260 ft lower, (230 ft lower at 1/2 SM) than it actually is. Pilots should remember this additional hazard when flying in
conditions of low visibility in rain and should maintain sufficient
altitude and take other precautions, as necessary, to allow for
the presence of this error. Also, pilots should ensure proper
terrain clearance during en route flight and on final approach to landing.
2.6 FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN
VOLCANIC ASH
Flight operations in volcanic ash are hazardous. Experience has shown that damage can occur to aircraft surfaces, windshields
and powerplants. Aircraft heat and vent systems, as well as
hydraulic and electronic systems, can also be contaminated.
Powerplant failures are a common result of flight in volcanic
ash, with turbine engines being particularly susceptible.
Simultaneous power loss in all engines has occurred. In addition,
volcanic ash is normally very heavy; accumulations of it within the wings and tail section have been encountered, with adverse effects on aircraft weight and balance.
Aviation ATS surveillance is not effective in detecting volcanic
ash clouds. There is no reliable information regarding volcanic
ash concentrations which might be minimally acceptable for
flight. Recent data suggests that “old” volcanic ash still represents
a considerable hazard to safety of flight. Pilots are cautioned
that ash from volcanic eruptions can rapidly reach heights in
excess of FL 600 and be blown downwind of the source for
considerable distances. Encounters affecting aircraft performance
have occurred 2 400 NM from the ash source and up to 72 hours after an eruption.
Therefore: if an ash cloud is visible to a pilot, entry into the cloud
must be avoided.
The risk of entering ash in IMC or night conditions is particularly
dangerous, owing to the absence of a clear visual warning.
Therefore: if PIREPs, SIGMETs (see MET 6.0), NOTAM (see
MAP 3.0), and analysis of satellite imagery and/or ash cloud
trajectory forecasts indicate that ash might be present within a
given airspace, that airspace must be avoided until it can be
determined to be safe for entry.
St. Elmo’s fire is usually a telltale sign of a night encounter,
although rapid onset of engine problems may be the first indication. Pilots should exit the cloud expeditiously while
following any engine handling instructions provided in the
aircraft flight manuals for such circumstances.
Pilots should be aware that they may be the first line of volcanic
eruptions detection in more remote areas. In the initial phase
of any eruption there may be little or no information available
to advise pilots of the new ash hazard. If an eruption or ash cloud
is observed, an urgent PIREP (see MET 2.5 and 2.1.1) should be
filed with the nearest ATS unit.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIR2.7 FLIGHT OPERATION NEAR
THUNDERSTORMS
2.7.1 General
Thunderstorms are capable of containing nearly all weather
hazards known to aviation. These include tornadoes, turbulence,
squall line, microburst, heavy updrafts and downdrafts, icing,
hail, lightning, precipitation static, heavy precipitation, low
ceiling and visibility.
There is no useful correlation between the external visual
appearance of a thunderstorm and the severity or amount of
turbulence or hail within it. The visible thunderstorm cloud is
only a portion of a turbulent system of updrafts and downdrafts
that often extend far beyond. Severe turbulence may extend up
to 20 NM from severe thunderstorms.
Airborne or ground based weather radar will normally reflect
areas of precipitation. The frequency and severity of turbulence
associated with the areas of high water content generally increases
the radar return. No flight path, through an area of strong or
very strong radar echoes separated by 40 NM or less, can be
considered free of severe turbulence.
Turbulence beneath a thunderstorm should not be underestimated.
This is especially true when the relative humidity is low. There may be nothing to see until you enter strong out-flowing winds and severe turbulence.
The probability of lightning strikes occurring to aircraft is greatest
when operating at altitudes where temperatures are between
-5°C and 5°C. Lightning can strike aircraft flying in clear air in
the vicinity of a thunderstorm. Lightning can puncture the skin
of an aircraft, damage electronic equipment, cause engine failure
and induce permanent error in magnetic compasses.
Engine Water Ingestion
If the updraft velocity in the thunderstorm approaches or exceeds
the terminal falling velocity of the falling raindrops, very high
concentrations of water may occur. It is possible that these
concentrations may exceed the quantity of water that a turbine engine is capable of ingesting. Therefore, severe thunderstorms
may contain areas of high water concentration which could
result in a flameout or structural failure of one or more engines.
Note that lightning can also cause compressor stalls or flameouts.
PIREP
Remember, a timely PIREP will allow you and others to make the right decision earlier. 2.7.2 Considerations
(a) Above all, never think of a thunderstorm as “light” even
though the radar shows echoes of light intensity. Avoiding thunderstorms is the best policy. Remember that vivid and
frequent lightning indicates a severe activity in the
thunderstorm and that any thunderstorm with tops 35 000 ft
or higher is severe. Whenever possible:
(i) don’t land or take off when a thunderstorm is
approaching. The sudden wind shift of the gust front
or low-level turbulence could result in loss of control;
(ii) don’t attempt to fly under a thunderstorm even when
you can see through to the other side. Turbulence
under the storm could be disastrous;
(iii) avoid any area where thunderstorms are covering
5/8 or more of that area;
(iv) don’t fly into a cloud mass containing embedded
thunderstorms without airborne radar;
(v) avoid by at least 20 NM any thunderstorm identified
as severe or giving intense radar returns. This
includes the anvil of a large cumulonimbus; and
(vi) clear the top of a known or suspected severe
thunderstorm by at least 1 000 ft altitude for each
10 kt of wind speed at the cloud top.
(b) If you cannot avoid an area of thunderstorms, consider these
points:
(i) Tighten your seat belt and shoulder harness; secure all loose objects.
(ii) Plan a course that will take you through the storm area in a minimum time and hold it.
(iii) Avoid the most critical icing areas, by penetrating
at an altitude below the freezing level or above the level of -15°C.
(iv) Check that pitot, carburetor or jet inlet heat are on.
Icing can be rapid and may result in almost
instantaneous power failure or airspeed indication
loss.
(v) Set the power settings for turbulence penetration
airspeed recommended in your aircraft manual.
(vi) Turn up cockpit lights to its highest intensity to
minimize temporary blindness from lightning.
(vii) When using the auto-pilot, disengage the altitude
hold mode and the speed hold mode. The automatic
altitude and speed controls will increase manoeuvres
of the aircraft, thus increasing structural stresses.
(viii) Tilt the airborne radar antenna up and down occasionally. This may detect hail or a growing
thunderstorm cell.
(c) If you enter a thunderstorm:
(i) Concentrate on your instruments; looking outside
increases the danger of temporary blindness
from lightning.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIR(ii) Don’t change power settings; maintain the settings
for turbulence penetration airspeed.
(iii) Don’t attempt to keep a constant rigid altitude; let
the aircraft “ride the waves”. Manoeuvres in trying
to maintain constant altitude increases stress on the
aircraft. If altitude cannot be maintained, inform
ATC as soon as possible.
(iv) Don’t turn back once you have entered a thunderstorm.
Maintaining heading through the storm will get you
out of the storm faster than a turn. In addition, turning
manoeuvres increases stress on the aircraft
2.8 LOW-LEVEL WIND SHEAR (WS)
Relatively recent meteorological studies have confirmed the
existence of the “burst” phenomena. These are small-scale, intense downdrafts which, on reaching the surface, spread
outward from the downflow centre. This causes the presence of
both vertical and horizontal wind shear (WS) that can be
extremely hazardous to all types and categories of aircraft.
Figure 2.8—Low-Level Wind Shear
Wind shear may create a severe hazard for aircraft within 1 000 ft
AGL, particularly during the approach to landing and in the
takeoff phases. On takeoff, this aircraft may encounter a headwind
(performance increasing) (1) followed by a downdraft (2), and tailwind (3) (both performance decreasing).
Pilots should heed wind shear pilot weather reports (PIREPs)
as a previous pilot’s encounter with a wind shear may be the
only warning. Alternate actions should be considered when a
wind shear has been reported.
Characteristics of microbursts include:
(a) Size - Approximately 1 NM in diameter at 2 000 ft AGL
with a horizontal extent at the surface of approximately 2 to
2 1/2 NM.
(b) Intensity - Vertical winds as high as 6 000 ft/min. Horizontal
winds giving as much as 45 kt at the surface (i.e. 90 kt shear).
(c) Types - microbursts are normally accompanied by heavy
rain in areas where the air is very humid. However, in drier
areas, falling raindrops may have sufficient time and distance
to evaporate before reaching the ground. This is known as
VIRGA. (d) Duration - The life-cycle of a microburst from the initial
downburst to dissipation will seldom be longer than 15 minutes
with maximum intensity winds lasting approximately
2 - 4 minutes. Sometimes microbursts are concentrated into
a line structure and under these conditions, activity may
continue for as long as an hour. Once microburst activity
starts, multiple microbursts in the same general area are
common and should be expected.
The best defence against wind shear is to avoid it altogether
because it could be beyond your capabilities or those of your
aircraft. However, if you do recognize WS, prompt action is
required. In all aircraft, the recovery could require full power
and a pitch attitude consistent with the maximum angle of attack
for your aircraft. Aircraft equipped with wind shear detection and warning systems may be provided with guidance to escape WS or, in the case of Predictive Wind Shear Systems (PWSs), to
avoid it (see MET 2.3). For more information on WS, consult
the Air Command Weather Manual (TP 9352E).
If you experience WS, advise air traffic services (ATS) (see
RAC 6.1) and warn others, as soon as possible, by sending a
PIREP to the ground facility.
2.9 WAKE TURBULENCE
Wake turbulence is caused by wing-tip vortices and is a by-product
of lift. The higher air pressure under the wings tries to move to
the lower air pressure on top of the wings by flowing towards
the wing tips, where it rotates and flows into the lower pressure
on top of the wings. This results in a twisting rotary motion that
is very pronounced at the wing tips and continues to spill over
the top in a downward spiral. Therefore, the wake consists of
two counter-rotating cylindrical vortices.
Figure 2.9—Wake Turbulence
Vortex Strength
The strength of these vortices is governed by the shape of the
wings, and the weight and speed of the aircraft; the most
significant factor is weight. The greatest vortex strength occurs
under conditions of heavy weight, clean configuration, and slow
speed. The strength of the vortex shows little dissipation at
altitude within 2 min of the time of initial formation. Beyond
2 min, varying degrees of dissipation occur along the vortex
path; first in one vortex and then in the other. The break-up of
vortices is affected by atmospheric turbulence; the greater the
turbulence, the more rapid the dissipation of the vortices.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRInduced Roll
Aircraft flying directly into the core of a vortex will tend to roll
with the vortex. The capability of counteracting the roll depends
on the wing span and control responsiveness of the aircraft.
When the wing span and ailerons of a larger aircraft extend
beyond the vortex, counter-roll control is usually effective, and
the effect of the induced roll can be minimized. Pilots of short wing span aircraft must be especially alert to vortex situations, even though their aircraft are of the high-performance type.
Helicopter Vortices
In the case of a helicopter, similar vortices are created by the
rotor blades. However, the problems created are potentially
greater than those caused by a fixed-wing aircraft because the helicopter’s lower operating speeds produce more concentrated wakes than fixed-wing aircraft.
Helicopters produce a pair of high-velocity trailing vortices
similar to wingtip vortices of large fixed-wing aircraft; the heavier
the helicopter, the more intense the wake turbulence. These
vortices not only affect the air behind a helicopter but can also spread over a large area and drift with the wind. Pilots of small
aircraft should use caution and adjust their trajectory when
operating or crossing behind helicopters. Helicopter pilots must
be aware that their wake turbulence can be fatal for lighter aircraft
nearby and slightly below the flight path. Helicopter pilots should
adapt their trajectory if their wake turbulence can reach another
aircraft.
Vortex Avoidance
Avoid the area below and behind other aircraft, especially at low
altitude, where even a momentary wake turbulence encounter could be disastrous.
2.9.1 Vortex Characteristics
General
Trailing vortices have characteristics which, when known, will
help a pilot visualize the wake location and thereby take avoidance
precautions. Vortex generation starts with rotation (lifting off
of the nosewheel) and will be severe in that airspace immediately
following the point of rotation. Vortex generation ends when
the nosewheel of a landing aircraft touches down.
Because of ground effect and wind, a vortex produced within
about 200 feet AGL tends to be subject to lateral drift movements
and may return to where it started. Below 100 feet AGL, the
vortices tend to separate laterally and break up more rapidly
than vortex systems at higher altitude. The vortex sink rate and
levelling off process result in little operational effect between
an aircraft in level flight and other aircraft separated by 1 000 feet
vertically. Pilots should fly at or above a heavy jet’s flight path, altering course as necessary to avoid the area behind and below
the generating aircraft. Vortices start to descend immediately
after formation and descend at the rate of 400 to 500 feet per
minute for large heavy aircraft and at a lesser rate for smaller
aircraft, but in all cases, descending less than l 000 feet in total in 2 minutes. Vortices spread out at a speed of about 5 kt. Therefore, a crosswind
will decrease the lateral movement of the upwind vortex and
increase the movement of the downwind vortex. Thus, a light
wind of 3 to 7 kt could result in the upwind vortex remaining in the touchdown zone for a period of time or hasten the drift
of the downwind vortex toward another runway. Similarly, a tail
wind condition can move the vortices of the preceding landing aircraft forward into the touchdown zone.
Since vortex cores can produce a roll rate of 80° per second or
twice the capabilities of some light aircraft and a downdraft of 1 500 feet per minute which exceeds the rate of climb of many aircraft, the following precautions are recommended.
Pilots should be particularly alert in calm or light wind conditions
where the vortices could:
(a) remain in the touchdown area;
(b) drift from aircraft operating on a nearby runway;
(c) sink into takeoff or landing path from a crossing runway;
(d) sink into the traffic pattern from other runway operations;
(e) sink into the flight path of VFR flights at 500 feet AGL and below.
2.9.2 Considerations
On the ground
Before requesting clearance to cross a live runway, wait a few minutes
when a large aircraft has just taken off or landed.
When holding near a runway, expect wake turbulence.
Takeoff
When cleared to takeoff following the departure of a large aircraft,
plan to become airborne prior to the point of rotation of the
preceding aircraft and stay above the departure path or request a
turn to avoid the departure path.
When cleared to takeoff following the landing of a large aircraft,
plan to become airborne after the point of touchdown of the
landing aircraft
En route VFR
Avoid flight below and behind a large aircraft. If a large aircraft
is observed along the same track (meeting or overtaking), adjust
position laterally preferably upwind.
Landing
When cleared to land behind a departing aircraft, plan to
touchdown prior to reaching the rotation point of the departing aircraft.
When behind a large aircraft landing on the same runway, stay
at or above the preceding aircraft’s final approach flight path,
note the touchdown point and land beyond this point if it is safe
to do so.
When cleared to land behind a large aircraft on a low approach
or on a missed approach on the same runway, beware of vortices
that could exist between the other aircraft’s flight path and the
runway surface.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRWhen landing after a large aircraft on a parallel runway closer
than 2 500 feet, beware of possible drifting of the vortex on to your runway. Stay at or above the large aircraft’s final approach
flight path, note his touchdown point and land beyond if it is
safe to do so.
When landing after a large aircraft has departed from a crossing
runway, note the rotation point. If it is past the intersection,
continue the approach and land before the intersection. If the
large aircraft rotates prior to the intersection, avoid flight below the large aircraft’s flight path. Abandon the approach unless a landing is assured well before reaching the intersection.
ATC will use the words “CAUTION – WAKE TURBULENCE” to
alert pilots to the possibility of wake turbulence. It is the pilots’ responsibility to adjust their operations and flight path to avoid wake turbulence.
Air traffic controllers apply separation minima between aircraft.
See RAC 4.1.1 for these procedures which are intended to
minimize the hazards of wake turbulence.
An aircraft conducting an IFR final approach should remain on
glide path as the normally supplied separation should provide
an adequate wake turbulence buffer. However, arriving VFR
aircraft, while aiming to land beyond the touchdown point of a preceding heavy aircraft, should be careful to remain above its
flight path. If extending flight path, so as to increase the distance
behind an arriving aircraft, one should avoid the tendency to
develop a dragged-in final approach. Pilots should remember
to apply whatever power is required to maintain altitude until
reaching a normal descent path. The largest number of dangerous
encounters have been reported in the last half mile of the final approach.
Be alert to adjacent large aircraft operations particularly upwind
of your runway. If an intersection takeoff clearance is received, or parallel and cross runway operations are in progress, avoid subsequent heading which will result in your aircraft crossing below and behind a large aircraft.
NOTES :
1. If any of the procedures are not possible and you are on the
ground, WAIT! (2 minutes are usually sufficient). If on an approach, consider going around for an other approach.
2. See AIR 1.7 for Jet and Propeller Blast Danger.
2.10 CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT)
These rules of thumb are given to assist pilots in avoiding clear
air turbulence (CAT). They apply to westerly jet streams. The
Air Command Weather Manual (TP 9352E) available from
Transport Canada discusses this subject more thoroughly.
Jet streams stronger than 110 kt (at the core) have areas of
significant turbulence near them in the sloping tropopause above
the core, in the jet stream front below the core and on the low-pressure side of the core.
Wind shear and its accompanying CAT in jet streams is more
intense above and to the lee of mountain ranges. For this reason,
CAT should be anticipated whenever the flight path crosses a
strong jet stream in the vicinity of a mountain range. On charts for standard isobaric surfaces such as the 250 mbs
charts, 30 kt isotachs spaced closer than 90 NM indicate sufficient
horizontal shear for CAT. This area is normally on the north
(low-pressure) side of the jet stream axis, but in unusual cases
may occur on the south side.
CAT is also related to vertical shear. From the wind-aloft charts
or reports, compute the vertical shear in knots-per-thousand
feet. Turbulence is likely when the shear is greater than 5 kt per
thousand feet. Since vertical shear is related to horizontal
temperature gradient, the spacing of isotherms on an upper air
chart is significant. If the 5°C isotherms are closer together than
2° of latitude (120 NM), there is usually sufficient vertical shear
for turbulence.
Curving jet streams are more apt to have turbulent edges than
straight ones, especially jet streams which curve around a deep pressure trough.
Wind-shift areas associated with troughs are frequently turbulent.
The sharpness of the wind-shift is the important factor. Also,
ridge lines may also have rough air.
In an area where significant CAT has been reported or is forecast,
it is suggested that the pilot adjust the airspeed to the recommended
turbulent air penetration speed for the aircraft upon encountering
the first ripple, since the intensity of such turbulence may build up rapidly. In areas where moderate or severe CAT is expected,
it is desirable to adjust the airspeed prior to encountering
turbulence.
Figure 2.10—Clear Air Turbulence
If jet stream turbulence is encountered with direct tailwinds or
headwinds, a change of flight level or course should be initiated since these turbulent areas are elongated with the wind but are
shallow and narrow. A turn to the south in the Northern
Hemisphere will place the aircraft in a more favourable area. If a turn is not feasible because of airway restrictions, a climb or
descent to the next flight level will usually result in smoother air.
When jet stream turbulence is encountered in a crosswind
situation, pilots wanting to cross the CAT area more quickly
should, either climb or descend based on temperature change.
If temperature is rising – climb; if temperature is falling - descend.
This will prevent following the sloping tropopause or frontal
surface and staying in the turbulent area. If the temperature
remains constant, either climb or descend.
If turbulence is encountered with an abrupt wind-shift associated
with a sharp pressure trough, a course should be established to
cross the trough rather than to fly parallel to it. A change in
flight level is not as likely to reduce turbulence.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRIf turbulence is expected because of penetration of a sloping
tropopause, pilots should refer to the temperature. The tropopause
is where the temperature stops decreasing. Turbulence will be
most pronounced in the temperature-change zone on the
stratospheric side of the sloping tropopause.
Both vertical and horizontal wind shear are greatly intensified
in mountain wave conditions. Therefore, when the flight path
crosses a mountain wave, it is desirable to fly at turbulence-
penetration speed and avoid flight over areas where the terrain
drops abruptly. There may be no lenticular clouds associated
with the mountain wave.
PIREP
Clear air turbulence can be a very serious operational factor to flight operations at all levels and especially to jet traffic flying
above 15 000 feet. The best available information comes from
pilots via a PIREP. Any pilot encountering CAT is urgently
requested to report the time, location and intensity (light,
moderate or severe per MET 2.2.2) to the facility with which
they are maintaining radio contact. (See MET 1.1.6.)
2.11 FLIGHT OPERATIONS ON WATER
2.11.1 General
Pilots are reminded that when aircraft are being operated on
the waters of harbours, ports, lakes or other navigable waterways,
they are considered to be a vessel and must abide by the applicable
marine regulations and the provisions of CAR 602.20 (see
chapter 1.8 of the RAC).
The attention of all pilots and aircraft owners is drawn to the
Canada Shipping Act, 2001, the Canada Marine Act and the
Collision Regulations . The Canada Marine Act provides harbour
commissions and port authorities, with the authority to restrict
vessel operations on the bodies of water that are in their
jurisdiction. The Collision Regulations apply to every seaplane
on or over Canadian waters and to the owner, the charterer and
the operator of a seaplane and the person in charge of a seaplane.
A seaplane includes any aircraft designed to manoeuvre on the
water. Rule 18 states that “a seaplane on the water shall, in general,
keep well clear of all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation.
In circumstances, however, where risk of collision exists, she
shall comply with the Rules of this Part.” The Collision Regulations
may be accessed at < https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/
c.r.c.,_c._1416/index.html >.
Restrictions established by the above authorities relating to
vessels apply to aircraft underway or at rest on the water of a
harbour, and operators are advised to furnish themselves with
copies of the appropriate regulations as published by such harbour
commissions or port authorities.
In addition, the Canada Shipping Act, 2001 , through the Vessel
Operation Restriction Regulations , prohibits or imposes
restrictions on the operation of vessels on certain lakes and
waterways within Canada. The bodies of water affected, and
applicable restrictions, may be found in the schedules to the
Vessel Operation Restriction Regulations at < https://laws-lois.
justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2008-120/index.html >.2.11.2 Ditching
When flying over water, a pilot must always consider the
possibility of ditching. Aircraft operating handbooks usually
contain instructions on ditching that are applicable to the type
of aircraft. Also, the Flight Training Manual (TP 1102E) discusses
this topic.
Before flying over water, pilots should be aware of the regulatory
requirements, some of which are outlined in AIR 2.11.3.
On the high seas, it is best to ditch parallel and on top of the
primary swell system, except in high wind conditions. The primary
swell is usually recognized first because it is easier to see from a
higher altitude while secondary systems may only be visible at a
lower altitude. Wind effect may only be discernible at a much
lower altitude from the appearance of the white caps. It is possible for the primary swell system to disappear from view once lower altitudes are reached as it becomes hidden by secondary systems and the wind chop.
Some guidelines can be adopted:
(a) Never land into the face of a primary swell system unless
the winds are extremely high. The best ditching heading is
usually parallel to the primary swell system.
(b) In strong winds it may be desirable to compromise by ditching more into the wind and slightly across the
swell system.
Decide as early as possible that ditching is inevitable, so that
power can be used to achieve the optimum impact conditions. This would permit a stabilized approach at a low rate of descent at the applicable ditching speed.
Communicate. Initially, broadcast on the last frequency in use,
then switch to 121.5 as many air carriers at high altitude have a VHF radio set on 121.5. Set off the ELT if able; SARSAT has a very good chance of picking up the signal. Set your transponder to 7700. Many coastal radars will detect the signal at extremely long ranges over the water.
Surviving a ditching is one thing, but immersion and the time
spent in the cold water is possibly even more hazardous. Ensure
that all equipment needed for flotation and the prevention of
hypothermia from a lengthy exposure to cold water is on board
and available. Brief passengers on their expected actions including
their responsibilities for the handling of emergency equipment, once the aircraft has stopped in the water.
2.11.3 Life-Saving Equipment For Aircraft Operating Over Water
Life jackets suitable for each person on board are required to be carried on all aircraft taking off from and landing on water, and
on all single-engine aircraft flown over water beyond gliding
distance from shore. Complete requirements are contained in
CARs 602.62 and 602.63.
2.11.4 Landing Seaplanes on Glassy Water
It is practically impossible to judge altitude when landing a
seaplane or skiplane under certain conditions of surface and
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRlight. The following procedure should be adopted when such
conditions exist.
Power assisted approaches and landings should be used although
considerably more space will be required. The landing should
be made as close to the shoreline as possible, and parallel to it,
the height of the aircraft above the surface being judged from
observation of the shoreline. Objects on the surface such as weeds
and weed beds can be used for judging height. The recommended
practice is to make an approach down to 200 ft (300 ft to 400 ft
where visual aids for judgement of height are not available) and
then place the aircraft in a slightly nose high attitude. Adjust
power to maintain a minimum rate of descent, maintaining the recommended approach speed for the type until the aircraft is in contact with the surface. Do not “feel for the surface”. At the
point of contact, the throttle should be eased off gently while
maintaining back pressure on the control column to hold a nose
high attitude which will prevent the floats from digging in as
the aircraft settles into the water. Care must be taken to trim
the aircraft properly to ensure that there is no slip or skid at the point of contact.
This procedure should be practised to give the pilot full confidence.
It is recommended that the same procedure be used for unbroken
snow conditions.
2.12 FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN WINTER
General
The continuing number of accidents involving all types and
classes of aircraft indicates that misconceptions exist regarding the effect on performance of frost, snow or ice accumulation on aircraft.
Most commercial transport aircraft, as well as some other aircraft
types, have demonstrated some capability to fly in icing conditions
and have been so certified. This capacity is provided by installing
de-icing or anti-icing equipment on or in critical areas of
equipment, such as the leading edges of the wings and empennage,
engine cowls, compressor inlets, propellers, stall warning devices,
windshields and pitots. However, this equipment does not provide
any means of de-icing or anti-icing the wings or empennage of an aircraft that is on the ground.
2.12.1 Fan Blade Ice Shedding Procedure
General
Ice intake on high bypass jet engines has the potential to cause significant fan blade damage.
The Fan Blade Ice Shedding Procedure may be applied by aircrew
during conditions of freezing rain, freezing drizzle, freezing fog or heavy snow.
Weather conditions of 1 SM visibility or less in snow or blowing
snow are considered high risk blade damage conditions.
If icing conditions exceed 30 min or if significant engine vibration
occurs, the engines may be accelerated for approximately 30 s
prior to higher thrust operations. This may occur just prior to
takeoff to check engine parameters and ensure normal
engine operation.Pilot Requirements
It is imperative that aircrew inform ATS of the intent to perform
this procedure, prior to entering an active runway.
Prior to approaching the active runway holding position, pilots
should advise ATS that they will require extra time on the runway
threshold for ice shedding or any other potential delay.This information is required to ensure a timely departure and
to prevent an arriving flight from conducting an unplanned
missed approach.
2.12.2 Aircraft Contamination on the Ground –
Frost, Ice or Snow
General Information: Where frost, ice or snow may reasonably
be expected to adhere to the aircraft, the Canadian Aviation
Regulations require that an inspection or inspections be made
before takeoff or attempted takeoff. The type and minimum
number of inspections is indicated by the regulations, and depends
on whether or not the operator has an approved Operator’s
Ground Icing Operations Program using the Ground Icing
Operations Standard as specified in CAR 602.11 – Operating
and Flight Rules Standards .
The reasons for the regulations are straightforward. The degradation in aircraft performance and changes in flight
characteristics when frozen contaminants are present are wide
ranging and unpredictable. Contamination makes no distinction
between large aircraft, small aircraft or helicopters, the
performance penalites and dangers are just as real.
The significance of these effects are such that takeoff should not
be attempted unless the pilot-in-command has determined, as required by the CARs, that frost ice or snow contamination is not adhering to any aircraft critical surfaces.
Critical Surfaces: Critical surfaces of an aircraft mean the wings,
control surfaces, rotors, propellers, horizontal stabilizers, vertical
stabilizers or any other stabilizing surface of an aircraft which,
in the case of an aircraft that has rear-mounted engines, includes
the upper surface of its fuselage.
Flight safety during ground operations in conditions conducive
to frost, ice or snow contamination requires a knowledge of:
(a) adverse effects of frost, ice or snow on aircraft performance
and flight characteristics, which are generally reflected in
the form of decreased thrust, decreased lift, increased drag,
increased stall speed, trim changes, altered stall characteristics
and handling qualities;
(b) various procedures available for aircraft ground de-icing
and anti-icing, and the capabilities and limitations of these
procedures in various weather conditions, including the
use and effectiveness of freezing point depressant (FPD)
fluids;
(c) holdover time, which is the estimated time that an application
of an approved de-icing/anti-icing fluid is effective in
preventing frost, ice, or snow from adhering to treated
surfaces. Holdover time is calculated as beginning at the
start of the final application of an approved de-icing/anti-
icing fluid and as expiring when the fluid is no longer
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIReffective. The fluid is no longer effective when its ability to
absorb more precipitation has been exceeded. This produces
a visible surface build-up of contamination. Recognition
that final assurance of a safe takeoff rests in the pre-takeoff
inspection.
The Clean Aircraft Concept: CARs prohibit takeoff when frost, ice or snow is adhering to any critical surface of the aircraft. This is referred to as “The Clean Aircraft Concept”.
It is imperative that takeoff not be attempted in any aircraft
unless the pilot-in-command has determined that all critical
components of the aircraft are free of frost, ice or snow
contamination. This requirement may be met if the pilot-in-
command obtains verification from properly trained and
qualified personnel that the aircraft is ready for flight.
Frozen Contaminants: Test data indicate that frost, ice or snow formations having a thickness and surface roughness similar to
medium or coarse sandpaper, on the leading edge and upper
surface of a wing, can reduce wing lift by as much as 30% and
increase drag by 40%. Even small amounts of contaminants have
caused (and continue to cause) aircraft accidents which result
in substantial damage and loss of life. A significant part of the loss of lift can be attributed to leading edge contamination. The
changes in lift and drag significantly increase stall speed, reduce
controllability, and alter aircraft flight characteristics. Thicker or rougher frozen contaminants can have increasing effects on lift, drag, stall speed, stability and control.
More than 30 factors have been identified that can influence
whether frost, ice or snow will accumulate, cause surface
roughness on an aircraft and affect the anti-icing properties of freezing point depressant fluids. These factors include ambient
temperature; aircraft surface temperature; the de-icing and
anti-icing fluid type, temperature and concentration; relative
humidity; and wind speed and direction. Because many factors affect the accumulation of frozen contaminants on the aircraft
surface, holdover times for freezing point depressant fluids
should be considered as guidelines only, unless the operator’s
ground icing operations program allows otherwise.
The type of frost, ice or snow that can accumulate on an aircraft
while on the ground is a key factor in determining the type of de-icing/anti-icing procedures that should be used.
Where conditions are such that ice or snow may reasonably be
expected to adhere to the aircraft, it must be removed before
takeoff. Dry, powdery snow can be removed by blowing cold air
or compressed nitrogen gas across the aircraft surface. In some
circumstances, a shop broom could be employed to clean certain
areas accessible from the ground. Heavy, wet snow or ice can be
removed by placing the aircraft in a heated hangar, by using
solutions of heated freezing point depressant fluids and water,
by mechanical means (such as brooms or squeegees), or a
combination of all three methods. Should the aircraft be placed
in a heated hanger, ensure it is completely dry when moved
outside; otherwise, pooled water may refreeze in critical areas
or on critical surfaces.
A frost that forms overnight must be removed from the critical
surfaces before takeoff. Frost can be removed by placing the
aircraft in a heated hangar or by other normal de–icing procedures. The Cold-Soaking Phenomenon: Where fuel tanks are located
in the wings of aircraft, the temperature of the fuel greatly affects
the temperature of the wing surface above and below these tanks.
After a flight, the temperature of an aircraft and the fuel carried
in the wing tanks may be considerably colder than the ambient
temperature. An aircraft’s cold-soaked wings conduct heat away
from precipitation so that, depending on a number of factors,
clear ice may form on some aircraft, particularly on wing areas
above the fuel tanks. Such ice is difficult to see and, in many
instances, cannot be detected other than by touch with the bare
hand or by means of a special purpose ice detector.
Clear ice formations could break loose at rotation or during
flight, causing engine damage on some aircraft types, primarily
those with rear-mounted engines. A layer of slush on the wing can also hide a dangerous sheet of ice beneath.
The formation of ice on the wing is dependent on the type, depth
and liquid content of precipitation, ambient air temperature and
wing surface temperature. The following factors contribute to the formation intensity and the final thickness of the clear ice layer:
(a) low temperature of the fuel uplifted by the aircraft during
a ground stop and/or the long airborne time of the previous
flight, resulting in a situation that the remaining fuel in the
wing tanks is subzero. Fuel temperature drops of up to 18°C
have been recorded after a flight of two hours;
(b) an abnormally large amount of cold fuel remaining in the wing tanks causing fuel to come in contact with the wing upper surface panels, especially in the wing root area;
(c) weather conditions at the ground stop, wet snow, drizzle or
rain with the ambient temperature around 0°C is very critical.
Heavy freezing has been reported during drizzle or rain
even in a temperature range between +8° to +14°C.
As well, cold-soaking can cause frost to form on the upper and lower wing under conditions of high relative humidity. This is
one type of contamination that can occur in above-freezing
weather at airports where there is normally no need for de-icing
equipment, or where the equipment is deactivated for the summer.
This contamination typically occurs where the fuel in the wing
tanks becomes cold-soaked to below-freezing temperatures
because of low temperature fuel uplifted during the previous
stop, or cruising at altitudes where low temperatures are
encountered, or both, and a normal descent is made into a region
of high humidity.
In such instances, frost will form on the under and upper sides
of the fuel tank region during the ground turn-around time,
and tends to re-form quickly even when removed. Frost initially forms as individual grains about 0.004 of an inch
in diameter. Additional build-up comes through grain growth from 0.010 to 0.015 of an inch in diameter, grain layering, and the formation of frost needles. Available test data indicate that
this roughness on the wing lower surface will have no significant
effect on lift, but it may increase drag and thereby decrease climb
gradient capability which results in a second segment limiting weight penalty.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRSkin temperature should be increased to preclude formation of
ice or frost prior to take-off. This is often possible by refuelling
with warm fuel or using hot freezing point depressant fluids,
or both.
In any case, ice or frost formations on upper or lower wing
surfaces must be removed prior to takeoff. The exception is that takeoff may be made with frost adhering to the underside of the wings provided it is conducted in accordance with the aircraft manufacturer’s instructions.
De-Icing and Anti-Icing Fluids: Frozen contaminants are most
often removed in commercial operations by using freezing point
depressant fluids. There are a number of freezing point depressant
fluids available for use on commercial aircraft and, to a lesser
extent, on general aviation aircraft. De-icing and anti-icing fluids
should not be used unless approved by the aircraft manufacturer.
Although freezing point depressant fluids are highly soluble in
water, they absorb or melt ice slowly. If frost, ice or snow is
adhering to an aircraft surface, the accumulation can be melted
by repeated application of proper quantities of freezing point
depressant fluid. As the ice melts, the freezing point depressant
mixes with the water, thereby diluting the freezing point
depressant. As dilution occurs, the resulting mixture may begin
to run off the aircraft. If all the ice is not melted, additional
application of freezing point depressant becomes necessary until
the fluid penetrates to the aircraft surface. When all the ice has
melted, the remaining liquid residue is a mixture of freezing
point depressant and water at an unknown concentration. The
resulting film could freeze (begin to crystallize) rapidly with
only a slight temperature decrease. If the freezing point of the film is found to be insufficient, the de-icing procedure must be
repeated until the freezing point of the remaining film is sufficient
to ensure safe operation.
The de-icing process can be sped up considerably by using the
thermal energy of heated fluids and the physical energy of high-
pressure spray equipment, as is the common practice.
SAE and ISO Type I Fluids: These fluids in the concentrated
form contain a minimum of 80% glycol and are considered
“unthickened” because of their relatively low viscosity. These
fluids are used for de-icing or anti-icing, but provide very limited
anti-icing protection.SAE and ISO Type II Fluids: Fluids, such as those identified as
SAE Type II and ISO Type II, will last longer in conditions of
precipitation. They afford greater margins of safety if they are
used in accordance with aircraft manufacturers’ recommendations.
Flight tests performed by manufacturers of transport category
aircraft have shown that most SAE and ISO Type II fluids flow off lifting surfaces by rotation speeds (V
r), although some large
aircraft do experience performance degradation and may require
weight or other takeoff compensation. Therefore, SAE and ISO
Type II fluids should be used on aircraft with rotation speeds (Vr)
above 100 KIAS. Degradation could be significant on aeroplanes
with rotation speeds below this figure.
As with any de-icing or anti-icing fluid, SAE and ISO Type II
fluids should not be applied unless the aircraft manufacturer
has approved their use, regardless of rotation speed. Aircraft manufacturers’ manuals may give further guidance on the
acceptability of SAE and ISO Type II fluids for specific aircraft.
Some fluid residue may remain throughout the flight. The aircraft
manufacturer should have determined that this residue would
have little or no effect on aircraft performance or handling
qualities in aerodynamically quiet areas; however, this residue should be cleaned periodically.
SAE and ISO Type II fluids contain no less than 50% glycol and
have a minimum freeze point of -32°C. They are considered
“thickened” because of added thickening agents that enable the
fluid to be deposited in a thicker film and to remain on the
aircraft surfaces until the time of takeoff. These fluids are used
for de-icing (when heated) and anti-icing. Type II fluids provide greater protection (holdover time) than do Type I fluids against frost, ice or snow formation in conditions conducive to aircraft icing on the ground.
These fluids are effective anti-icers because of their high viscosity
and pseudoplastic behaviour. They are designed to remain on
the wings of an aircraft during ground operations or short-term
storage, thereby providing some anti-icing protection and will readily flow off the wings during takeoff. When these fluids are
subjected to shear stress (such as that experienced during a
takeoff run), their viscosity decreases drastically, allowing the fluids to flow off the wings and causing little adverse effect on the aircraft’s aerodynamic performance.
The pseudoplastic behaviour of SAE and ISO Type II fluids can
be altered by improper de-icing/anti-icing equipment or handling.
Therefore, some North American airlines have updated de-icing
and anti-icing equipment, fluid storage facilities, de-icing and
anti-icing procedures, quality control procedures, and training
programs to accommodate these distinct characteristics. Testing
indicates that SAE and ISO Type II fluids, if applied with improper
equipment, may lose 20% to 60% of their anti-icing performance.
All Type II fluids are not necessarily compatible with all Type I fluids; therefore, you should refer to the fluid manufacturer or
supplier for further information. As well, the use of Type II fluid
over badly contaminated Type I fluid will reduce the effectiveness
of the Type II fluid.
SAE and ISO Type II fluids were introduced in North America
in 1985, with widespread use beginning to occur in 1990. Similar
fluids, but with slight differences in characteristics, have been
developed, introduced, and used in Canada.
Type III Fluids: Type III is a thickened freezing point depressant
fluid which has properties that lie between Types I and II. Therefore,
it provides a longer holdover time than Type I, but less than Type II.
Its shearing and flow-off characteristics are designed for aircraft
that have a shorter time to the rotation point. This should make
it acceptable for some aircraft that have a V r of less than 100 KIAS.
The SAE had approved a specification in AMS1428A for Type
III anti-icing fluids that can be used on those aircraft with rotation
speeds significantly lower than the large jet rotation speeds,
which are 100 KIAS or greater. No fluid has yet been identified
that can meet the entire Type III fluid specification. Pending
publication of a Type III Holdover Time Table and availability
of suitable fluids, the Union Carbide Type IV fluid in 75/25
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRdilution may be used for anti-icing purposes on low rotation
speed aircraft, but only in accordance with aircraft and fluid
manufacturer’s instructions.
Type IV Fluids: A significant advance is Type IV anti-icing
fluid. These fluids meet the same fluid specifications as the
Type II fluids and in addition have a significantly longer holdover
time. In recognition of the above, Holdover Time Tables are
available for Type IV.
The product is dyed green as it is believed that the green product
will provide for application of a more consistent layer of fluid
to the aircraft and will reduce the likelihood that fluid will be
mistaken for ice. However, as these fluids do not flow as readily
as conventional Type II fluid, caution should be exercised to
ensure that enough fluid is used to give uniform coverage.
Research indicates that the effectiveness of a Type IV fluid can
be seriously diminished if proper procedures are not followed
when applying it over Type I fluid. All fluid users are advised to ensure that these fluids are applied
evenly and thoroughly and that an adequate thickness has been
applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Particular attention should be paid to the leading edge area of the wing and horizontal stabilizer.
Further information on aircraft critical surface contamination
may be found in When in Doubt... Small and Large Aircraft—Aircraft Critical Surface Contamination Training for Aircrew and Groundcrew (TP 10643), a TC publication available online
at < https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/publications/when-
doubtsmall-large-aircraft-aircraft-critical-surface-
contamination-training-tp-10643 >. A CD -ROM, with the same
title and an accompanying workbook, is also available for order.
The priced CD -ROM and workbo ok may be ordered from the
TC Publications Order Desk using one of the methods listed
below.
Transport Canada Publications Order Desk
Operational Support Services (AAFBD) 2655 Lancaster Road
Ottawa ON K1B 4L5
Tel. (toll-free in North America):
................ 1-888-830-4911
.............................................................................. 613-991-4071
Fax: ....................................................................... 613-991-1653
Email: .................................................... publications@tc.gc.ca
Web site: ......... https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/
publications-how-order
2.12.3 Aircraft Contamination in Flight – In-flight
Airframe Icing
Airframe icing can be a serious weather hazard to fixed and
rotary wing aircraft in flight. Icing will result in a loss of
performance in the following areas:
(a) ice accretion on lifting surfaces will change their aerodynamic
properties resulting in a reduction in lift, increase in drag and weight with a resultant increase in stalling speed and
a reduction in the stalling angle of attack. Therefore, an
aerodynamic stall can occur before the stall warning systems
activate; (b) ice adhering to propellers will drastically affect their efficiency and may cause an imbalance with resultant
vibration;
(c) ice adhering to rotor blades will degrade their aerodynamic
efficiency. This means that an increase in power will be
required to produce an equivalent amount of lift Therefore,
during an autorotation this increase can only come from a
higher than normal rate of descent. In fact, it may not be
possible to maintain safe rotor RPM’s during the descent
and flare due to ice contamination;
(d) ice on the windshield or canopy will reduce or block vision from the flight deck or cockpit;
(e) carburetor icing, see AIR 2.3; and
(f) airframe ice may detach and be ingested into jet engine
intakes causing compressor stalls, loss of thrust and
flame out.
2.12.3.1 Types of Ice
There are three types of ice which pilots must contend with in flight: Rime Ice, Clear Ice and Frost (see MET 2.4). For any ice to form the OAT must be at or below freezing with the presence of visible moisture.
Rime ice commonly found in stratiform clouds is granular,
opaque and pebbly and adheres to the leading edges of antennas
and windshields. Rime ice forms in low temperatures with a low
concentration of small super-cooled droplets. It has little tendency
to spread and can easily be removed by aircraft de-icing systems.
Clear ice commonly found in cumuliform clouds is glassy, smooth
and hard, and tends to spread back from the area of impingement.
Clear ice forms at temperatures at or just below 0°C with a high
concentration of large super-cooled droplets. It is the most serious
form of icing because it adheres firmly and is difficult to remove.
Frost may form on an aircraft in flight when descent is made
from below-freezing conditions to a layer of warm, moist air. In these circumstances, vision may be restricted as frost forms on the windshield or canopy.
Additional references on icing include MET 2.4 and the Air
Command Weather Manual (TP 9352E).
2.12.3.2 Aerodynamic Effects of Airborne Icing
Commercial pilots are familiar with the classic aerodynamic
effects of ice accumulation on an aeroplane in flight. These can include:
(a) reduced lift accompanied by significant increases in drag
and increases in weight;
(b) increases in stall speed and reduced stall angle of attack as ice alters the shape of an airfoil and disrupts airflow;
(c) reduced thrust due to ice disrupting the airflow to the engine
and/or degrading propeller efficiency. Ice ingested into a
jet engine may induce a compressor stall and/or a flame
out;
(d) control restrictions due to water flowing back into control surfaces and freezing;
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIR(e) ice adhering to rotor blades will degrade their aerodynamic
efficiency. This means that an increase in power will be
required to produce an equivalent amount of lift. Therefore,
during an autorotation this increase can only come from a
higher than normal rate of descent. In fact, it may not be
possible to maintain safe rotor RPM during the descent and
flare due to ice contamination;
(f) ice on the windshield or canopy will reduce or block vision
from the flight deck or cockpit; and
(g) carburetor icing (see AIR 2.3).
2.12.3.3 Roll Upset
Roll upset describes an uncommanded and possibly uncontrollable
rolling moment caused by airflow separation in front of the
ailerons, resulting in self-deflection of unpowered control
surfaces. It is associated with flight in icing conditions in which
water droplets flow back behind the protected surfaces before
freezing and form ridges that cannot be removed by de-icing
equipment. Roll upset has recently been associated with icing
conditions involving large super-cooled droplets; however, it
theoretically can also occur in conventional icing conditions
when temperatures are just slightly below 0°C.
The roll upset can occur well before the normal symptoms of
ice accretion are evident to the pilot, and control forces may be
physically beyond the pilot’s ability to overcome. Pilots may
receive a warning of incipient roll upset if abnormal or sloppy
aileron control forces are experienced after the autopilot is
disconnected when operating in icing conditions.
Corrective Actions If severe icing conditions are inadvertently encountered, pilots
should consider the following actions to avoid a roll upset:
(a) Disengage the autopilot. The autopilot may mask important
clues or may self disconnect when control forces exceed
limits, presenting the pilot with abrupt unusual attitudes
and control forces.
(b) Reduce the angle of attack by increasing speed. If turning, roll wings level.
(c) If flaps are extended, do not retract them unless it can be determined that the upper surface of the wing is clear of ice.
Retracting the flaps will increase the angle of attack at any
given airspeed, possibly leading to the onset of roll upset.
(d) Set appropriate power and monitor airspeed /angle of attack.
(e) Verify that wing ice protection is functioning symmetrically
by visual observation if possible. If not, follow the
procedures in the aircraft flight manual.
2.12.3.4 Tail Plane Stall
As the rate at which ice accumulates on an airfoil is related to
the shape of the airfoil, with thinner airfoils having a higher
collection efficiency than thicker ones, ice may accumulate on
the horizontal stabilizer at a higher rate than on the wings. A
tail plane stall occurs when its critical angle of attack is exceeded.
Because the horizontal stabilizer produces a downward force to counter the nose-down tendency caused by the centre of lift on the wing, stall of the tail plane will lead to a rapid pitch down. Application of flaps, which may reduce or increase downwash
on the tail plane depending on the configuration of the empennage
(i.e. low set horizontal stabilizer, mid-set, or T-tail), can aggravate
or initiate the stall. Therefore, pilots should be very cautious in
lowering flaps if tail plane icing is suspected. Abrupt nose-down
pitching movements should also be avoided, since these increase
the tail plane angle of attack and may cause a contaminated tail plane to stall.
A tail plane stall can occur at relatively high speeds, well above
the normal 1G stallspeed. The pitch down may occur without
warning and be uncontrollable. It is more likely to occur when
the flaps are selected to the landing position, after a nose-down
pitching manoeuvre, during airspeed changes following flap
extension, or during flight through wind gusts.
Symptoms of incipient tail plane stall may include:
(a) abnormal elevator control forces, pulsing, oscillation,
or vibration;
(b) an abnormal nose-down trim change (may not be detected
if autopilot engaged);
(c) any other abnormal or unusual pitch anomalies (possibly
leading to pilot induced oscillations);
(d) reduction or loss of elevator effectiveness (may not be
detected if the autopilot is engaged);
(e) sudden change in elevator force (control would move down if not restrained); and/or
(f) a sudden, uncommanded nose-down pitch.
Corrective Actions
If any of the above symptoms occur, the pilot should consider
the following actions unless the aircraft flight manual
dictates otherwise:
(a) Plan approaches in icing conditions with minimum flap
settings for the conditions. Fly the approach on speed for
the configuration.
(b) If symptoms occur shortly after flap extension, immediately
retract the flaps to the previous setting. Increase airspeed
as appropriate to the reduced setting.
(c) Apply sufficient power for the configuration and conditions.
Observe the manufacturer’s recommendations concerning
power settings. High power settings may aggravate tail plane
stall in some designs.
(d) Make any nose-down pitch changes slowly, even in gusting conditions, if circumstance allow.
(e) If equipped with a pneumatic de-icing system, operate several
times to attempt to clear ice from the tail plane.
WARNINGS
(a) At any flap setting, airspeed in excess of the manufacturer’s
recommendations for the configuration and environmental
conditions, accompanied by uncleared ice on the tail plane,
may result in a tail plane stall and an uncontrollable nose-down pitch.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIR(b) Improper identity of the event and application of the wrong
recovery procedure will make an already critical situation
even worse. This information concerning roll upset and tail
plane stall is necessarily general in nature, and may not be
applicable to all aircraft configurations. Pilots must consult
their aircraft flight manual to determine type specific
procedures for these phenomena.
2.12.3.5 Freezing Rain, Freezing Drizzle, and Large
Super-Cooled Droplets
The classical mechanism producing freezing rain and/or freezing
drizzle aloft involves a layer of warm air overlaying a layer of
cold air. Snow falling through the warm layer melts, falls into
the cold air, becomes supercooled, and freezes on contact with
an aircraft flying through the cold air. Freezing rain and freezing
drizzle are therefore typically found near warm fronts and trowals,
both of which cause warm air to overlay cold air. Freezing rain
or freezing drizzle may also occur at cold fronts, but are less
common and would have a lesser horizontal extent due to the
steeper slope of the frontal surface. The presence of warm air
above has always provided a possible escape route to pilots who
have encountered classical freezing precipitation aloft through a climb into the warm air.
Recent research has revealed that there are other non-classical
mechanisms that produce freezing precipitation aloft. Flights
by research aircraft have encountered freezing drizzle at
temperatures down to -10° C at altitudes up to 15000 feet ASL.
There was no temperature inversion—that is, no warm air aloft—
present in either case. Pilots must be aware that severe icing may
be encountered in conditions unrelated to warm air aloft. They
must also understand that, if non-classical freezing drizzle is
encountered in flight, the escape route of a climb into warmer
air may not be immediately available; however, climbing remains
the preferred escape route. It should allow the aircraft to reach
an altitude above the formation region, while a descent may keep
the aircraft in freezing precipitation. It should be noted that,
while ascending, the aircraft might get closer to the source region
with smaller droplets, higher liquid water content and
conventional icing.
2.12.3.6 Detecting Large Super-Cooled Droplets
Conditions in Flight
Visible clues to flight crew that the aircraft is operating in large
super-cooled droplets conditions will vary from type to type.
Manufacturers should be consulted to assist operators in
identifying the visible clues particular to the type operated.
There are, however, some general clues of which pilots should
be aware:
(a) ice visible on the upper or lower surface of the wing aft of
the area protected by de-icing equipment (irregular or jagged
lines of ice or pieces that are self-shedding);
(b) ice adhering to non-heated propeller spinners farther aft
than normal;
(c) granular dispersed ice crystals or total translucent or opaque
coverage of the unheated portions of front or side windows.
This may be accompanied by other ice patterns on the windows such as ridges. Such patterns may occur within a
few seconds to one half minute after exposure to large super-
cooled droplets;
(d) unusually extensive coverage of ice, visible ice fingers or ice
feathers on parts of the airframe on which ice does not
normally appear; and
(e) significant differences between airspeed or rate of climb
expected and that attained at a given power setting.
Additional clues significant at temperatures near freezing:
(a) visible rain consisting of very large droplets. In reduced
visibility selection of landing or taxi lights “on” occasionally
will aid detection. Rain may also be detected by the audible
impact of droplets on the fuselage;
(b) droplets splashing or splattering on the windscreen. The
40 to 50 micron droplets covered by Appendix C to
Chapter 525 of the Airworthiness Manual icing criteria
(Appendix C lists the certification standard for all transport
category aeroplanes for flight in known icing), are so small
that they cannot usually be detected; however freezing drizzle
droplets can reach sizes of 0.2 to 0.5 mm and can be seen when they hit the windscreen;
(c) water droplets or rivulets streaming on windows, either
heated or unheated. Streaming droplets or rivulets are
indicators of high liquid water content in any sized droplet; and/or
(d) weather radar returns showing precipitation. Whenever the
radar indicates precipitation in temperatures near freezing,
pilots should be alert for other clues of large super-cooled droplets.
2.12.3.7 Flight Planning or Reporting
Pilots should take advantage of all information available to avoid
or, at the very least, to plan a safe flight through known icing
conditions. As well as FAs, TAFs, and METARs, pilots should ask for pertinent SIGMETs and any PIREPs received along the planned route of flight. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts should be studied, if available. Weather information should be
analyzed to predict where icing is likely to be found, and to
determine possible safe exit procedures should severe icing be
encountered. Pilots should routinely pass detailed PIREPs
whenever icing conditions are encountered.
2.12.4 Landing Wheel-Equipped Light Aircraft on Snow Covered Surfaces
During the course of each winter, a number of aircraft accidents
have occurred due to pilots attempting to land wheel-equipped
aircraft on surfaces covered with deep snow. This has almost
invariably resulted in the aircraft nosing over.
Light aircraft should not be landed on surfaces covered with
snow unless it has previously been determined that the amount of snow will not constitute a hazard.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIR2.12.5 Use of Seaplanes on Snow Surfaces
The operation of float-equipped aircraft or flying boats from
snow covered surfaces will be permitted by Transport Canada
under the following conditions:
(a) the pilot and operator will be held responsible for confining
all flights to those snow conditions found to be satisfactory as a result of previous tests or experimental flights in that type of aircraft;
(b) passengers should not be carried; and
(c) a thorough inspection of the float or hull bottom, all struts and fittings, all wing fittings, bracing, wing tip floats and
fittings should be carried out after every flight to ensure
that the aircraft is airworthy.
Seaplanes should not be landing on, or taking off from, snow
surfaces except under conditions of deep firm snow, which should
not be drifted or heavily crusted.
Flights should not be attempted if there is any adhesion of ice
or snow to the under surface of the float or hull. When landing or forced landing a ski or float equipped aeroplane on unbroken snow surfaces, the procedure in AIR 2.11.4 is recommended.
2.12.6 Landing Seaplanes on
Unbroken Snow Conditions
It has been found practically impossible to judge altitude when
landing a skiplane or seaplane under certain conditions of surface
and light. Under such conditions the procedures for landing
seaplanes on glassy water should be used (see AIR 2.11.4).
2.12.7 Whiteout
Whiteout (also called milky weather) is defined in the Glossary
of Meteorology (published by the American Meteorological
Society) as:
“ An atmospheric op tical phenomenon of the polar regions
in which the observer appears to be engulfed in a uniformly
white glow. Neither shadows, horizon, nor clouds are
discernible; sense of depth and orientation is lost; only
very dark, nearby objects can be seen. Whiteout occurs
over an unbroken snow cover and beneath a uniformly
overcast sky, when with the aid of the snowblink effect,
the light from the sky is about equal to that from the snow
surface. Blowing snow may be an additional cause.”
Light carries depth perception messages to the brain in the form
of colour, glare, shadows, and so on. These elements have one
thing in common, namely, they are all modified by the direction
of the light and changes in light intensity. For example, when
shadows occur on one side of objects, we subconsciously become
aware that the light is coming from the other. Thus, nature
provides many visual clues to assist us in discerning objects and
judging distances. What happens if these clues are removed?
Let’s suppose that these objects on the ground and the ground
itself are all white. Add to that, a diffused light source through an overcast layer which is reflected back in all directions by the
white surface so that shadows disappear. The terrain is now
virtually devoid of visual clues and the eye no longer discerns the surface or terrain features. Since the light is so diffused, it is likely that the sky and terrain
will blend imperceptibly into each other, obliterating the horizon.
The real hazard in whiteout is the pilot not suspecting the phenomenon because the pilot is in clear air. In numerous
whiteout accidents, pilots have flown into snow-covered surfaces
unaware that they have been descending and confident that they
could “see” the ground.
Consequently, whenever a pilot encounters the whiteout
conditions described above, or even a suspicion of them, the
pilot should immediately climb if at low level, or level off and
turn towards an area where sharp terrain features exist. The
flight should not proceed unless the pilot is prepared and
competent to traverse the whiteout area on instruments.
In addition, the following phenomena are known to cause
whiteout and should be avoided if at all possible:
(a) water-fog whiteout resulting from thin clouds of super-
cooled water droplets in contact with the cold snow surface.
Depending on the size and distribution of the water droplets,
visibility may be minimal or nil in such conditions.
(b) blowing snow whiteout resulting from fine snow being
plucked from the surface by winds of 20 kt or more. Sunlight
is reflected and diffused resulting in a nil visibility whiteout
condition.
(c) precipitation whiteout resulting from small wind-driven
snow crystals falling from low clouds above which the sun
is shining. Light reflection complicated by spectral reflection
from the snow flakes and obscuration of land marks by
falling snow can reduce visibility and depth perception to nil in such conditions.
If at all possible, pilots should avoid such conditions unless they have the suitable instruments in the aircraft and are sufficiently
experienced to use a low-speed and minima rate of descent
technique to land the aircraft safely.
2.12.8 Flat-Light Conditions
Flat light is an optical illusion, also known as “sector or partial
white out.” It is not as severe as “white out,” but the condition
causes pilots to lose their depth of field and contrast in vision. Flat-light conditions are usually accompanied by overcast skies
inhibiting any good visual clues. Such conditions can occur
anywhere in the world, primarily in snow covered areas but can occur in dust, sand, mud flats, or on glassy water. Flat light can completely obscure features of the terrain, creating an inability
to distinguish distances and closure rates. As a result of this
reflected light, it can give pilots the illusion of ascending or
descending when actually flying level. However, with good
judgment and proper training and planning, it is possible to
safely operate an aircraft in flat-light conditions.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIR2.13 FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN
MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
The importance of proper training, procedures and pre-flight
planning when flying in mountainous regions is emphasized.
In the Pacific area, the combined effect of the great mountain
system and the adjacent Pacific Ocean lead to extremely
changeable weather conditions and a variety of weather patterns.
Some of the factors to be taken into consideration regarding the
effect on aircraft performance when operating under these
conditions include the following:
(a) elevation of the airport;
(b) temperature and pressure;
(c) turbulence and wind effect; and
(d) determination of safe takeoff procedures to ensure clearance
over obstacles and intervening high ground.
In the western mountainous region VFR routes may be marked
by diamonds on visual navigation charts. The routes are marked
for convenience to assist pilots with pre -flight pla nning. The
diamond marks do not imply any special level of facilities and
services along the route. Pilots are cautioned that the use of the
marked routes does not absolve them from proper pre-flight
planning or the exercising of good airmanship practices during
the proposed flight. Alternative unmarked routes are always
available, the choice of a suitable route for the intended flight
and conditions remains the sole responsibility of the pilot-in-
command.
2.14 FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN SPARSELY
SETTLED AREAS OF CANADA
(See AIP Canada GEN 1.5)
2.14.1 Single-Engine Aircraft Operations in
Northern Canada
(See AIP Canada GEN 1.5)
2.15 FLIGHT OPERATIONS AT NIGHT
There are many risks associated with operating aircraft in dark-
night conditions where maintaining orientation, navigation and
weather avoidance may become extremely difficult. Takeoff and
landing may be particularly dangerous for both VFR and IFR
pilots.
A variety of illusions may result at night because of a lack of
outside visual cues. Your best defense, if you do not hold an
instrument rating, is to receive some instrument training, and to be aware of the illusions and their counter measures.
2.16 VERTICAL PATH CONTROL ON NON-
PRECISION APPROACHES (NPAS)
2.16.1 Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)
Controlled Flights Into Terrain (CFIT) continue to be a major
threat to civil aviation safety in Canada. A stabilized final
approach during an NPA has been recognized by the ICAO CFIT Task Force as an aid to prevent CFIT. The step-down technique
presumed by NPA procedure design may have been appropriate for early piston transport aircraft, but it is less suited to larger jet transport aircraft.
When using the step-down technique, the aircraft flies a series
of vertical descents during the final approach segment as it
descends and levels off at the minimum IFR altitudes published
for each segment of the approach. The successive descents and
level-offs result in significant changes in power settings and
pitch attitudes and for some aircraft, may prevent the landing configuration from being established until landing is assured.
Using the step-down technique, the aircraft may have to be flown
at minimum IFR altitudes for each segment of the approach and
consequently be exposed to reduced obstacle separation for
extended periods of time. A premature descent or a missed
level-off could render the aircraft vulnerable to a CFIT accident.
Many air operators require their flight crews to use a stabilized
approach technique which is entirely different from that envisaged
in the original NPA procedure design. The stabilized approach
is calculated to achieve a constant rate of descent at an approximate
3° flight path angle with stable airspeed, power setting, and
attitude, and also with the aircraft configured for landing. The safety benefits derived from the stabilized final approach have
been recognized by many organizations including ICAO, the
FAA and TCCA. Those air operators not already doing so are
encouraged to incorporate stabilized approach procedures into their SOPs and training syllabi.
CAUT ION:
Caution should be exercised when descending below the MDA
while following an FMS-generated vertical path. Unlike vertically
guided approaches, which have their OCSs verified below the
DA, OCSs on LNAV procedures below the MDA have NOT been
assessed. As a result, obstacles may penetrate the computer-
generated flight path. Pilots are reminded to visually scan for
obstacles before descending below the MDA.
VASI and PAPI are calibrated for a defined geometric vertical
path angle. In cold temperatures, a non-temperature compensated
barometric FMS-generated vertical path may be lower than that
of a calibrated VASI or PAPI. In high temperatures, a barometric
FMS-generated vertical path will be higher than that of a
calibrated VASI or PAPI. Pilots should be aware of this limitation
and operate accordingly.
2.16.2 Stabilized Approach
An approach is considered stabilized when it satisfies the
associated conditions, typically defined by an air operator in
their company operations manual (COM) or SOPs, as they may
relate to the:
(a) range of speeds specific to the aircraft type;
(b) power setting(s) specific to the aircraft type;
(c) range of attitudes specific to the aircraft type;
(d) configuration(s) specific to the aircraft type;
(e) crossing altitude deviation tolerances;
(f) sink rate; and
(g) completion of checklists and flight crew briefings.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRStabilized approach procedures should be defined for all
approaches and may include the following:
(a) a flight profile should be stabilized at an altitude not lower
than 1 000 ft above the threshold when in IMC;
(b) a flight profile should be stabilized at an altitude not lower than 500 ft above the threshold;
(c) a flight profile should remain stabilized until landing;
(d) a go-around is required if a flight profile is not stabilized
in accordance with these requirements or if the flight profile
subsequently becomes destabilized.
2.16.3 Vertical Path Control Techniques
There are typically three vertical path control techniques available
for an NPA:
(a) step-down;
(b) constant descent angle; or
(c) stabilized constant descent angle (SCDA).
NOTE :
Constant descent angle is equivalent to ICAO’s constant angle descent, and SCDA is considered a form of ICAO’s continuous
descent final approach (CDFA). In the interest of respecting
terminology already in use in the Canadian civil aviation industry
and standardization with NAV CANADA charting, the above terminology has been adopted.
While NPA procedures themselves are not inherently unsafe,
the use of the step-down descent technique to conduct an NPA
is prone to error and is therefore discouraged where other methods
are available. When using the step-down technique during the
final approach segment, the flight crew member flies an unstable
vertical profile by descending and levelling off at the minimum altitudes published for each segment of the approach and then,
if the required visual references have been acquired, descending
from the MDA to a landing.
The risks associated with conducting an NPA can be mitigated
by using an angular vertical profile instead of the step-down
technique described above. The use of an angular vertical profile
increases the likelihood of the approach being conducted in a
stabilized manner. When conducting an NPA using an angular
vertical profile, the vertical path may be intercepted prior to the FAF at a higher altitude.
Ideally, the angle to be used for an angular vertical path is obtained
from the approach chart. If the approach chart does not contain a published constant descent angle, the angle may be calculated using an approved method provided to the flight crew in the air
operator’s SOPs or by using tables such as those found in Appendix
1 of Advisory Circular (AC) 700-028. Flight crew members must
be aware of the risks associated with manually calculating the descent angle as a calculation error could lead to the use of the
wrong descent angle. It is strongly recommended that flight
crew members become proficient with manually calculating the
descent angle before doing so under high workload conditions.
Regardless of the type of vertical path control technique used
on an NPA, the lateral “turning” portion of the missed approach may not be executed prior to the MAP. However, the climb
portion of a missed approach procedure may be commenced at
any point along the final approach. In addition, during cold
weather operations, a temperature correction must be applied
to all minimum altitudes, no matter what type of vertical control
path technique is used.
Except in the case of an air operator conducting operations in
accordance with an exemption to Paragraph 602.128(2)(b) of
the CARs, a flight crew member may not descend below the
MDA if the visual references required to land have not been
acquired. A correction to the MDA may be required to ensure
that the aircraft does not descend below the MDA during the
transition from a descent to the climb required by a missed
approach procedure.In 2013, NAV CANADA will begin the publication of approach
charts which include constant descent angle information in a
tabular form and in the profile view. The inclusion of this
information is intended to facilitate the use of the stabilized
approach techniques described in AC 700-028 and to reduce the
possibility of calculation errors.
To facilitate the stabilized descent, some avionics, such as
baro -VNAV-capable (barometric vertical navigation) and
WAAS-capable (wide area augmentation system) systems,
generate a calculated vertical profile and the guidance to follow
this profile. When conducting an NPA, the vertical guidance
generated by the navigation system is advisory only. Flight crew
members must use the barometric altimeter as the primary
altitude reference to ensure compliance with any and all altitude
restrictions. Special consideration is required when using advisory
vertical guidance generated by WAAS-capable equipment. Flight
crew members should refer to the manufacturer’s operating
guides or limitations.
Further information and descriptions of the techniques available
for conducting the vertical portion of an NPA are contained in
AC 700-028 . <https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/reference-centre/
advisory-circulars/advisory-circular-ac-no-700-028 >
3.0 MEDICAL INFORMATION
3.1 GENERAL HEALTH
A healthy pilot is as essential to a safe flight as a mechanically
sound aircraft. There is no precise regulation that tells pilots
whether they are fit to fly and there is no pre-flight inspection
to ensure fitness. Therefore, individuals must base their decision
to fly on common sense, good judgement, and training prior to
each flight. While flying an aircraft, a pilot must not have any
condition that impairs alertness, reaction time or decision-
making ability. Persons with conditions that could result in
sudden or subtle incapacitation, such as epilepsy, heart disease,
diabetes requiring insulin, or psychiatric illnesses, cannot be
medically certified until their case is reviewed by the Civil Aviation
Medicine Branch. Conditions such as anaemia, acute infections
and gastrointestinal illnesses are temporarily disqualifying.
When there is any doubt about their health, pilots should consult
their physician or Civil Aviation Medical Examiner (CAME).
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIR3.1.1 Mandatory Medical Reporting
Pilots are reminded that section 6.5 of the Aeronautics Act requires
them to identify themselves as the holder of a pilot’s licence prior
to the commencement of any examination by a physician or
optometrist. Section 6.5 further requires that the attending
physician or optometrist notify the Minister of any finding that
may constitute a hazard to aviation safety.
Section 6.5 also deems the pilot to have consented to the release
of aviation-related findings by the physician or optometrist to the Minister.
3.2 SPECIFIC AEROMEDICAL FACTORS
3.2.1 Hypoxia
The literal definition of hypoxia is “low oxygen”. Therefore,
hypoxia implies a lack of sufficient oxygen for the body to operate
normally. Its onset is insidious and may be accompanied by a
feeling of well being, known as euphoria. Even minor hypoxia
impairs night vision and slows reaction time. More serious
hypoxia interferes with reasoning, gives rise to unusual fatigue
and, finally, results in a loss of consciousness. Hypoxia is classified
into four different types; all are relevant to pilots and merit
consideration.
Hypoxic hypoxia
Hypoxic hypoxia is the result of low oxygen levels in the
bloodstream. In pilots, this most often occurs with exposure
to altitude (hypobaric hypoxia). At low altitudes, the partial
pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere is adequate to maintain
brain function at peak efficiency. Atmospheric pressure and
the partial pressure of oxygen both decline at higher altitudes.
At 8 000 ft ASL (2 440 m), some people may notice a slight
increase in heart rate and speed of breathing (respiratory
rate). By 10 000 ft ASL (3 030 m), the partial pressure of
oxygen is low enough that all pilots will experience mild
hypoxia and some will become symptomatic. Pilots operating
at this altitude or higher should be alert for unusual difficulty
completing routine calculations and should take corrective
action if difficulties are noted. To avoid hypoxia, do not fly
above 10 000 ft ASL (3 050 m) without supplemental oxygen
or cabin pressurization.
Anaemic hypoxia
Oxygen in blood is carried by haemoglobin, which is found in red blood cells. When the red blood cell count decreases,
or the haemoglobin does not function properly, less oxygen
can be carried by the blood. This can occur in conditions such as heavy bleeding, some cancers, sickle cell anaemia,
or carbon monoxide poisoning, to name a few. A person
suffering from anaemia may notice symptoms such as
breathlessness, fatigue, or chest pain, and symptoms will
worsen at higher altitudes, as the effects of hypoxia and
anaemia are additive.
Ischaemic hypoxia/stagnant hypoxia
The term ischaemia refers to inadequate supply of blood,
and ischaemic hypoxia occurs when there is inadequate blood flow to body tissues. This can occur with constriction
of blood vessels (for example, this is often seen in fingers
and toes exposed to cold) as well as in situations of low blood
pressure and cardiac output such as fainting, or during
exposure to high sustained accelerations (stagnant hypoxia).
Oxygen therapy is not very helpful in this form of hypoxia. The best remedy is to correct the underlying cause.
Histotoxic hypoxia
Histotoxic hypoxia refers to an inability of the cells of the
body to use the oxygen available. This type of hypoxia is
rare in pilots, but it can occur with certain conditions such
as cyanide poisoning, chemical poisoning, and intoxication
with certain drugs. Histotoxic hypoxia can also be caused by high blood alcohol levels.
3.2.2 Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is
a product of incomplete combustion. Haemoglobin, the oxygen-
carrying chemical in the blood, picks up carbon monoxide over
200 times more readily than it picks up oxygen. Thus, even
minute quantities in the cockpit (often from improperly vented exhaust fumes) may result in pilot incapacitation.
The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning are insidious.
Initially, there is an inability to concentrate, thinking becomes
blurred, and subsequently dizziness and headache develop. If
any of these symptoms are noticed, pilots should turn off the
heater, open the air ventilators and descend to a lower altitude if it is safe to do so. If oxygen is available, it should be used. If an exhaust leak is suspected, the pilot should land the aircraft as soon as possible.
Smoking is a source of carbon monoxide. Smokers carry some
carbon monoxide in their blood all the time, and may have 5 to
10 percent of their haemoglobin saturated with carbon monoxide.
This reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and
smokers may become hypoxic at altitudes below 10 000 ft
ASL (3 050 m).
Catalytic heaters consume oxygen and can produce carbon
monoxide. For this reason they should not be used on an aircraft.
3.2.3 Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation most commonly occurs in association with
anxiety, fear, or during intense concentration on a difficult task,
such as performing a complicated approach procedure. Normally,
the rate of breathing is controlled by the amount of carbon
dioxide in the lungs and in the blood. In hyperventilation, carbon
dioxide is blown off and the level of carbon dioxide in the blood
drops below normal. Pilots may notice dizziness, a feeling of
coldness, a sensation like a tight band around the head and pins and needles in the hands and feet, and cramping and spasms of the hands and feet. Paradoxically, they will often feel as though
they cannot get enough air. Continued hyperventilation may
result in a loss of consciousness. The symptoms of hyperventilation,
particularly the shortness of breath, are not unlike those of
hypoxia, so rather than trying to make the diagnosis, follow the procedure below:
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIR(a) Breathe oxygen, if available, at 100 percent. If hypoxia is the
cause, the symptoms will improve markedly after three or
four breaths.
(b) If the symptoms persist, consciously slow the rate of breathing
to 10–12 breaths per minute and do not breathe deeply.
Breathing slowly and deeply into a paper bag is helpful,
although obviously not always practical during flight. Keep
the respiratory rate slow until the symptoms disappear. If below 8 000 ft ASL (2 440 m), hypoxia is unlikely to be the cause of the problem.
3.3 DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
At ground level, the body tissues are saturated with nitrogen,
the inert gas that makes up 80 percent of our atmosphere. During
a rapid ascent, the rapid lowering of the external barometric
pressure allows the nitrogen gas to form small bubbles (an example
of this phenomenon is the bubbles formed when a bottle of pop
is opened). The nitrogen bubbles form in and around blood
vessels, joints and muscles, causing pain and cramps (the bends).
They can also form under the skin, causing itching and tingling (the creeps), or in the lung, causing chest pain and shortness of
breath (the chokes). Severe cases may result in a loss of
consciousness. The risks associated with decompression sickness
increase with high rates of climb, age, obesity, physical activity and low temperatures. Flight operations above a cabin altitude of 20 000 ft ASL (6 100 m) should not be attempted unless crew
members and passengers have completed specialized high-altitude
indoctrination training. When decompression sickness is
encountered, an immediate descent to a lower altitude is required.
3.4 SCUBA DIVING
Although normally decompression sickness does not occur below
20 000 ft ASL (6 100 m), people who fly after scuba diving may
develop the symptoms at much lower altitudes. Atmospheric
pressure beneath the water increases by one atmosphere for every
33 ft (10 m) of descent. Divers who breathe pressurized air for
more than a few minutes supersaturate their tissues with nitrogen.
For this reason, as the aircraft ascends, nitrogen bubble formation
may take place, causing the bends. After dives of le ss than 33 ft
(1 atmosphere pressure), where decompression stops were not
required, flights up to altitudes of 8 000 ft ASL (2 440 m) should
be avoided for 12 hr. Where decompression stops have been
required while returning to the surface, the interval should be
24 hr. For flights above 8 000 ft ASL (2 440 m), the interval is
24 hr regardless of the type of dive, as even pressurized aircraft may lose cabin pressurization.
3.5 VISION
The retina of the eye is more sensitive to hypoxia than any part of the body; one of the first symptoms of hypoxia is a decrease in night vision. For this reason, pilots flying at night are advised to use oxygen, if available, from the ground up.
Many factors affect vision. Hypoxia, carbon monoxide poisoning,
alcohol, drugs, fatigue and smoking are only a few of these. After
time spent in bright sunlight, the eye is slow to adapt to darkness
and this may reduce night vision. To improve dark adaption, pilots should use sunglasses during the day to avoid eye fatigue. At night, cockpit lights should be kept low to maintain the dark adaption needed to see clearly outside the cockpit.
Despite modern electronics, pilots still fly in a “see-and-be seen”
world. For best results, good vision is only one of the requirements.
In the cockpit, it must be reinforced with good visual scan
practices, especially at night. Such practices are an acquired, not
an inherent, skill. In performing a visual scan, the eyes should be focused at a range that will ensure detection of traffic while
there is still time to take avoiding action. This requires that pilots
take an object on the horizon, focus on it and then scan all sectors
of the sky, refocusing as needed to avoid “empty-field myopia”
(empty-sky myopia), which can result from gazing at a featureless
landscape or cloudscape. Conscientious scanning of all sections
of the sky, interspersed with brief interludes of focusing on distant
objects, will improve a pilot’s ability to detect distant aircraft.
A clean canopy is also essential, particularly with bright sunlight.
Spots on the windshield easily lead to dazzle glare and can interfere
with long-range focus.
The same scan is required at night, with one difference: the part
of the eye that is best suited for night vision is not in the centre.
An object detected in barely adequate light will disappear if
viewed directly, but will often reappear if one looks 10 to 15° to one side of the object.
Technological changes and medical experience has brought
forward a proliferation in the availability and options in eye
surgery directed at improving visual acuity. The Civil Aviation
Medicine Branch continues to monitor this progress and has
adapted the medical guidelines regarding certification for flight
to reflect the growing body of knowledge and experience in this
important area. The most recent information and
recommendations on eye surgery can be found on the following Civil Aviation Medicine Web site:
<https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/medical-fitness-aviation/
assessing-medical-fitness-pilots-air-traffic-controllers/refractive-
eye-surgery >.
3.6 MIDDLE-EAR AND SINUS DISCOMFORT
OR PAIN
The middle ear is similar to a box: closed at one end by a flexible
cover (the ear drum) and drained at the other end by a thin,
straight tube (the Eustachian tube). As the aircraft climbs, air
in the body cavities expands as the barometric pressure decreases.
Normally, air will escape from the middle ear and the sinuses
and pilots will only notice their ears “popping”. The outlet of
the Eustachian tubes, however, is narrow and, if the pilot has a
head cold or a throat infection, local swelling may narrow it. On
ascent, air may still be able to escape, but on descent—particularly
at high rates—the outlet may close like a flap, preventing air
from re-entering the middle-ear cavity. The increasing ambient air pressure will then force the eardrum inward. This can lead to severe pain and decreased hearing.
Pressure in the ears can be equalized by opening and closing
the mouth, swallowing, yawning, chewing gum or by holding
the nostrils shut while gently blowing the nose. If the pressure in the ears (or sinuses) cannot be relieved by these manoeuvres,
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRit is best to climb back to the original altitude or to a higher level
(if this is necessary, ATC should of course be kept informed).
The ears should then be cleared and a gradual descent made,
clearing the ears frequently on the way down. Sometimes, the
pressure in the middle ear on descent is so low relative to the
external pressure that the eardrum can bleed and even rupture.
This is known as barotrauma. If barotrauma occurs, a physician
familiar with aeromedical conditions should be seen for treatment
as soon as possible after landing.
The best advice to pilots or passengers who are suffering from
head colds, sore throats or allergies is to wait until the inflammation
has subsided before flying. Nasal sprays can help provide relief,
but this is only temporary. A cold lasts only a few days, but a
blown eardrum may take weeks to recover!
3.7 DISORIENTATION
Pilots sometimes refer to disorientation as “vertigo”, by which
they mean not knowing which way is up. On the ground, spatial
orientation is sensed by the combination of vision, muscle sense,
and specialized organs in the inner ear that sense accelerations
and position. Vision is the strongest of the orienting senses.
However, in a whiteout or when flying in cloud, it is sometimes
impossible to orient oneself by reference to the horizon.
Under these conditions, the pilot is completely dependent upon
the flight instruments and learned flying skills for control of
the aircraft. Under no circumstances should the pilot rely upon his senses alone for orientation.
Although the organs of balance in the inner ear give useful
information on the ground, they can give rise to dangerously
false information in the air. For example, once a turn has been entered and is being maintained at a steady rate, the sensation
of turning will disappear. Upon recovering from the turn, pilots
may feel as though they are turning in the opposite direction
and erroneously re-enter the turn, even causing the aircraft to enter into a spin or a spiral. This has been responsible for many
accidents. False impressions of position may also be encountered
if pilots align the aircraft with a sloping cloudbank or when the horizon is distorted or apparently bent by the Northern Lights.
The rule of survival when disorientated is RELY ON YOUR
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS!
In their training, all pilots should be exposed to disorientation
by their instructors and should have had experience in recovering
from unusual attitudes. Such experience will help overcome
subsequent, unexpected instances of disorientation. Pilots without
instrument flight training must maintain a visual horizon at all
times and should never flight plan VFR into areas where bad
weather or low visibility may be encountered. An instrument
rating does not prevent disorientation, but the training required
to obtain the rating provides the pilot with the ability to
overcome it.
3.8 FATIGUE
Fatigue slows reaction time, reduces concentration and leads to
errors of attention. The most common causes are insufficient
rest, lack of sleep, and overexertion. Fatigue can also be aggravated by other stresses such as business pressures and financial or
family problems as well as common illnesses, such as anaemia,
sleep apnoea, influenza, and head colds. Pilots should be aware
of the subtle effects that acute or chronic fatigue can have on
motor skills and judgement, and avoid flying when either of
these are present. Pilots should also practice good sleep hygiene to prevent fatigue. Pilots who find that they are often troubled by fatigue or drowsiness, even while not flying, should see their health-care provider for a thorough medical evaluation.
Boredom and fatigue aggravate each other. One method of
overcoming boredom is to keep busy by making frequent ground-
speed and fuel-consumption checks, and staying mentally active.
Planning for diversion to alternates or studying relevant airfield
charts are also helpful.
3.9 ALCOHOL
Never fly while under the influence of alcohol. It is best to allow
at least 24 hours between the last drink and take-off time. Alcohol
is selectively concentrated by the body into certain areas and
can remain in the fluid of the inner ear even after all traces of
alcohol in the blood have disappeared. This accounts for the
difficulty in balance that is experienced in a hangover. Even small
amounts of alcohol (0.05 percent) have been shown in simulators
to reduce piloting skills. The body metabolizes alcohol at a fixed
rate and no amount of coffee, medication or oxygen will alter
this rate. ALCOHOL AND FLYING DO NOT MIX.
If you find that you are drinking excessively or encountering
problems related to alcohol, you must refrain from flying and
seek assistance. Transport Canada has a policy and pathway to
return to flying with the appropriate treatment and monitoring.
Early intervention and active engagement are best for long-term
success.
3.10 MEDICATIONS, NATURAL HEALTH
PRODUCTS, CANNABIS, AND OTHER RECREATIONAL DRUGS
Taking medicine in any form immediately before or while flying
can be hazardous. Over-the-counter medications, including
sedating antihistamines, herbal remedies (also known as natural
health products), cough medicines, sleeping pills, and appetite
suppressants may cause drowsiness, decrease mental alertness, and seriously impair the judgment and coordination needed by
the pilot. A condition for which medicine is required may impair
a pilot’s proficiency, even though the symptoms are masked by
medicine. Unless cleared by a Civil Aviation Medical
Examiner (CAME), pilots should not fly under the influence of prescription or over-the-counter drugs or herbal remedies any more than they should fly under the influence of alcohol.
Air traffic controllers may be particularly susceptible to sedative
side effects due to the need to perform repetitive tasks over
prolonged periods, often in a low-light environment.. The same restrictions applied to the pilot must be observed. Additionally,
since controllers are more likely to report for work while suffering
from a cold than pilots are, the effects of over-the-counter
treatments must be stressed.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRIt should go without saying that recreational drug use has no
place in aviation and illicit drug use may result in the refusal to
issue, refusal to renew, or suspension of a medical certificate.
Cannabis became legal, for both recreational and medical
purposes, in Canada in October 2018 by virtue of the Cannabis
Act. On June 3, 2019, Transport Canada announced the Civil
Aviation Medicine Cannabis Policy (< https://tc.canada.ca/en/
aviation/general-operating-flight-rules/better-pilot-decision-making/cannabis-legalization >).
Transport Canada defines “cannabis use” as the use of any
cannabis product, including cannabidiol (CBD), by any method
(including smoking, vaping, eating or applying to the skin) for
any purpose (including medical, recreational or other non-
medical reasons).
Whether it is used recreationally or medically, cannabis has the
potential to cause impairment and adversely affect aviation
safety.
All pilots, flight engineers, and air traffic controllers must abstain
from cannabis use for at least 28 days before reporting for duty.
The 28-day cannabis prohibition policy provides an additional
layer of safety to existing approaches which requires no
impairment, no diagnosis of a substance use disorder, no patterns
of problematic substance use likely to affect aviation safety, and no cannabis use in the last 28 days.
This policy neither prevents Canadian air operators from
implementing more stringent prohibitions for their employees
nor removes the responsibility from aviation industry employers
and employees to ensure that all personnel are fit for duty at
every duty interval. Flight crew and controllers must continue
to self-ground in the event that they might not be fit for duty.
Pilots, flight engineers, and air traffic controllers are also
responsible for complying with the applicable laws or regulations
of other countries where they might operate.
The cannabis policy is subject to change based on new research
and information on cannabis that may emerge.
NOTE :
The regulation specific to the use of alcohol or drugs by crew
members is included in the RAC chapter, Annex 2.0, Canadian
Aviation Regulations , 602.03 (< https://lois-laws.justice.gc.ca/
eng/regulations/SOR-96-433/FullText.html#s-602.03 >).
3.11 ANAESTHETICS
Questions are often asked about flying after anaesthetics. With
spinal or general anaesthetics, or with serious operations, pilots
should not fly until their doctor says it is safe to do so. It is
difficult to generalize about local anaesthetics used in minor
operations or dental work. Allergic reactions to these, if they
occur, are early and by the time the anaesthetic has worn off the
risk of side effects has passed. However, after extensive procedures
(such as the removal of several wisdom teeth), common sense
suggests waiting at least 24 hr before flying. 3.12 BLOOD DONATION
In a completely healthy individual, the fluid reduction caused
by donating one unit of blood is replaced within several hours. In some people, however, the loss of blood causes disturbances
to the circulation that may last for several days. While the effects
at ground level are minimal, flying during this period may entail
a risk. Generally, active pilots should not donate blood, but if
blood has been donated they should wait at least 48 hr before flying.
3.13 IMMUNIZATIONS
After receiving routine immunizations, such as flu shots or
tetanus shots, pilots should remain at the clinic for the amount of time recommended by their health-care provider. In general,
this ranges from 15 to 30 min after the immunization. If the
pilot feels well and there is no evidence of an adverse reaction,
they may resume flying immediately without restriction. If they
feel unwell or experience an adverse reaction, they should wait
for 24 hr and be assessed by a health-care provider prior to flying.
The Civil Aviation Medicine Branch will monitor any new immunization developments and guidelines, and
recommendations will be provided as needed.
3.14 PREGNANCY
Pilots may continue to fly up to 30 weeks into their pregnancy, provided the pregnancy is normal and without complications.
However, there are certain physiological changes that may affect
flight safety, and the foetus may be exposed to potentially
hazardous conditions. Pilots should be aware of the hazards so that they can make informed decisions on whether they choose to fly or not.
As soon as a pilot realizes that she is pregnant, she should seek
prenatal care from a qualified physician or midwife and she
should ensure that her maternity-care provider is aware that she
is a pilot. Should problems develop with the pregnancy before
the 30th week, the Regional Aviation Medical Officer (RAMO) must be notified.
In the first trimester, nausea and vomiting are common and
may be worsened by turbulence, engine fumes and G forces. In the first and second trimester, there is an increased likelihood
of fainting, but this is uncommon in a sitting position. However,
G tolerance may be reduced. A relative anaemia may occur after the second trimester and may affect the pilot’s susceptibility to hypoxia. Hypoxia is not a problem for the foetus below 10 000 ft ASL (3 050 m).
Cosmic radiation is of particular concern because of the unborn
child’s susceptibility to ionizing radiation. Dose equivalent is
the measure of the biological harmfulness of ionizing radiation,
and the present international unit of dose equivalent is the
sievert (Sv). One sievert is equal to 1 000 millisieverts (mSv).
The current recommendation is that the foetus should be exposed
to no more than 1 mSv during the entire pregnancy, and no more
than 0.5 mSv in any given month of pregnancy. For comparative
purposes, the recommended annual limit for occupational
ionizing radiation exposure for an adult is 50 mSv, with a 5-year average of no more than 20 mSv per year.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRCosmic radiation is greater at the poles than at the equator
and increases with altitude. On transpolar flights at
41 000 ft ASL (12 505 m), the estimated exposure is about
0.012 mSv/h, although in a solar flare this can increase by a
factor of 10. The exposure at the equator is about one-half of
this. A flight from Athens to New York at 41 000 ft ASL (12 505 m)
would expose a pilot to approximately 0.09 mSv. A pilot flying 500 hours per year at 35 000 ft ASL (10 675 m) between 60° and
90° latitude would be exposed to 1.73 mSv annually. Although the
radiation risk to the foetus is small, it does still exist. The decision
to expose the foetus to this minimal degree of radiation rests
with the pilot. In general, flying shorter flights at lower latitudes
will decrease exposure to ionizing radiation. Further information
can be obtained from the Regional Medical Office or from the
FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 120-61B, dated November 21, 2014:
<https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/
index.cfm/go/document.information/documentID/1026386 >.
Pilots with a normal pregnancy are considered temporarily unfit
and should cease flying after the 30th week of pregnancy. The pilot may resume her flying privileges six weeks after delivery if there are no significant medical issues. A brief medical report
from her attending physician should be forwarded to the RAMO.
Air traffic controllers may work until the onset of labour, and
may resume their duties six weeks after delivery. A medical
report of fitness should be forwarded to the regional office.
3.15 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE G
Many pilots think that unless they are performing aerobatics,
knowledge about acceleration (G) is unnecessary. However, this force affects pilots in all aircraft—from the smallest ultralight to the biggest jet.
3.15.1 What is G?
G is the symbol for the rate of change of velocity and so represents
both a force and a direction. The most common example is the
force of gravity (g), which is 32 ft/s2. This means a body in a
vacuum would fall at a speed that increases by 32 ft/s in each
second of the fall. By international convention, G is described
in three planes relative to the body. These are transverse (G x),
lateral (G y), and longitudinal (G z) (see Figure 3.1).
Convention also requires an indication of whether the force is
positive (+) or negative (-). For example, acceleration from the
feet to the head is positive Gz and from the head to the feet is
negative Gz. The effect of acceleration on the body is due to the displacement of blood and tissues. It is important to realize that the displacement is caused by the inertia of the tissues and this
will be opposite in direction to the acceleration force. If you were
fired into the air from a cannon, the acceleration would be upward,
but inertia would result in a relative downward displacement of your organs and blood.
Only Gx and Gz are of practical significance to civilian pilots
and the most significant result of Gx is disorientation; thus,
when we speak of positive or negative G, we are referring to Gz unless otherwise noted.3.15.2 The Effects of G
G tolerance varies greatly with the individual. Because the
symptoms are caused by the displacement of blood and tissues, we would expect that a pilot with good muscle tone would have
a better tolerance. This is correct. Tolerance is lowered by obesity,
ill health, low blood pressure, pregnancy and many medications.
It may vary from day to day in relation to fatigue, smoking,
hypoxia or hangovers.
In absolute figures, G tolerance is affected by the peak value, the
duration of the G force and the rate of onset. If the rate of onset
is very high, positive G can result in unconsciousness, known
as G-loss of consciousness (G-LOC), without any other symptoms.
The increased weight of limbs and organs interferes with
movement, and forces greater than +3G make it almost impossible
to escape from an aircraft in uncontrolled flight. Fine movements
are less affected. Heavy equipment such as a protective helmet
can cause problems with increasing G. At about +6G a pilot’s
head would be flexed on the chest by the increased weight of a crash helmet.
Figure 3.1—The G Axes
The most serious effect of positive G is the draining of blood
away from the head toward the feet, causing (stagnant) hypoxia
of the brain; the first symptom is vision deterioration. As G
forces are experienced, the blood pressure to the retina decreases
because the weight of the column of blood between the heart
and the eye (and therefore the work of the heart) increases.
Therefore, the retinal blood supply decreases. Vision, beginning
in the periphery, starts to become dim and colourless; this is
called “grey-out.” As the G forces increase further, the blood
flow in the back of the eye will be completely interrupted and
“black-out” (temporary loss of vision) will occur, although the
pilot remains conscious. There is a delay of 5–7 s between the
onset of G and the visual changes because of the oxygen dissolved
in the fluids of the eyeball. If G forces stabilize, there may be an
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRimprovement in the visual symptoms after l0–12 s because the
body’s reflexes automatically increase blood pressure.
Grey-out begins at about +2G and black-out is usually complete
at +4G in the relaxed, unprotected pilot. As the G force increases,
hypoxia of the brain develops and consciousness is usually lost
in the unprotected pilot at over +6G (G-LOC). When the G forces
decline, consciousness is quickly recovered, but there is always
a brief period of confusion on awakening.
Negative G is poorly tolerated. Here, because the acceleration is
from feet to head, blood pressure in the eyes and the brain is
increased so “red-out” (a red haze in the vision) is experienced.
Negative G in excess of -5G may cause rupture of small blood
vessels in the eyes and prolonged negative G may cause brain
damage. Negative G is experienced in a push-over or “bunt” and
in an outside loop.
Transverse G is well tolerated; this is why astronauts recline on
blastoff. Levels of up to +50 G x can be tolerated for short intervals
without tissue damage, although the acceleration interferes with
breathing. In current aircraft, G y is not a significant problem.
3.15.3 G Straining Manoeuvres
Valsalva’s manoeuvre consists of bearing down against a closed
glottis (the trap door between the throat and chest) while holding the nose. The same procedure, without holding the nose but with the mouth held closed, elevates the blood pressure and increases
G tolerance temporarily. This manoeuvre is widely used by acrobatic pilots and may increase G tolerance by about +2G.
Valsalva’s manoeuvre is the original anti-G straining manoeuvre,
but it is difficult to maintain.
3.15.4 Dealing with G
G tolerance is affected by diet and good physical conditioning. High tolerance requires adequate hydration and normal blood
sugar; hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar) markedly lowers
tolerance. Tensing the muscles in the calves and thighs to reduce
blood pooling and squatting down in the seat or leaning slightly
forward while tensing the abdominal muscles, all reduce the
distance between the heart and the brain and increase blood
pressure. Physical training can be beneficial, but pilots who wish
to develop high G tolerance do best with a weight-lifting program
rather than intensive aerobic training. Moderate aerobic
training—20–30 min daily—and running distances less than
5 km is helpful, but long-distance running decreases G tolerance
by slowing the resting heart rate, which increases the chance of
sudden loss of consciousness (G-LOC). A well-trained, experienced
pilot can tolerate up to 9G for as long as 30 s, but there is a lot of individual variation. Acrobatic pilots who regularly fly high G manoeuvres develop high tolerance, but quickly lose it if they are no longer exposed. 4.0 MISCELLANEOUS
4.1 AIR TIME AND FLIGHT TIME
Air Time is the period of time commencing when the aircraft leaves the supporting surface and terminating when it touches the supporting surface at the next point of landing.
Flight Time is the total time from the moment an aircraft first
moves under its own power for the purpose of taking off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight. This should be recorded in all Pilot Log Books.
NOTE :
Air Time and Flight Time should be recorded to the nearest
5 minutes, or to the nearest 6 minutes when using the decimal
system as follows:
Table 4.1—Rounding of Air Time and Flight Time
0 to 02 = .0 03 to 08 = .109 to 14 = .2
15 to 20 = .321 to 26 = .4 27 to 32 = .5
33 to 38 = .6 39 to 44 = .7 45 to 50 = .8
51 to 56 = .9 57 to 60 = 1.0 —
4.2 CONDUCT OF EXPERIMENTAL TEST
FLIGHTS
The C of A requires that aircraft be maintained and operated in
accordance with the aircraft type certificate, Weight and Balance
Report and Aircraft Flight Manual. If, for test demonstration
or experimentation, an aircraft is to be flown outside of the
approved Aircraft Flight Manual envelope, with unapproved
equipment installed, with equipment intentionally disabled, or
with inoperative equipment not covered by an approved Minimum
Equipment List or maintenance deferral action, the C of A will
be invalid. In these cases, flights may only be authorized through
a Flight Permit issued by TC.
It must be emphasized that experimentation beyond the
limitations imposed by the aircraft certification documentation
(type certificate, C of A, Aircraft Flight Manual, Minimum
Equipment List) may be hazardous as it can reduce the safety
margins designed into the aircraft and, thus, jeopardize the
safety of the crew. Consequently, experimental or developmental
flight testing should normally be conducted only under controlled
conditions by specifically qualified aircrew after adequate
engineering analysis and planning have taken place.
Before a test flight, the determinations of the conditions and
limits of testing, normal and emergency procedures specific to
the test, and expected aircraft handling characteristics are
essential if risks are to be minimized. If companies or individuals
wish to conduct a flight test program, they should apply for a
Flight Permit and consult with the aircraft manufacturer and
TC, who can help them to assess the risks and their capability
to conduct the tests safely.
Careful planning, covering all foreseeable exigencies, is critical
to safe testing.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIR4.3 PRACTICE SPINS
Intentional practice spins conducted at low altitudes have resulted
in fatal accidents. All practice spin recoveries should be completed
no less than 2 000 feet AGL, or at a height recommended by the
manufacturer, whichever is the greater.
4.4 CARGO RESTRAINT
4.4.1 General
Regulations, guidelines, and references have been established
to assist commercial air carriers to obtain appropriate airworthiness approval and develop suitable operational
procedures to ensure adequate restraint for cargo in aircraft.
4.4.2 Regulations
Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) 602.86, 703.37, 704.32,
and 705.39 and the associated standards, govern the requirement
for proper weight and balance procedures to ensure the load is
properly distributed in accordance with the C of A or flight
permit.
The intent of these regulations is to ensure that the loading and
restraint of cargo are such that the aircraft conforms to a
configuration which is in compliance with the applicable
airworthiness standards at all times. If the approved C of G or floor load limits are not adhered to the aircraft is unairworthy. Similarly, if the configuration of the restraint system does not meet the standards of the basis of certification or approval for the aircraft type, the aircraft is also unairworthy.
In this context it should be understood that the term “flight”
includes all phases of operation of the aircraft including the
applicable emergency landing conditions. These emergency
landing conditions are defined in the various airworthiness
standards and are an integral part of any basis of certification or approval.
4.4.3 Guidelines
Aircraft data is normally considered to be material provided by the aircraft manufacturer, and should include identification of
hardpoints, floor loads, C of G travel and related limits. Capacity
of hardpoints and floor loads takes into account the properly
factored gust, manoeuvre and emergency landing loads specified
in the type approval of the aircraft.
The air carrier, through his flight crew and persons responsible
for loading aircraft, must ensure that the cargo, as loaded, does
not cause the aircraft to be unairworthy. Examples of typical
loads and capacities may be provided by the aircraft manufacturer,
given the calculated strength of ropes, belts, nets and containers.
Unusual loads (pipe lengths, drill rod, fuel barrels, etc.) present
unique problems and are likely to require specific approval of
the restraint system. Where doubt exists as to the adequacy of the proposed method of restraint, the air carrier must submit a
substantiating load and strength analysis to the Regional Manager
of Airworthiness for engineering approval against the
requirements of the aircraft certification or approval basis. 4.4.4 References
The air carrier is responsible to acquire and review the following
Cargo Restraint Reference Material prior to submitting application
to a region.
• Airworthiness Manual, Chapters 523.561
• FAA Advisory Circular 43.13-2A (a general guide useful
in preparing initial application to the RMA for engineering
approval. It includes critical static test load factors for
FAR 23, 25, 27 and 29 aircraft)
• FAA Advisory Circular 121-27
• CAR 3.392 Cargo Compartments
• CAR 4b.359 Cargo Compartments
• FAR 23.787 Cargo Compartments
• FAR 25.787 Stowage Compartments
• FAR 27.787 Cargo and Baggage Compartments
• FAR 29.787 Cargo and Baggage Compartments
• FAR 91.203 Carriage of Cargo
• FAR 121.285 Carriage of Cargo in Passenger Compartments
• FAR 121.287 Carriage of Cargo in Cargo Compartment
• ICAO/IATA Training Manual, Book 4, Load Planners
and Cargo Handlers
4.4.5 Approval
Because of the magnitude in variety, the complexity of cargo
loads and the aircraft restraints involved, the following is only
a generalized approval process and requires review by the Regional
Managers, Aircraft Maintenance and Commercial and Business
Aviation.
The carrier (applicant) reviews the preceding regulations, aircraft
data and reference material, relates that to type(s) of aircraft
involved and submits application to the Regional Manager,
Aircraft Maintenance for engineering approval. (Application
includes manufacturer’s aircraft data and type approval or
certificated data, sample typical loads and proposed methods
of restraint.)
Concurrently, the carrier submits an application to the Regional
Manager, Air Carrier concerning operational procedures for
each aircraft type involved (including training) in an amendment
to the Operations Manual.
Following joint review, the Regional Manager, Aircraft
Maintenance may issue engineering approval of the application and the Regional Manager, Commercial and Business Aviation
may process the Operations Manual amendment. These are then
both forwarded to the carrier. The air operator issues the
amendment to the Operations Manual.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIR4.5 COLLISION AVOIDANCE – USE OF
LANDING LIGHTS
Several operators have for some time been using a landing light(s)
when flying at the lower altitudes and within terminal areas,
both during daylight hours and at night. Pilots have confirmed
that the use of the landing light(s) greatly enhances the probability
of the aircraft being seen. An important side benefit for improved
safety is that birds seem to see aircraft showing lights in time to
take avoidance action. Therefore, it is recommended that all
aircraft show a landing light(s) during the takeoff and landing
phases and when flying below 2000 feet AGL within terminal
areas and aerodrome traffic zones.
4.6 USE OF STROBE LIGHTS
The use of high intensity strobe lights while taxiing or awaiting
takeoff holding short of the active runway can be very distracting,
particularly to pilots in the final stages of approach or during
the initial landing phase.
It is recommended that high intensity strobe lights not be used
while the aircraft is on the ground when they adversely affect
ground personnel or other pilots. Circumstances permitting,
high intensity strobe lights should be activated anytime the
aircraft is occupying an active runway, including awaiting takeoff
clearance while holding on the active runway. They should be
extinguished after landing once clear of the active runway.
High intensity strobe lights should not be used in-flight when
there is an adverse reflection from clouds or other
weather phenomena.
4.7 MANNED FREE BALLOON
OPERATIONS
Pilots and owners of balloons, like all other aircraft pilots and
owners, must comply with the CARs with respect to crew
licensing, aircraft registration and operating procedures.
4.7.1 Balloon Operations with Fare-Paying
Passengers
CAR 603.17 states, “No person shall operate a balloon under
this Division unless the person complies with the provisions of
a special flight operations certificate - balloons issued by the
Minister pursuant to Section 603.18.”
To qualify for a special flight operations certificate to permit
the operation of balloons with fare-paying passengers,
operators must:
(a) maintain balloons in accordance with the requirements
of CAR 605;
(b) ensure that the balloons are properly equipped for the area and type of operation; and
(c) employ flight crew members who meet the requirements of CAR 623.21, namely, who:
(i) are at least eighteen years of age,
(ii) hold a Balloon Pilot Licence issued by Transport Canada,(iii) hold a Medical Certificate, Category 1 or 3,
(iv) have accumulated a minimum of 50 hours flight-
time in untethered balloons or are the holder of a
Canadian Balloon Licence with a valid Flight
Instructor Rating - Balloon Category, and
(v) demonstrate annually a satisfactory level of knowledge and ability to perform normal and
emergency operating procedures on the specific AX
class of balloon to be operated.
4.8 PARACHUTE JUMPING/SKYDIVING
Parachuting or skydiving is a high-risk activity that can result in death or serious injury. As such, any individual participating
in this activity must take full responsibility for their personal safety.
Transport Canada does not regulate the sport of parachuting
directly. Transport Canada does not regulate or have licensing
or certification requirements for parachute equipment, parachute
packers/riggers, parachuting instructors or coaches.
It is strongly recommended that persons participating in
parachuting activities be conversant with the procedures and
standards established by associations representing parachuting activities. In Canada, that association is:
Canadian Sport Parachuting Association (CSPA) 204-1468 Laurier Street
Rockland ON K4K 1C7
Tel.:
...................................................................... 613-419-0908
Transport Canada regulations pertaining to parachuting are in
place to ensure the safety and efficiency of the air navigation
system in which parachuting takes place and to ensure the safety
of persons and property on the ground.
CAR 602.26 states, “Except where permitted in accordance with
section 603.37, no pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall permit,
and no person shall conduct, a parachute descent from the aircraft
(a) in or into controlled airspace or an air route; or
(b) over or into a built-up area or an open-air assembly
of persons.”
CAR 603.37 states, “… a pilot-in-command may permit and a
person may conduct a parachute descent under this Division if
the person complies with the provisions of a special flight
operations certificate - parachuting issued by the Minister
pursuant to Section 603.38.”
4.9 HANG GLIDER AND
PARAGLIDER OPERATIONS
Hang gliders and paragliders are not required to be registered
or to bear identification marks. There are no airworthiness
standards or requirements imposed by the CARs. The CARs do
not impose any training requirements for hang glider or paraglider
pilots, and the regulations do not require these pilots to hold
any pilot licence or permit to operate their aircraft. There is,
however, a requirement to successfully complete a written
examination before piloting hang gliders and paragliders in
controlled airspace. Section 602.29 of the CARs outlines airspace
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRrequirements for hang gliders and paragliders. Hang glider
operators may use an ultralight aeroplane to tow a hang glider.
Before doing so, these operators are required to notify
Transport Canada.
The Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association of Canada (HPAC)
has developed standards for pilot ratings, competitions, setting
records, safety procedures and reporting, as well as for solo and
two-place pilot instruction. Information regarding HPAC
operations and procedures may be obtained from:
Margit Nance
Executive Director
Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association of Canada (HPAC) 308-1978 Vine Street
Vancouver BC V6K 4S1
E-mail:
............................................................. admin@hpac.ca
Tel.: ........................................................................ 877-370-2078
4.10 ULTRA-LIGHT AEROPLANE
Pilots interested in flying ultralight aeroplanes or advanced
ultralight aeroplanes are encouraged to contact their Transport
Canada regional office for information on regulation and licence
requirements. See GEN 1.1.1 for addresses and telephone numbers.
Pending amendment of the CARs, the Ultra-light Aeroplane
Transition Strategy outlines requirements for the operation of
ultralight aeroplanes in Canada. This document can be obtained
from Transport Canada offices or viewed online at: <www.tc.gc.
ca/eng/civilaviation/standards/general-recavi-ultralight-
menu-2457.htm >.
A copy of the Study and Reference Guide—Pilot Permit—Ultra-
light Aeroplane (TP 14453E) is available at: < www.tc.gc.ca/eng/
civilaviation/publications/menu.htm >.
4.11 CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND ALERTING
DEVICES
Automatic protective devices (circuit breakers) are provided
within aircraft systems to minimize distress to the electrical
system and hazard to the aircraft in the event of wiring faults
or serious malfunction of a system or connected equipment.
Alerting devices provide the pilot with a visual and/or aural
alarm to direct the pilot’s attention to a situation that may require
an immediate intervention by the pilot.
Good operating practices suggest a popped circuit breaker can
indicate that there is a potential problem being protected. The practice of attempting one reset should only be considered if the
equipment rendered unusable is considered essential for the
continued safety of the flight. Depending on the amperage of
the circuit breaker and its location within the circuit being
protected, resetting a popped circuit breaker may create a more
adverse situation than simply leaving the circuit breaker out.
Indiscriminately resetting popped circuit breakers should
be avoided.
Crew members are cautioned against pulling circuit breakers
on board an aircraft in order to silence an alerting or warning device that may in fact be providing a valid warning or alarm.
Examples of such alarms include landing gear warning horn
with certain flap/slat combinations, overspeed warnings, ground
proximity warning system alerts and washroom smoke detectors.
Deactivating the alerting or warning device by pulling circuit
breakers compromises or may compromise the safety of flight.
Exceptions would be acceptable for an obvious malfunction
resulting in continuous erroneous warnings. In these cases, a
defect entry in the aircraft journey log book must be made.
4.12 DESIGN EYE REFERENCE POINT
Some aircraft manufacturers provide reference points which the
pilot uses while making the seat adjustments. These reference
points could be something as simple as two balls affixed to the glare shield which the pilot must line up visually. In a two-pilot aircraft the reference points could be formed by three balls in a triangle and each pilot would adjust the seat until the respective reference balls line up. The intent, of course, is to have the pilot
adjust the seat in order for the eyes of the pilot to be at the
optimum location for visibility, inside and outside the cockpit, as well as the correct position for access to the cockpit switches
and knobs. The engineering that results in the manufacturer
placing these balls on the glare shield is called ERGONOMICS. This optimum position for the pilot’s eyes is referred to as the Design Eye Reference Point.
If there is no information on the design eye reference point in
the aircraft operating manual, then it is suggested that the pilot
could write the manufacturer and request the information.
Failing that, the following guidelines should be considered when
attempting to locate the correct seat placement (height, as well as fore and aft placement):
(a) all flight controls must be free of restriction throughout the
full travel of the controls;
(b) flight instruments and warning lights must be visible to the
pilot without being obscured by items such as the top of the glare shield;
(c) forward out-of-the-cockpit visibility should be sufficient to
ensure that things such as the nose of the aircraft do not
block the view of the pilot, especially during a normal
approach and landing; and
(d) the chosen seat position should be comfortable for
the pilot.
4.13 FIRST AID KITS ON PRIVATELY OWNED
AND OPERATED AIRCRAFT
CAR 602.60 requires a first aid kit to be carried on board every power-driven aircraft, other than an ultra-light aeroplane. For a list of recommended items that should be carried in a first aid
kit on board aircraft that are privately owned and operated, refer
to Part 9—First Aid of the Aviation Occupational Health and
Safety Regulations (SOR/2011-87). <https://laws-lois.justice.
gc.ca/eng/regulations/sor-2011-87/page-10.html#h-781458 >
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIR4.14 SURVIVAL ADVISORY INFORMATION
A basic survival manual should be carried, appropriate to the
area of flight.
Private pilots should obtain some training in certain aspects of
survival if they have never spent time in the bush in winter or
summer. Those planning to fly above the tree line should obtain
more specialized training.
Locating and saving people in aeronautical emergencies has
been greatly improved by the changes implemented by the
SARSAT/COSPAS members. Today the SARSAT/COSPAS system
provides global detection capability by satellite. The improvements
in reliability of ELTs in conjunction with the global application SARSAT/COSPAS systems has greatly increased the chances of early detection and location of crash survivors. The carriage of
food is no longer a critical item in survival and is left as a personal
choice of the individual operator. (See AIP Canada GEN 1.5)
4.15 POTENTIAL FLIGHT HAZARDS FOR
AIRCRAFT
4.15.1 Avoid Flight in the Vicinity of Exhaust
Plumes
Figure 4.1—Visible and Invisible Plumes
Visible Plume Invisible Plume
Exhaust plumes are defined as visible or invisible emissions from
power plants, industrial production facilities or other industrial
systems that release large amounts of vertically directed unstable
gases. High temperature exhaust plumes may cause significant
air disturbances, such as turbulence and vertical shear. Other
identified potential hazards include, but are not necessarily
limited to, reduced visibility, oxygen depletion, engine particulate
contamination, exposure to gaseous oxides, and/or icing.
When able, pilots should fly upwind of possible exhaust plumes.
Encountering a plume may result in airframe damage, aircraft
upset, and/or engine damage/failure. These hazards are most
critical during low altitude flight in calm and cold air, especially
in and around approach and departure corridors or in airport traffic areas.
When a plume is visible via smoke or a condensation cloud,
remain clear and realize that a plume may have both visible and invisible characteristics. Exhaust stacks without visible plumes may still be in full operation, and airspace in the vicinity should be treated with caution. As with mountain wave turbulence or CAT, an invisible plume may be encountered unexpectedly.
Whether plumes are visible or invisible, the total extent of their
turbulent effect is difficult to ascertain. Some studies predict
that the significant turbulent effects of a thermal plume can
extend over 1 000 ft above the top of the stack or cooling tower.
Any effects will be more pronounced where the plume is very
hot and the surrounding air is calm, stable and cold. Fortunately,
studies also predict that crosswinds help dissipate the effects.
However, the size of the tower or stack is not a good indicator
of the plume’s predicted effect. The effects are primarily related
to the heat or size of the plume effluent, the ambient air
temperature, and the wind speed affecting the plume. Smaller
aircraft can expect to be affected at a higher altitude than heavier
aircraft.
Pilots are encouraged to reference the CFS for the location of
structure(s) emitting exhaust plumes, such as cooling towers,
power plant stacks, exhaust fans and other similar structures.
Pilots encountering hazardous plume conditions should report
time, location and intensity (light, moderate, severe or extreme)
to the facility with which they are maintaining radio contact.
4.15.2 Pilot Procedures When Exposed to Laser
and Other Directed Bright Light Sources
4.15.2.1 General
Directed bright light sources projected near airports or into any
navigable airspace can cause potential flight control disruptions
and/or eye injury to pilots, crew members, and passengers. The
number of laser illuminations affecting aircraft has significantly
increased during the past few years. In particular, the number
of laser incidents reported involving law enforcement helicopters
has substantially increased.
Canada and the USA have both recorded numerous instances
of laser exposures that have been disruptive to flight operations.
Flight crews may be startled; they may be affected by glare, flash
blindness and/or afterimage due to laser occurrences.
Directed bright light sources, particularly laser beams, projected
near airports or into any navigable airspace can cause two flight
safety concerns:
(a) The primary concern is when non-injurious, bright, directed
light unexpectedly enters the cockpit. Depending on the
brightness level, the light could startle (a) flight crew
member(s); cause glare, making it difficult to see out the
windscreen; or cause temporary vision impairment (flash
blindness and/or afterimage). The illumination and glare
may be short—one or a few bright flashes—but the startle
and afterimage effects could persist for many seconds or
even minutes.
(b) A secondary concern is a laser beam so powerful that it
causes temporary or permanent eye injury to pilots, crew
members, or passengers. Fortunately, this is only a remote
possibility because the laser power required to cause eye
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIRinjury greatly exceeds that of lasers in common use today.
Therefore, the most likely in-flight safety hazard is a bright
non-injurious flash causing disruption in the cockpit workflow.
This disruption poses significant flight safety hazards when the
cockpit workload increases below 10 000 ft AGL, such as during critical phases of flight (approach and landing); in dense traffic
areas (terminal environment and en route areas); and in proximity
to airports.
Even laser pointers can cause pilots to become distracted from
their immediate tasks. Reports of pilots exposed to persons using
laser pointers have been increasing in number. Pilots flying law
enforcement helicopters have been particularly targeted by lasers.
4.15.2.2 Procedures
The primary purpose of this subsection is to outline preventive
measures and incident procedures that pilots can follow to either
prevent potential illuminations or minimize cockpit disruption.
For simplicity, the following procedures refer to laser illumination
incidents; however, the same procedures should be applied
regardless of the source, whether it is a laser or any other directed
bright light, such as a searchlight.
4.15.2.2.1 Preventive Procedures
During aircraft operations into navigable airspace where laser
illuminations are anticipated, flight crews should:
(a) Consult NOTAMs for temporary laser activity. The NOTAM
should include the location and time of the laser operations.
Avoid known permanent laser displays (e.g. Disney World).
In the USA, these sites are published in the Airport/Facility
Directory , a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
publication available at < www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_
info/aeronav/digital_products/dafd/ >. Currently, there is
only one permanent laser display site in Canada, located at
the Shaw Millennium Park in Calgary, Alta., (510258N
1140530W 5 NM SW AIRPORT) but it is only being used
for special events (e.g. Canada Day). A NOTAM is published
on those specific days.
(b) Turn on additional exterior lights to help ground laser safety
observers locate the aircraft, so they can respond by turning
off the laser beam.
(c) Turn on thunderstorm lights to minimize cockpit
illumination effects.
(d) Engage the autopilot.
(e) Have one flight crew member stay on the instruments to
minimize the effects of a possible illumination while in the area of expected laser activity.
(f) Consider using notch filter eye spectacles that protect against
514- and 532-nanometre laser wavelengths, if flying a
helicopter engaged in surveillance or medical evacuation.4.15.2.2.2 Incident Procedures
If a laser beam illuminates a pilot in flight, the pilot should:
(a) Immediately look away from the laser source or try to shield
their eyes with their hand or a hand-held object to avoid, if possible, looking directly at the laser beam.
(b) Immediately alert the other flight crew member(s) and
advise them of the illumination and its effect on their vision.
(c) If vision is impaired, immediately transfer control of the
aircraft to the other flight crew member. If other flight crew
members have been illuminated, engage the autopilot (if
equipped).
(d) Be very cautious of spatial disorientation effects (e.g. the
leans). After regaining vision, they should check cockpit
instruments for proper flight status.
(e) Resist the urge to rub their eyes after a laser illumination, as this action may cause further eye irritation or damage.
(f) Contact ATC and advise of a “LASER ILLUMINATION”.
Use this terminology for all laser incident/accident reports.
If the situation dictates, declare an emergency.
(g) When time permits, provide ATC with an incident report that includes the laser location, direction, and beam colour
as well as the length of exposure (flash or intentional
tracking) and the effect on the crew.
NOTE :
To ensure that TC has sufficient information to analyze and
investigate occurrences, please complete the “Directed Bright
Light Illumination Incident Report/Questionnaire” at <http://
wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/wwwdocs/Forms/26-0751E_1405-03_E_X.pdf >
and send the completed form to < services@tc.gc.ca >.
4.15.2.2.3 Medical Follow-up Procedures After an
In-flight Illumination
A crew member who has been subjected to a significant
illumination and who experiences persistent symptoms, such
as pain or visual abnormalities (e.g. flash blindness and/or afterimage), should seek immediate medical attention. In
addition, they should contact a RAMO or an aviation medical
officer at the earliest opportunity. The medical officer will provide
assistance in locating the nearest ophthalmologist or medical
facility with experience in evaluating laser injuries. If outside
Canada, contact the Civil Aviation Medicine Branch in Ottawa.
An eye damaged by a laser beam starts to repair itself immediately.
Therefore, it is strongly recommended that an ophthalmologist,
familiar with laser injury examination requirements, evaluate
the crew member within five hours of the exposure to determine
the nature of the injury and if further follow-up action is needed.
NOTE :
Because diagnosis can be difficult, especially for medical
personnel who rarely, if ever, see laser eye injuries, it should not
be automatically assumed that a particular symptom, abnormality
or injury was caused by a given laser exposure.
TC AIM March 20, 2025AIRFor assistance, please contact one of the following.
Table 4.2—Civil Aviation Medicine Branch Offices
HEADQUARTERS
Civil Aviation Medicine
Transport Canada
330 Sparks Street
Place de Ville, Tower C, Room 617
Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: 613-990-1311
Fax: 613-990-6623
QUEBEC REGION
QuebecCivil Aviation Medicine
Transport Canada
330 Sparks Street
Place de Ville, Tower C, Room 617 Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: 1-800-305-2059
Fax: 613-990-6623
PRAIRIE AND NORTHERN REGION
Alberta, Yukon, Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
Northwest Territories and Nunavut
Civil Aviation Medicine
Transport Canada
1140-9700 Jasper Avenue
Edmonton AB T5J 4C3
Tel.: 1-800-305-2059
Fax: 780-495-4905ATLANTIC REGION
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,
Prince Edward Island,
Newfoundland and LabradorCivil Aviation Medicine
Transport Canada
330 Sparks Street
Place de Ville, Tower C, Room 617 Ottawa ON K1A 0N8
Tel.: 1-800-305-2059
Fax: 613-990-6623
ONTARIO REGION
OntarioCivil Aviation Medicine
Transport Canada
4900 Yonge Street, 4th Floor North York ON M2N 6A5
Tel.: 1-800-305-2059
Fax: 416-952-0569
PACIFIC REGION
British ColumbiaCivil Aviation Medicine
Transport Canada
800 Burrard Street, Room 620
Vancouver BC V6Z 2J8
Tel.: 1-800-305-2059
Fax: 604-666-0145
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
AIR4.16 REMOTELY PILOTED AIRCRAFT (RPA)
Remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), otherwise known as drones,
have become increasingly popular over the last several years.
Advances in technology have made aircraft like these a good
tool for conducting inspections, taking photographs, and
responding to emergencies but, like any change to a system, the
introduction of remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPASs) to the
National Civil Air Transportation System (NCATS) has created
new risks.
To mitigate the risks associated with the growing number of
RPAS operations, Transport Canada developed Part IX of the
Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs), which governs the use
of small RPA less than 25 kg and operated within visual line of
sight. Part IX of the regulations came into force on June 1, 2019,
and created requirements for RPAS operations, including
registration, pilot certification, and two operating environments,
basic and advanced. All small RPA (250 g–25 kg) are required
to be registered and marked, and all small RPA pilots are required to write an exam and obtain an RPA pilot certificate. Advanced pilots also need to pass a flight review. Micro RPA of less than 250 g do not require registration or a pilot certificate, but they must fly in a way that does not pose a risk to aviation or people
on the ground. One fundamental change from other parts of
the CARs is the elimination of the distinction between commercial
and recreational users. Part IX of the RPAS rules applies to every
RPA pilot, regardless of the purpose of their mission.
Pilots are responsible for managing risk. RPA are a relatively
new entrant into the National Civil Air Transportation
System (NCATS) and have created a new risk: collisions between
RPA and other aircraft. RPA pilots are responsible for remaining
clear of areas where traditional aircraft are operated, but pilots
of traditional aircraft should understand the operating
environment that Part IX creates for RPA pilots so they can plan
their flights in a way that further reduces the risks.
Here is a simplified version of the two operating environments:
Table 4.3—RPAS Operating Environment
— Basic environment Advanced environment
Maximum altitude 400 ft AGL, or 100 ft above any building
or structure, if below 200 ft horizontally400 ft AGL, or 100 ft above any building
or structure, if below 200 ft horizontally, or as approved by air traffic control (if within controlled airspace)
Controlled airspace outside of controlled airspace within controlled airspace with authorization**
Other airspace outside restricted airspace
outside emergency security perimeteroutside special aviation eventoutside advertised event3 NM from military aerodromesoutside restricted airspaceoutside emergency security perimeteroutside special aviation eventoutside advertised event3 NM from military aerodromes
Proximity to other people
more than 100 ft (30 m) away more than 16.4 ft (5 m) away*
Over people no yes*
Proximity to airports more than 3 NM at or near airports***
Proximity to heliports more than 1 NM at or near heliports***
Proximity to uncertified aerodromes at or near uncertified aerodromes at or near uncertified aerodromes
Night operations with sufficient position lights with sufficient position lights
*The RPAS must meet Standard 922— RPAS Safety Assurance to fly near people or over people.
**The RPAS must meet Standard 922— RPAS Safety Assurance to fly in controlled airspace and the pilot must have authorization from NAV CANADA.
***Advanced RPA pilots flying at or near certified airports and certified heliports must follow the applicable established procedure for RPAS operations
All RPA pilots, regardless of the operating environment they
are in, are responsible for keeping their drone under control and
within visual line of sight so that when another aircraft is detected,
they will be able to take immediate action to give way. Avoiding
a collision is the shared responsibility of all pilots. To further
minimize the risk of collision, pilots of traditional aircraft should
exercise caution when conducting flights below 400 ft AGL in
uncontrolled airspace and take additional care to fly standard circuits at uncertified aerodromes because that is where other airspace users are going to expect aircraft to be.
For more information on drones and drone safety, see the
Transport Canada drone safety Web site: < https://tc.canada.ca/
en/aviation/drone-safety >.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPARPA—REMOTELY PILOTED
AIRCRAFT
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
The following parts of this chapter provide detailed information
for the safe operation of a remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS).
This information is intended to be used in conjunction with
regulations and associated standards found in Part IX of the
Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs). Part IX rules apply
regardless of the purpose of the RPAS use (e.g., recreational,
commercial, work and research).
This chapter has been organized to follow the order in which
information is described in Part IX of the CARs, with a
description of the regulation, ways to meet the regulation’s
objective and additional related information. Throughout the
Transport Canada Aeronautical Information Manual (TC AIM),
the term “should” implies that TC encourages all pilots to comply
with the applicable procedure. The term “shall” implies that the
applicable procedure is mandatory because it is supported by
regulations.
While an RPA refers to the aircraft itself, including related
components such as batteries, payloads and lights, an RPAS
includes the RPA as well as the control station and command
and control (C2) link.
As an RPA is defined as a navigable aircraft under CAR 101.01,
other sections of the CARs may also apply, such as CARs 601.04
and 601.15 and section 5.1 of the Aeronautics Act . These
regulations restrict the use of airspace to all “aircraft.” For more information, refer to RAC 2.8.6 and 2.9.2.
Please note that the imperial system of units is used in aviation
and for all information contained on aeronautical charts and
publications. Other units apply to specific situations and can be
found in Table 1.1 of GEN 1.4.1.
Part IX of the CARs is enforced by delegated peace officers such
as a member of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) or by TC inspectors and investigators. TC is also partnering with
other provincial and municipal law enforcement agencies to
obtain delegation to enforce Part IX. Refer to LRA 6.4 for more
information on monetary penalties and to CAR 103 Schedule II,
where they are designated and listed.
In addition to Part IX and other regulations in the CARs, other
regulations apply when an RPAS is operated. When choosing a site for an RPA’s take-off, launch, landing or recovery, the pilot should ensure that they have the landowner’s permission to use the site. The provisions of the
Criminal Code could apply if an
individual is creating mischief, feeling fatigued, flying under
the influence of alcohol or drugs, or endangering the safety of people or an aircraft.
Other rules such as the Privacy Act , the Personal Information
Protection and Electronic Documents Act or provincial privacy
legislation may also apply. Be respectful of people’s privacy. It is
a good practice to let people know you will be flying in the area and what you are doing with your RPA; you should also obtain
an individual’s consent if you are going to record private
information. Privacy guidelines can be found online at < https://
tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/drone-safety >.
The landing or take-off of aircraft in national parks and national
park reserves may only take place at prescribed locations. Contact
information for each location can be found on the Parks Canada
Web site at < https://parks.canada.ca/ >. Additional details can
be found in the National Parks of Canada Aircraft Access Regulations available at < https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/
regulations/SOR-97-150/page-1.html >.
The Migratory Birds Regulations may apply to RPAS. The landing
or take-off of aircraft in areas designated as bird sanctuaries
may require a permit. Contact information for bird sanctuaries
can be found at Environment and Climate Change Canada’s
Web site: < https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-
change/services/migratory-bird-sanctuaries.html >.
Contact information for provincial and territorial game officers
and information concerning the preservation of wildlife within the various provinces and territories in Canada can be found in
the AIP Canada on the NAV CANADA Web site at < https://
www.navcanada.ca/en/aeronautical-information/aip-canada.aspx >.
The Species at Risk Act and the Marine Mammal Regulations
apply to RPAS to protect their well-being and yours. Watching
whales and other marine mammals in their natural surroundings
can disturb and even harm them. Information for marine wildlife
watching is available from Fisheries and Oceans Canada Web
site: < https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/mammals-
mammiferes/watching-observation/index-eng.html >. There are
laws for Canadian waters in general: for killer whales in British
Columbia and the Pacific Ocean, Narrow Churchill and Seal
River areas, St. Lawrence estuary, Saguenay St. Lawrence Marine
Park and the Saguenay River RPA. Getting too close could result
in charges under the Fisheries Act , with fines up to $100,000.
Keeping a minimum distance is the law. RPA are discouraged
for viewing marine mammals, unless appropriate permits are
obtained. For more information on licensing and permitting,
please visit Application instructions for the authorization of
marine mammal disturbance at <https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/
species-especes/mammals-mammiferes/section38/index-eng.html >.
For more information on RPAS:
(a) Visit CARs Part IX: < https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-
services/acts-regulations/list-regulations/canadian-aviation-regulations-sor-96-433#part-ix >.
(b) Visit the TC drone safety Web site: < https://tc.canada.ca/
en/aviation/drone-safety >.
(c) To report an incident, safety issue or concern where an
RPAS was involved, see < https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/
drone-safety/report-drone-incident >.
(d) For information about an upcoming special flight operations
certificate (SFOC) — RPAS application, visit the SFOC-
RPAS page of the TC Drone Safety Web site: < https://
tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/drone-safety/drone-pilot-licensing/
get-permission-special-drone-operations >. To obtain
additional information or requests specific for a SFOC-RPAS
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAapplication already made, e-mail < TC.RPASCentre-
CentreSATP.TC@tc.gc.ca >.
(e) For questions related to an RPAS safety assurance declaration,
visit the SFOC-RPAS page of the TC Drone Safety Web site:
<https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/drone-safety/help-drone-
safety-partners-manufacturers/
submit-drone-safety-assurance-declaration-overview >. To
obtain additional information, e-mail < TC.RPASDeclaration-
DeclarationSATP.TC@tc.gc.ca >.
(f) Visit the RPAS 101 Manual who provides general knowledge
to Canadian RPA pilots: < https://www.aerialevolution.ca/
wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Nov-27-RPAS-101_EN-Final.pdf >.
(g) Visit the <NRC> Drone Site Selection Tool < https://cnrc.
canada.ca/en/drone-tool/ > and NAV Drone viewer
< https://map.navdrone.ca/ >.
2.0 MICRO REMOTELY PILOTED
AIRCRAFT (RPA)—LESS THAN
250 g
Remotely piloted aircraft (RPAs) with an operational weight of
less than 250 g are named micro RPAs. The weight of the control
station is not factored into the operational weight calculation
when determining whether an RPA is a micro RPA (less
than 250 g) or a small RPA (250 g to 25 kg). However, the weight
of any payload carried by the RPA, such as an optional camera, a lens filter, pegs, propeller guards, stickers, and lights, will be considered part of the total operational weight. The micro RPA
could thus reach 250 g or more and fall into the category of small
RPAs from 250 g to 25 kg and have to comply with Subpart 1 of
Part IX of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs), requiring,
among other things, an RPA registration and marking, and an RPA pilot certification.
If a micro RPA is modified or has accessories added that bring
the operational weight up to or over 250 g (such as propeller
guards), the small RPA shall be registered under CARs Part IX
and the RPA pilot will have to comply with the general operating
and flight rules in Subpart 1 of Part IX. The registration is done
in the Drone Management Portal (DMP) by selecting the option
“The drone was built using either a kit, off-the-shelf or custom-
built parts.” Once registered, the small RPA may be used in the
conduct of a flight review, taking into account that it will not
have a remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS) safety assurance declaration to operate in controlled airspace or close to people.
If the small RPA is demodified back to its original sub-250 g
version, then the small RPA registration certificate is not valid
anymore and the RPA is again a micro RPA until it is back to
250 g or over the small RPA operational weight category. There is no need to deregister the RPA from the DMP in this situation.
Pilots of micro RPAs are not subject to Subpart 1 of Part IX of
the CARs, so they are not required to register and mark their
RPAs or obtain a certificate to fly them. However, just like other
pilots of RPAs of 250 g and above, they must adhere to CAR 900.06
and ensure they do not operate their RPA in such a reckless or
negligent manner as to endanger or be likely to endanger aviation
safety or the safety of any person. While there are no prescriptive elements of the regulation that inform the pilot how to accomplish
this objective, there is an expectation that the pilot of a micro
RPA should use good judgment, identify potential hazards, and take all necessary steps to mitigate any risks associated with the operation. This should include having an understanding of the
environment in which the RPA pilot is operating, with particular
attention paid to the possibility of aircraft or people being in
the same area.
As a rule of thumb:
(a) Maintain the micro RPA in direct line of sight.
(b) Avoid flying your micro RPA above 400 ft above ground
level (AGL).
(c) Keep a safe lateral distance between your micro RPA and
other people.
(d) Stay far away from aerodromes, water aerodromes, and
heliports.
(e) Avoid flying near critical infrastructure.
(f) Stay clear of aircraft at all times.
(g) Conduct a pre-flight inspection of your micro RPA.
(h) Keep the micro RPA close enough to maintain the connection
with the remote controller.
(i) Follow the manufacturer’s operational guidelines.
(j) Avoid special aviation or advertised events.
These guidelines will help you avoid flying in a negligent or
reckless manner and being subject to monetary penalties. They will also help ensure that you enjoy a safe flight and minimize
the risk of an incident. Remember: if you feel that a flight is
risky, do not fly.
If CARs 601.04 and 601.15, as well as section 5.1 of the Aeronautics
Act, prohibit for all “aircraft” the use of airspace, they therefore
apply to micro RPAs because they are considered aircraft under the Aeronautics Act and the CARs. For more information, see
RAC 2.8.6 and 2.9.2.
Micro RPAs are therefore prohibited from entering the following
zones without proper authorization:
(a) Class F special-use restricted airspace (CYR);
(b) airspace over a forest fire area or over any area that is located
within 5 NM of a forest fire area, or any airspace for which a NOTAM for forest fire aircraft operating restrictions has been issued; and
(c) zones in which section 5.1 of the Aeronautics Act restricts
the use of airspace for all aircraft.
A pilot that is found to have created a hazard either to aviation
safety or to people on the ground is subject to an individual
penalty of $1,000 and/or a corporate penalty of $5,000 (CAR 103,
Schedule II).
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPA3.0 SMALL REMOTELY PILOTED
AIRCRAFT (RPA)—250 g TO
25 kg
3.1 REGISTRATION OF REMOTELY
PILOTED AIRCRAFT (RPA)
All small remotely piloted aircraft (RPAs) in Canada must be
registered, and the registration number must be on the aircraft
and clearly visible ( Canadian Aviation Regulations [CARs] 901.02,
901.03). The method of marking the registration on the RPA is
left to the discretion of the owner. The RPA pilot should consult
the manufacturer’s instructions to ensure affixing the registration
will not affect the aircraft’s airworthiness. The registration
should be located on the main body of the aircraft and not on
frangible or removable parts such as batteries, motor mounts,
or payloads; it should contrast with the primary colour of the
RPA and be clearly visible when the aircraft is not in motion;
and it should be durable because, in most cases, the registration
will stay with the RPA for the duration of its service life regardless
of any changes of ownership. If the marking degrades
(e.g. permanent marker wears off or a label’s glue wears out)
such that the number is no longer visible, the pilot is responsible
for making the number visible again (e.g. rewrite or create a
new label).
Registration is completed online through the Drone Management
Portal (< https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/drone-safety/drone-
management-portal >), and a registration number is provided
immediately once the required information is submitted and
the associated fee is paid. To register a small RPA, the applicant must meet the requirements of CAR 901.04. A person who is at least 14 years of age is qualified to be the registered owner of an RPA if they are:
(a) a Canadian citizen;
(b) a permanent resident of Canada;
(c) a corporation incorporated under the territorial, provincial,
or federal laws of Canada; or
(d) a municipal, provincial, or federal entity.
As defined by Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada
(IRCC), a permanent resident is someone who has been given
permanent resident status by immigrating to Canada but is not
a Canadian citizen. A special flight operations certificate—
remotely piloted aircraft system (SFOC—RPAS) is required for
a foreign operator or pilot to be able to comply with the registration
and marking regulation and also to fly an RPA in Canada, even
for a flight review. For more information, visit our Web site:
<https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/drone-safety/drone-pilot-
licensing/get-permission-special-drone-operations >.
A pilot is required to present proof of registration (digital or physical) upon request from a peace officer, an immigration officer, or a person delegated by the Minister of Transport such as a TC inspector (CARs 103.02(2) and 901.09). Failure to register, mark, or present proof of registration of an RPA can result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.3.1.1 Modifying a Registration
3.1.1.1 Cancelling a Registration
An RPA registration is cancelled once any of the conditions
detailed in CAR 901.07 are met. It is the responsibility of the
registered owner to notify the Minister within 7 days if their
registered RPA is destroyed, permanently out of service, missing
for more than 60 days, missing with a terminated aircraft search,
or transferred to a new owner. The registration is also cancelled if the owner of the aircraft dies, the entity that owns the aircraft ceases to exist, or the owner no longer meets the requirements of CAR 901.04.
Notification can be provided to the Minister through the Drone
Management Portal.
It is important to note that the registration is cancelled immediately
when any of the conditions above are met and not when the
Minister is notified.
If an RPA for which the registration has been cancelled and for
which the Minister has been notified has been found, fixed, or
otherwise brought back into service, an application for a new
registration must be completed.
Failure to notify the Minister in accordance with CAR 901.07
may result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate
penalties of up to $5,000.
3.1.1.2 Change of Name or Address
Registered owners of RPAs are required to notify the Minister
within 7 days of a change of name or address. Notification can
be provided to the Minister through the Drone Management Portal.
Failure to notify the Minister in accordance with CAR 901.08
may result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate
penalties of up to $5,000.
3.1.1.3 Edit RPA Registration
You may update your drone registration to:
(a) update the nickname/description of the drone;
(b) fix an incorrect serial number entered;
(c) update the serial number due to a warranty replacement
for the same make/model .
If the wrong make/model was selected during initial registration,
please contact us to make a correction:
<https://gart.tc.gc.ca/secure/UASIMS-SGISASP/eng/home/
contact-information >.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPA3.2 GENERAL OPERATION AND FLIGHT
RULES
This subpart describes general rules for small remotely piloted
aircraft (RPAs); these rules apply to both basic and advanced
operations unless there are specific exclusions.
3.2.1 Line-of-sight
Visual line-of-sight (VLOS) RPAS operations rely on the LOS
concept to ensure safety and regulatory compliance. This concept
assumes an imaginary line between the pilot, through the control
station, and the RPA, unimpeded by any obstacles or excessive
distance. Line-of-sight can be broken into two distinct categories:
1. Visual line-of-sight by way of the pilot keeping a visual
reference with the RPA unaided throughout the flight.
2. Radio line-of-sight (RLOS), which is a function of the C2
data link between the control station and the RPA for the
purposes of managing the flight. Both the VLOS and the
RLOS share the same foundational idea but can have different
applications in RPA operations.
3.2.1.1 Visual line-of-sight (VLOS)
The CARs define VLOS as “unaided visual contact at all times with the remotely piloted aircraft that is sufficient to be able to maintain operational control of the aircraft, know its location, and be able to scan the airspace in which it is operating to detect
and avoid other aircraft or objects.” (CAR 900.01). CAR 901.11(1)
requires that pilots operating RPASs maintain VLOS at all times
during flight. Losing sight of the RPA behind buildings or trees or into clouds or fog is strictly prohibited even for a short period of time.
Maintaining VLOS can be achieved by an individual pilot keeping
the RPA within sight for the duration of the flight or by using one or more trained visual observers. The RPA must remain in VLOS with the pilot or at least one visual observer at all times.
The pilot may take his or her eyes off the aircraft for brief moments
to operate the control station or perform other flight-critical
tasks without being considered to have lost VLOS. If a task will
require extended loss of visual contact, the pilot should use a
visual observer or land the aircraft until the task is complete.
While the maximum range for VLOS is not prescribed by regulation, pilots are required to determine the maximum
distance the RPA can travel away from them before it becomes
a hazard (CAR 901.28(c)). The factors to consider when
determining this range are discussed in paragraph 3.2.6.2(a)
Limitations of the Eye in this chapter. However, the manufacturer’s
instructions or user manual takes precedence in this matter and
should be consulted prior to determining the maximum range.
It is important to note that the regulations require VLOS be
unaided. Pilots and visual observers may not use binoculars,
telescopes, or zoom lenses to maintain VLOS, but unmagnified
night-vision devices are permitted for night VLOS operations
provided they are able to detect all light within the visual spectrum
(CAR 901.39(2)). Glasses, such as sunglasses or prescription
glasses, are not considered to be aids and are permitted. Maintaining VLOS is a fundamental requirement for safe RPA
operations as it is the primary, and often only, means of avoiding
other airborne traffic. Failure to maintain VLOS can result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.2.1.2 Radio line-of-sight (RLOS)
The signal used by most small RPAs is often transmitted in the 2.4 GHz part of the electromagnetic spectrum, mainly because
of range performance and the fact that it is a part of the spectrum
that does not require a licence to transmit. This frequency band
is crowded by many users, and an RPA pilot can experience
electromagnetic interference from these other devices. In
addition, signals in this band are susceptible to interruption by
physical interference from buildings and trees. It is critical,
therefore, to ensure that there is uninterrupted RLOS between
the control station and the RPA, regardless of the distance between
the two. A control station that is powerful enough to transmit
a signal a few kilometres away may nevertheless be unable to
control an RPA a few metres away if there is an obstacle or
interference in RLOS.
3.2.2 Emergency Security Perimeters
In cases where a public authority has established a security
perimeter around an emergency area (e.g. fire, police incident, earthquake, or flood) RPA pilots are required to stay outside of the perimeter unless they are acting in the service of the public
authority that created the perimeter, acting to save a human life,
or working with first responders such as police or fire authorities
(CAR 901.12).
Security perimeters can generally be identified as places where
public officials limit or restrict access, where caution or police perimeter tape has been erected, or where first responders are on the scene. It is critical that RPA pilots and their aircraft do
not enter or fly over these areas as they may conflict with or
prevent lifesaving activities.
Failure to respect these perimeters can result in individual
penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to
$5,000.
3.2.3 Airspace
3.2.3.1 Canadian Domestic Airspace
Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) includes all airspace over
the Canadian land mass, the Canadian Arctic, the Canadian
Arctic Archipelago and those areas of the high seas within the
airspace boundaries. CDA is divided into seven classes, each
identified by a single letter—A, B, C, D, E, F or G.
CAR Part IX RPAS operating requirements refers to controlled
or restricted airspace. The horizontal and vertical limits of
airspace are described in the Designated Airspace Handbook (DA H).
RPA pilots are required to keep their RPA within
CDA (CAR 901.13).
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPAFailure to remain within CDA can result in individual penalties
of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.2.3.2 Controlled Airspace
RPA pilots are required to keep their RPA clear of controlled
airspace unless:
(a) the pilot holds a pilot certificate—RPA (VLOS)—advanced
operations as described in section 3.4.1 of this chapter;
(b) the RPAS manufacturer has declared that the unit meets
the appropriate safety assurance profile as described in
section 3.4.3 of this chapter; and
(c) the RPA pilot has received an authorization from the appropriate air navigation service provider (ANSP) as
described in section 3.4.4 of this chapter.
All three conditions must be met to gain access to controlled
airspace and each will be discussed in an individual section of this chapter.
For the purposes of RPAS operations, controlled airspace includes
Class A, B, C, D, and E. Class F airspace can be controlled airspace,
uncontrolled airspace, or a combination of both.
A basic description of controlled airspace can be found below.
Additional information can be found in the Designated Airspace
Handbook (DAH) (TP 1820) and in subpart RAC 2.8 of the
TC AIM. Flight within each class is governed by specific rules
applicable to that class and are contained in CAR 601.01,
Division I — Airspace Structure, Classification and Use . CAR 601
can be found at < https://lois-laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/
SOR-96-433/FullText.html#s-601.01 >.
Class A Airspace
RPA pilots wishing to operate in Class A airspace require specific
authorization from both TC and NAV CANADA. See section
3.6.1 of this chapter for information about SFOC—RPAS.
Class A airspace is generally defined as high-level airspace starting
at FL 180 or approximately 18 000 ft in Southern Domestic
Airspace, FL 230 in Northern Domestic Airspace, and FL 270
in Arctic Domestic Airspace. This type of airspace is not denoted
on aeronautical charts. Given the high-level nature of Class A
airspace, it is rarely a concern for small RPA pilots. More
information on Class A airspace can be found in the TC AIM
RAC 2.8.1.
Class B Airspace
RPA pilots wishing to operate in Class B airspace require specific
authorization from both Transport Canada and the ANSP. See
section 3.6.1 of this chapter for information about SFOC—RPAS.
Class B airspace is generally defined as low-level controlled
airspace and exists between 12 500 ft and the floor of Class A
airspace but it may include some control zones and control areas
that are lower. The specific dimensions of Class B airspace in
Canada can be found in the DAH.Class C Airspace
Class C airspace is considered an advanced operating environment.
See section 3.4.3 of this chapter for more information.
Class C airspace is controlled airspace, generally exists around
large airports and extends from the surface to an altitude of
3 000 ft AGL, but the exact size and shape of the space is dependent
on local airspace management needs.
As per CAR 601.08(3), Class C airspace becomes Class E controlled
airspace when the appropriate air traffic control unit is not
in operation.
Class C airspace is depicted on all VFR Navigation Charts (VNC)
and VFR Terminal Area Charts (VTA) as well as in the DAH
using NAV CANADA’s drone flight planning tool and the
National Research Council Canada (NRC) drone site selection
tool.
Class D Airspace
Class D airspace is considered an advanced operating environment.
See section 3.4.3 of this chapter for more information.
Class D airspace is controlled airspace and generally exists around
medium-sized airports and extends from the surface to an altitude
of 3 000 ft AGL, but the exact size and shape of the space is
dependent on local airspace management needs.
As per CAR 601.09(3), Class D airspace becomes Class E controlled
airspace when the appropriate air traffic control unit is not
in operation.
Class D airspace is depicted on all VNCs and VTAs as well as
in the DAH using NAV CANADA’s drone flight planning tool and the NRC drone site selection tool.
Class E Airspace
Class E airspace is considered an advanced environment. See
section 3.4.3 of this chapter for more information.
Class E airspace is controlled airspace for aircraft operating
under IFR and can exist around an airport as a control zone or
away from an airport where an operational need exists to control
IFR aircraft. Class E control zones usually extend from the
surface to an altitude of 3 000 ft AGL. It can also often exist
from 2 200 ft AGL and up in a control area extension surrounding
a control zone. When this type of airspace is not associated with
an airport, it usually begins at 700 ft AGL and extends to 12 500 ft ASL, but the exact size and shape of the space is
dependent on local airspace management needs.
A Class C or D airspace becomes Class E controlled airspace
when the appropriate air traffic control unit is not in operation.
Class E airspace is depicted on all VNCs and VTAs as well as in
the DAH using NAV CANADA’s drone flight planning tool and
the NRC drone site selection tool.
Class F Airspace
Class F airspace is special-use airspace and can be either restricted
or advisory. Class F can be controlled airspace, uncontrolled
airspace or a combination of both depending on the classification
of the airspace surrounding it. Class F airspace is identified on
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAall VNCs and VTAs as well as in the DAH using the NAV Drone
Viewer and the NRC drone site selection tool. The DAH is updated
every 56 days and is available on the NAV CANADA Web site
at <www.navcanada.ca/en/aeronautical-information/operational-
guides.aspx/ >.
Class F Restricted Airspace
Class F restricted airspace is denoted as CYR followed by three
numbers (e.g., CYR123) and should be avoided by all aircraft,
including all RPAs, except by those approved by the user agency
identified in the DAH. The letter D for danger area will be used
if the restricted area is established over international waters.
CYRs can be found over prisons and some military training
areas, for example. Additional information about restricted
airspace can be found in RAC 2.8.6 and 2.9.2. To gain access to
Class F restricted airspace, RPA pilots should contact the user agency as listed for the specific block of airspace in the DAH.
Class F Advisory Airspace
Class F advisory airspace is denoted as CYA followed by three
numbers (e.g., CYA123). CYA denotes airspace reserved for a
specific application, such as hang gliding, flight training or
helicopter operations. RPA pilots are not restricted from operating
in advisory airspace, and no special permission is required, but
pilots should be aware of the reason the airspace has the advisory
and should take steps to identify any additional risks and mitigate
them. Many activities in a CYA often bring traditional aircraft into airspace below 400 ft AGL and are therefore a greater risk
to RPA operations. Additional information can be found in
RAC 2.8.6.
Class G Airspace
Class G airspace exists in any space that is not Class A, B, C, D, E, or F. Class G airspace is uncontrolled and is considered the
basic operating environment for RPAS, assuming the conditions
regarding proximity to people, airports, and heliport are met. These will be discussed in RAC 3.2.14 and 3.2.35.
3.2.3.3 Restricted Airspace
No person may conduct aerial activities within active restricted
airspace unless permission has been obtained from the user
agency and the controlling agency.
The user agency is the civil or military agency or organization
responsible for the activity for which the airspace has been
provided. It has the jurisdiction to authorize access to the airspace
when it is classified restricted. The user agency must be identified
for Class F restricted airspace and, where possible, it should be
identified for Class F advisory airspace.
There are two additional methods of restricting airspace:
(a) CAR 601.15 is designed to allow temporary flight restrictions
to aircraft for forest fires. No person shall operate an aircraft
in the airspace below 3 000 ft AGL within 5 NM (9.3 km)
of the limits of a forest fire area, or as described in a NOTAM
(CARs 601.15, 601.16 and 601.17). In the interest of safe and
efficient fire fighting operations, the Minister may issue a NOTAM restricting flights over a forest fire area to those operating at the request of the appropriate fire control
authority (i.e., water bombers) or to those with written
permission from the Minister. The NOTAM would identify
the following:
(i) the location and dimensions of the forest fire area;
(ii) any airspace in which forest fire control operations are being conducted; and
(iii) the length of time during which flights are restricted
in the airspace.
(b) Section 5.1 of the Aeronautics Act allows the Minister to
restrict flight in any airspace, for any purpose, by NOTAM.
This authority is delegated by the Minister to cover specific
situations for a temporary period, such as oil well fires,
disaster areas, etc. for the purpose of ensuring safety of
flight for air operations in support of the occurrence.
RPA restricted airspace will be created in specific locations where
the restriction is necessary for aviation safety or security or for
the protection of the public. These restrictions will be published
in a new section of the DAH under the authority of the Minister
of Transport. If an RPA restricted airspace initiated by NOTAM
remains valid for more than 90 days, it will be transferred to the
DAH. Concurrent with publishing in the DAH, the NAV CANADA
NAV drone application will depict the RPA restricted airspace
on the associated digital map and will not be indicated in
aeronautical publications that are used primarily for traditional
aviation. Permanent exemptions will be in place for all police, fire fighting and first responders RPA operations.
NOTE :
As an RPA is defined as a navigable aircraft under section 101.01
of the CARs, sections 601.04 and 601.15 of the CARs as well as
section 5.1 of the Aeronautics Act restrict the use of restricted
airspace to all “aircraft.” This includes any RPA and micro-RPA.
For more information, refer to TC AIM - RAC 2.8.6 and 2.9.2.
3.2.3.4 Drone Site Selection Tool
This online interactive tool provides information regarding
airspace restrictions around airports, heliports and aerodromes
to facilitate flight planning and ensure compliance with the
regulations. It was designed to help RPA pilots determine areas
where drone flight is prohibited, restricted or potentially
hazardous. The drone site selection tool can be found at
<https://cnrc.canada.ca/en/drone-tool/ >.
The tool is powered by a Google Earth engine that uses colour to identify areas that require additional caution or where RPA
flights are prohibited according to a basic or advanced RPA
operation category. Users should start by selecting the appropriate
category of drone operations (i.e., basic or advanced). Areas
filled with red are prohibited. Areas filled with yellow require
additional caution due to other air traffic. Areas filled with
orange require permission from NAV CANADA, Parks Canada,
National Defence or an airport operator.
When a user clicks on the control zones, information is displayed
regarding the emergency contact information, airspace class,
flight permission requirements and more. It is important that
the user verifies the information before initiating the RPAS
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPAoperation; it is the pilot’s responsibility to contact the responsible
authorities if they wish to enter restricted airspace.
Data regarding airports and heliports comes from the Canada
Flight Supplement (CFS), a NAV CANADA publication, and is
updated every 56 days. The airspace data comes from the
NAV CANADA DAH. The national park data was extracted
from the Canada Lands Surveys Web services. A limited amount
of data has been manually added to extend and improve upon
the tool.
3.2.3.5 Inadvertent Entry Into Controlled or
Restricted Airspace
RPA pilots must be aware of not only the airspace in which they
are operating their RPA but also the surrounding airspace,
specifically their proximity to controlled airspace and restricted
airspace, both laterally and vertically. If the RPAS operation is
taking place at a location from which the RPA might enter
controlled, restricted or advisory airspace in the event of a fly-
away, the RPA pilot should have the contact information for the appropriate user agency or ANSP immediately available.
In the event that the RPA enters or is about to enter controlled
or restricted airspace, the pilot must immediately notify the
appropriate air traffic control (ATC) unit, flight service
station (FSS) or user agency (CAR 901.15).
Failure to notify the appropriate user agency when unauthorized
entry into controlled or restricted airspace may occur could
result in individual penalties of $1,000 or corporate penalties
of $5,000.
3.2.4 Flight Safety
RPA pilots are legitimate airspace users but are new entrants
into a complex environment. It is the responsibility of the RPA
pilots to take their role in the aviation environment seriously
and ensure all necessary steps are taken to mitigate any possible
risks. RPA pilots must keep in mind that the risk of injuring a
person is greater than colliding with another aircraft, and a good
safety margin should be kept according to the situation, especially
for advanced operations within 30 m of the public. It is the RPA
pilot’s responsibility to manage the flight to ensure a safe outcome.
He or she is to use all resources available to make appropriate,
safe decisions to continue with the RPA flight or to end or
re-schedule operations if needed.
If, during an operation, the pilot becomes aware of any situation
that endangers aviation safety or the safety of persons on the
ground he or she must immediately cease the operation until it is safe to continue (CAR 901.16). Failure to do so may result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.2.5 Right of Way
RPA pilots must give way to all other aircraft, including balloons,
gliders, airships, and hang gliders (heavier-than-air aircraft)
(CAR 901.17). It is critical that this rule is respected and that
RPA pilots take their role in ensuring collision avoidance seriously,
as pilots of other aircraft may not be able to see the RPA as well as the RPA pilot can see and hear other aircraft. RPA pilots must
not operate so close to another aircraft as to create the risk of
collision (CAR 901.18). If the RPA pilot sees a traditional aircraft
approaching the area of RPAS operation, they shall take immediate
action to avoid any risk of conflict. If a conflict with another
aircraft becomes likely, RPA pilots must take immediate action
to exit the area by the quickest means possible. This often means
rapidly reducing altitude.
Failure to give way to other aircraft or to remain far enough
away from other aircraft to avoid a conflict or the risk of collision
may result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate
penalties of up to $5,000 and could constitute endangering an aircraft under the Criminal Code .
3.2.6 Detecting and Avoiding Traffic
3.2.6.1 General
When flying an RPA within VLOS, pilots practise “detect-and-
avoid” (DAA) as a primary method of minimizing the risk of
collision with other aircraft. DAA requires the pilot to look away
from the control station and become aware of his/her aircraft
and the surrounding environment. If the pilot can acquire skills
to compensate for the limitations of the human eye, the DAA
practice can be greatly improved and effective in facilitating a safer flight environment altogether. More information on how
pilots can improve their visual skills is available in 3.2.6.2(b)
Visual Scanning Technique.
In addition, the RPA pilot has other tools to detect traffic, such
as hearing an approaching aircraft, monitoring a local ATC
frequency, and using transponder or ADS-B monitoring devices,
which are becoming more common.
3.2.6.2 Seeing Traffic
Limitations of the Eye
The eye is the primary means of identifying what is happening
around us, as 80% of our information intake is conducted through
the eyes. During flight we depend on our eyes to provide basic
input necessary for flying, such as proximity to other air traffic,
direction, speed, and altitude of the RPA. A basic understanding
of the eyes’ limitations in target detection is important for
avoiding collisions.
Vision is influenced by atmospheric conditions, glare, lighting,
temperature, aircraft design, and so forth. On a sunny day, for example, glare is worse. Glare makes it hard to see what is at a
distance as well as making the scanning process uncomfortable.
Vision can be affected by different levels of illumination:
(a) Bright illumination: reflected off of clouds, water, snow,
and desert terrain; produces glare resulting in eye strain.
(b) Dark Adaptation: Eyes must have at least 20 to 30 minutes
to adjust to reduced light conditions.
(i) Red light helps night vision; however, it distorts
colour and makes details hard to perceive;
(ii) Light adaptation can be destroyed in seconds, though
closing one eye may preserve some.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAAdditionally, vision is impaired by exposure to altitudes above
5 000 ft ASL, carbon monoxide inhaled from smoking and
exhaust fumes, a deficiency of Vitamin A in one’s diet, and
prolonged exposure to bright sunlight.
One significant limitation of the eye is the time required for
accommodation, or refocusing of objects both near and far. It
takes 1 to 2 seconds for the eyes to adjust during refocusing.
Considering that you may need up 10 seconds to spot aircraft
traffic, identify it, and take action to avoid a mid-air collision,
each second is critical. Looking at an empty area of the sky causes
empty field myopia and will impair your ability to focus. You
should look at a cloud patch or tree line to allow your eyes to
focus.
Another eye limitation is the narrow field of vision. While the
eyes can observe an approximate 200-degree arc of the horizon at one glance, only a very small centre area called the fovea, in the rear of the eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused messages to the brain. All other visual information that is not processed directly through the fovea will be less detailed. More information is available in subpart AIR 3.5 Vision.
Visual Scanning Technique
Avoiding collisions requires effective scanning from before
takeoff until the aircraft comes to a stop at the end of a flight. The best way to avoid collisions is by learning how to use your eyes for efficient scanning, as well as understanding the visual limitations described above and not overestimating your visual abilities.
Before takeoff, visually scan the airspace around your intended
take-off location. Assess traffic audibly as well, listening for
engine sounds and, if possible, radio transmissions. After takeoff,
keep scanning throughout the flight to ensure that no other
traffic will be a hazard to your aircraft.
Scanning your eyes over a large area of sky at once without
stopping to focus on anything is ineffective. Because the eyes
can focus only on a narrow viewing area, effective scanning is
achieved through short, regularly spaced eye movements that
bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field.
Movement can be detected more effectively through peripheral
vision, so this pause in a visual scan allows for easier detection
of threats such as aircraft and birds. An effective scan is a
continuous process used by the pilot and observer to cover all areas of the sky visible from the control station.
Although horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem to be
preferred by most pilots, every pilot should develop a scanning pattern that is most comfortable for them and then adhere to it
to assure optimum scanning. Pilots should realize that their
eyes may require several seconds to refocus when switching
views between items in or on the control station and distant
objects. The eyes will also tire more quickly when forced to
adjust to distances immediately after close-up focus, as required
for scanning the control station. While there is no “one size fits all” technique for an optimum scan, many pilots use some form of the “block” system scan. This scan involves dividing the sky
into blocks, each spanning approximately 10 to 15 degrees of
the horizon and 10 to 15 degrees above it. Imagine a point in
space at the centre of each block. Focus on each point to allow the eye to detect a conflict within the foveal field, as well as
objects in the peripheral area around the centre of each
scanning block.
Good scanning requires constant attention-sharing with other
piloting tasks, and pilots should remember that good scanning
is easily degraded by conditions such as boredom, illness, fatigue,
preoccupation with other tasks or ideas, and anxiety.
3.2.6.3 Hearing Traffic
One advantage an RPA pilot has over a pilot of a traditional
aircraft is the ability to hear approaching traffic. The first
indication an RPA pilot will have of approaching traffic will
often be the noise from the engines and/or rotors, both of which
can be useful cues to direct the pilot’s attention to traffic detection.
Even though these noise cues can be distorted by terrain,
buildings, or wind, they are still a credible means for the RPA pilot to focus on identifying approaching aircraft until they can be visually acquired.
Monitoring Air Traffic Frequencies
It is possible that an RPA pilot will have access to a radio for
monitoring ATC frequencies. This radio may be part of a pilot’s
risk-mitigation efforts in the event of a non-standard operation.
In any event, this radio can be an extremely valuable source of
traffic information, provided the RPA pilot is aware of the correct
frequency to monitor. Aviation frequencies can be found on
aviation maps as well as in the CFS.
Table 3.1—Air Traffic Frequencies
Frequency (MHz) Usage
126.7 Uncontrolled airspace
123.2Uncontrolled, unassigned
aerodromes
While monitoring the radio, a pilot can build up a mental picture
of the other traffic in the local area and, depending on the level of the pilot’s knowledge of aviation, he or she can use the radio calls from other aircraft to determine potential hazards to the RPA operation.
In accordance with section 33 of the Radiocommunication
Regulations , a person may operate radio apparatus in the
aeronautical service [...] only where the person holds [a Restricted
Operator Certificate with Aeronautical Qualification (ROC-A),
issued by Innovation, Science and Economic Development
Canada]. Also, all radio equipment used in aeronautical services
must be licensed by Industry Canada.
For more information on the standard radio phraseology used
in aviation, see Innovation, Science and Economic Development’s
study guide RIC-21 for the ROC-A, COM 1.0 in the TC AIM,
or NAV CANADA’s VFR Phraseology Guide .
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPA3.2.6.4 Avoiding a Collision
Once an aircraft is detected and it is determined to be a conflict,
the RPA pilot is responsible for avoiding a mid-air collision. The
best way to fulfill this obligation will vary depending on the
scenario, and RPA pilots should plan how they are going to react
to a potential collision prior to taking off or launching to ensure
their strategy best fits the operation. The fastest method of
resolving a potential conflict is likely reducing altitude.
The RPA pilot must always give way to other airspace users
(CAR 901.17), and RPA pilots should recognize that the pilot of
the other aircraft likely will not see the RPA with sufficient time
to react. The responsibility of avoiding a collision lies with the
RPA pilot, and it is a responsibility that should be taken very
seriously as the lives of the people in the other aircraft may
depend on it.
3.2.7 Fitness of Crew Members
All members of the crew including the visual observers, pilots,
and others involved in the operation of the RPAS must not be
under the influence of any drugs or alcohol or fatigued when
conducting an operation with an RPAS (CAR 901.19). Additional
information can be found in the TC AIM AIR – Airmanship ,
Part 3.0 Medical Information.
It is strictly prohibited under CAR 901.19 to act as a pilot or crew
member of an RPAS within 12 hours after consuming an alcoholic
beverage, while under the influence of alcohol, or while using
any drug that impairs a person’s faculties. It is also strictly
prohibited under PART VIII.1 section 320.14(1) of the Criminal
Code for a person to act as a pilot or crew member of an RPA
while the person’s ability to operate is impaired, to any degree, by alcohol, drugs, or a combination of both. All aircraft pilots and crew members must remain fit to fly.
If an RPA pilot takes prescription drugs, it is his or her duty to
ensure they do not alter his or her ability to safely engage in RPA
operations. It is each individual’s responsibility to consult with
a physician in a case of doubt and to advise other members of the team of the situation if deemed necessary.
Cannabis became legal, for both recreational and medical
purposes, in Canada in October 2018 by virtue of the Cannabis Act.
Whether it is used recreationally or medically, cannabis has the
potential to cause impairment and adversely affect aviation
safety. All aircraft pilots and flight crew members (including
RPA pilots and visual observers) must abstain from cannabis
use for at least 28 days when conducting operations with
an R PAS.
Fatigue is as dangerous as drugs or alcohol when it comes to
impairment and is oftentimes harder to detect. Fatigue will
influence judgment, motor response, and mental capability. Its effects can be present without the person realizing it, making it
particularly dangerous. It is important to consider that sleep
itself is not the only factor influencing the degree of a person’s
fatigue. Lack of sleep, work-related stress, family issues, emotional
state, and general health are all factors that contribute to the
fatigue level of a particular individual. A comprehensive guide
to manage fatigue, the Fatigue Risk Management System (FRMS)
Toolbox for Canadian Aviation, is available on Transport Canada’s Web site: < www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/aviation/commercial-air-
services/fatigue-risk-management/frms-toolbox.htm >. It is a
great tool to help understand, manage, and mitigate the risks
associated with fatigue in an aeronautical context.
It is not just fatigue, alcohol, or drugs that can leave a crew
member unfit for duties. Illness and many other conditions may
diminish crew members’ ability to perform their functions and
might render them unfit for the operation. It is the responsibility
of individual crew members to conduct a self-assessment to
ensure they are fit before accepting any duties related to the
operation.
Reviewing a checklist prior to flight can help a crew member
determine if they are fit to fly. A simple IM SAFE checklist can be found below but several other examples can be found online.
If the answer to any of the questions below is “Yes”, you are likely
not fit to act as a crew member. The pilot in command of the
RPAS operation must be informed as soon as possible of any
incapacitation of any of his crew members in order to take the necessary measures.
Table 3.2—IM SAFE Checklist
IIllness
Are you suffering from any illnesses that could
impair your ability to complete your duties?
MMedication
Are you under the influence of any drugs (over-
the-counter, prescription, or recreational) that will impair your ability to complete your duties?
SStress
Are personal or professional matters causing
stress to the point that you are distracted or otherwise impaired?
AAlcohol
Have you consumed any alcohol within the
previous 12 hours?
FFatigue
Are you feeling tired? (You should have had
sufficient rest in the previous 24 hours and
should feel alert.)
EEating and drinking
Are you feeling hungry or thirsty? (You should be
adequately nourished and hydrated.)
Failure to abstain from acting as a crew member of an RPAS
while unfit may result in individual penalties of up to $1,000
and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000. Acting as a crew
member within 12 hours of consuming alcohol or while under
the influence of drugs or alcohol may result in individual fines of $5,000 and/or corporate penalties of $15,000.
3.2.8 Visual Observers
In some cases, a visual observer is needed to assist the pilot in maintaining a constant VLOS with the RPA to comply with the
CARs. In complex operating environments like urban areas, the
RPA pilot and the visual observer have to maintain communication
for updates to any impending conflict between the RPA and
terrain, obstacles, aviation traffic, weather, etc. Visual observers
shall be trained to perform any duties as assigned to them by
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAthe pilot. This includes visual scanning techniques, aircraft
identification, communications, and any other knowledge that
may be required to successfully perform their duties. The pilot and visual observer(s) shall remain in constant and immediate
communication throughout the RPAS operation, as stated in
CAR 901.20.
Before beginning an operation, the crew should agree upon
consistent communication language specific to the mission at
hand. Important information sought by the pilot could be the
RPA’s relative distance, altitude, and flight path in relation to
traditional aircraft but also other hazards like terrain, weather, and structures. The visual observer must be able to determine
the RPA’s proximity to all aviation activities and sufficiently
inform the pilot of its relative distance, altitude, flight path, and
other hazards (e.g. terrain, weather, structures) to prevent it
from creating a collision hazard.
The visual observer will also help the RPA pilot to keep the
operational environment sterile (that is, free of irrelevant
conversation) during the flight and minimize the disturbances to the RPA pilot and crew.
Visual observers are not required to possess an RPA pilot
certificate when they are crew members of a small RPA (VLOS) carrying out basic or advanced operations.
3.2.9 Compliance With Instructions
In any type of safety-critical operation there is a requirement
for one person to have the final word on how and when various
tasks will be performed. In aviation this person is called the
pilot-in-command or pilot. For RPAS operations all crew members
are required to follow the instructions of the pilot.
Failure to follow the instructions of the pilot can result in unsafe
situations and may be punishable by individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.2.10 Living Creatures
RPA pilots are prohibited from operating an RPA with a living
creature on board (CAR 901.22). As with the entirety of Subpart
I of Part IX, this regulation applies only to small RPAs. In order
to operate large RPAs for the purpose of carrying persons, an
SFOC—RPAS issued in accordance with CAR 903.03 is required
(see subpart 3.6 of this chapter).
The Aeronautics Act and CARs do not explicitly define what a
living creature constitutes. However, TCCA’s interpretation is
that the word “creature” refers to and is synonymous with
Kingdom Animalia (insects, mammals, birds, etc.), as per the
biological definition. Bacteria are not animals; therefore, it is
our interpretation that they do not qualify as living creatures
under CAR 901.22.
The operation of a small RPA with a living creature on board
may result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate
penalties of up to $5,000. 3.2.11 Procedures
3.2.11.1 Normal Operating Procedures
RPA pilots are required to establish procedures for the pre-flight,
take-off, launch, approach, landing, and recovery phases of
flight. The procedures established must allow the aircraft to be
operated within any limitations prescribed by the manufacturer
and should be reviewed by the pilot on a regular basis to ensure
they contain the most up-to-date information and be available
to the pilot at the crew station during all phases of flight in either
a written or digital format. Caution should be exercised if the
procedures are on the same mobile device that is being used to pilot the RPAS. This practice is not recommended.
3.2.11.2 Emergency Procedures
RPA pilots are required to establish emergency procedures for
control station failures, equipment failures, RPA failures, lost
links, flyaways, and flight terminations. The procedures
established must allow the aircraft to be operated within any
limitations prescribed the by manufacturer and should be
reviewed by the pilot on a regular basis to ensure they contain the most up-to-date information and be available to the pilot at the crew station during all phases of flight in either a written or
digital format. Caution should be exercised if the procedures
are on the same mobile device that is being used to pilot the
RPAS. Following all emergencies, the PIC should log the events and follow-up actions in accordance with CAR 901.49.
Control Station Failure
Whether the RPAS is controlled via a laptop, RC, or another
device, its crew should have troubleshooting items committed
to memory for immediate action. Pilots should know and be
prepared for how their aircraft will respond to a crashed app,
powered down transmitter, or low battery scenario.
Equipment Failure
While some equipment will not be flight-critical, crews should
know which items require aircraft grounding and which are safe
to fly without. Establishing a manufacturer-advised minimum equipment list is a good practice.
RPA Failure
Crews should be aware of items that will cause a critical failure of the RPA and what flight condition these failures will create.
While fixed wings may glide, most multirotors will descend
with varying levels of control. Immediate actions should involve
establishing a safe area and preparing for injury or incident
response.
Lost Link
Immediate action items should include troubleshooting (which,
depending on the system used, may involve reorienting antennas),
confirming or exchanging the cable connection, or selecting a
flight termination system. The crew should monitor the aircraft
and the airspace until connection can be regained or the aircraft
lands safely; otherwise, flyaway procedures should be initiated.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPAFlyaway
A flyaway indicates an unresponsive aircraft and should warrant
immediate action by the crew to mitigate associated risks both
in airspace and on the ground. After initial troubleshooting,
action should be taken to alert the ANSP of a deviation from
the planned flight path and any potential conflict that may exist.
This is why it is critical that pilots understand the airspace
surrounding their operating environment both laterally and
vertically.
Flight Termination
Flight termination can take many forms and may be as simple
as a normal landing or as complex as a fragmentation system or
parachute. Another common flight termination system is return-
to-home, or RTH. Crews should know when and how to activate
RTH and how to cancel or override, if possible.
3.2.12 Pre-flight Information
3.2.12.1 Pre-flight Inspections
Pre-flight inspections should be conducted before every takeoff
the aircraft conducts in order to verify the physical, mechanical,
and electronic integrity of the RPAS. The following is a brief
example of components to be inspected prior to flight and is not
all-encompassing. In all instances, the RPAS manufacturer’s
instruction manual shall be consulted to determine all the
components that must be inspected or require a function check prior to flight. The initial inspection to confirm the RPAS is in
a fit and safe state for flight is the most extensive to be conducted
before each new day of operations and should include a thorough
inspection of the following components, in compliance with the
RPAS manufacturer’s operating manual recommendations,
including (but not limited to):
(a) Airframe;
(b) Landing gear;
(c) Power plant;
(d) Propellers/rotors;
(e) Battery or fuel;
(f) Control station/receivers/transmitter;
(g) Control station device and cables (tablet, phone, laptop,
or other).
The crew also needs to be briefed on the following points before takeoff:
(a) Roles and responsibilities of each individual crew member;
(b) Flight plans and anticipated procedures (e.g. command
hand-off);
(c) Emergency and contingency plans;
(d) Location of the safety equipment and who is trained to
use it;
(e) Public management plan.Just after takeoff, a brief test flight should be conducted first
within short VLOS range in order to verify commands response,
flight behaviours, response to current weather conditions, and crew cohesion beforehand.
A brief inspection should also be conducted after each landing
(e.g. battery change) and a full inspection should be conducted after each crash or malfunction, or when changing location.
3.2.12.2 Fuel and/or Energy
Estimation of the fuel/energy consumption for the operations
should be considered prior to takeoff and described in the flight
planning summary. It is important to take into consideration
that the stated endurance of the aircraft with a given amount of
fuel/energy is a suggested indication from the manufacturer that
might change according to different variables. Those factors
might include but are not limited to environmental factors (e.g.
wind, outside temperature, and altitude), human factors (e.g.
piloting skills and/or behaviour), fuel/energy sources quality
(e.g. quality of the fuel or battery), and mechanical factors (e.g.
engine malfunction, motor friction). The aircraft might not
operate properly or predictably when its fuel/energy levels are
low. Unexpected circumstances might arise between the initiation
of the return procedure and the landing of the aircraft. Therefore,
it is recommended that the pilot consider factors that might
influence the aircraft endurance and plan the flight time
accordingly.
Finally, it is important to consider that RPASs are multi-
component systems and that the factors listed above will influence
the endurance of other components such as the remote control,
ground station, first-person view (FPV) goggles, etc. These should
also be taken into consideration when estimating the endurance
of the RPAS. Refer to the manufacturer’s instructions provided to verify the aircraft and the components endurance rating. In
the absence of specific guidance from the manufacturer, it is
recommended that pilots take a cautious approach.
3.2.13 Maximum Altitude
In uncontrolled airspace, RPAs are normally limited by regulation
to a maximum altitude of 400 ft AGL or 100 ft above the tallest obstruction within 200 ft laterally (CAR 901.25). However, if a pilot is operating under an SFOC—RPAS, the conditions of the
SFOC may state a maximum altitude higher or lower than 400 ft
(CAR 903.01). In controlled airspace, the maximum altitude
permitted for a specific flight will be determined by the ANSP; in most cases, this will be NAV CANADA. The RPA pilot must
keep the RPA in VLOS at all times, regardless of the altitude
allowed by the ANSP. The maximum altitude possible in VLOS
depends on several factors including the RPA’s visibility, colour,
size, etc. The vast majority of small RPAs are not visible at more than 400 ft AGL in good weather conditions.
3.2.13.1 Types of Altitudes
In aviation, the altitude at which an aircraft flies is normally
measured as above sea level (ASL). RPASs usually display above ground level (AGL) altitude from the launch site location. The difference between AGL and ASL can be a few feet, or as much
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAas several thousands of feet, so it is important to know what type
of altitude your RPA control station is displaying. This is
important because traditional aviation aircraft are usually flown
with reference to ASL, so procedures and communication will
be conducted using altitudes in feet ASL that may seem odd to
an RPA pilot. Please also note that the unit of measurement used
in aviation for altitudes, elevations, and heights is feet. Conversion
to feet AGL would be difficult for an RPA pilot using metres AGL
as an altitude reference in their RPAS. TC AIM GEN 1.4 provides
additional information on units of measurement used in aviation.
For instance, an RPA operation may have a limit of 400 ft AGL,
but in a location like Calgary, this altitude equates to approximately
4 000 ft ASL, as the Calgary airport is at 3 600 ft ASL. An RPA pilot monitoring ATC radio frequencies in this situation might get confused when trying to determine the location of aircraft
if differing altitude measurements are used. In another scenario,
an RPA flying near Tofino, BC would have a much easier time trying to reconcile AGL and ASL as the Tofino airport is only at 80 ft ASL.
Station Height
Station height is the altitude measured at a weather reporting
station, often an aerodrome, relative to sea level.
Above Ground Level (AGL)
AGL involves an altitude of zero feet (or metres) measured when
the RPA is sitting on the ground and, as the aircraft flies, altitude
changes are measured in reference to the ground below the RPA,
or the initial ground position. In an RPA, this altitude is often
calculated by a GPS position or a downward-pointing laser
rangefinder.
It is important to note that many RPAs reference their altitude
AGL from the point of launch. This means that the aircraft’s
altitude AGL may have to be inferred as the aircraft travels over
uneven ground. For operations with large ground level height
changes where the aircraft is operated near the operational limit
of 400 ft, a buffer may need to be included to prevent exceeding the allowable maximum altitude.
Above Sea Level (ASL)
ASL requires a pressure measurement from a local weather
station, which is then input into a pressure altimeter on the
aircraft. This will then provide an altitude read-out which is
relative to sea level. Traditional aircraft and some larger RPAs will be equipped with pressure altimeters and use ASL altitude measurements.
3.2.13.2 Measuring Altitude
Pressure Altimeters
The pressure altimeter used in aircraft is a relatively accurate
instrument for measuring flight level pressure but the altitude
information indicated by an altimeter, although technically
“correct” as a measure of pressure, may differ greatly from the
actual height of the aircraft above mean sea level or above ground.
As well, the actual height of the aircraft above ground will vary as the aircraft flies between areas of different pressure.For more information on pressure altimeters and their uses and
errors, see subpart 1.5 Pressure Altimeter in the AIR— Airmanship
chapter of the TC AIM.
Global Positioning System (GPS) Alt imeters
The GPS receiver in an RPA typically needs to clearly see a
minimum of four satellites to get an accurate position over the
earth. GPS is a helpful aid to aviation, but it is important to
recognize that there are errors that may affect the accuracy of the position and altitude calculated and displayed by your RPA.
In altitude, errors resulting from poor satellite geometry, reception
masking by obstacles, or atmospheric interference can result in errors of up to 75 ft (approx. 23 m).
For more information on GPS and other GNSSs, see subpart
5.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) in the COM—
Communication chapter of the TC AIM.
3.2.14 Horizontal Distance
RPA pilots are required to remain 100 ft or 30 m from people
not associated with the operation. The distance from people
must be maintained regardless of the altitude at which the RPAS
is operating.
It is the RPA pilot’s responsibility to plan the route of flight in
a manner that ensures the RPA does not fly within 30 m of any person, except for crew members and other people involved in the operation. (CAR 901.26) Examples of people involved in the operation are: construction site or mine workers, film crews, or wedding guests and others involved in a wedding (facility staff, caterers, etc.). These people are considered part of the operation
if they have been briefed on the RPA hazard and have the opportunity to leave the RPA operation site if they are
uncomfortable with it. People inside vehicles or inside buildings
are not factored into the 30-metre horizontal distance rule
(CAR 901.26). Even if an RPA can fly within 30 m of vehicles,
buildings, crew members, or other people involved in the
operation, this needs to be done safely (CAR 900.06). The RPA pilot should have contingency plans in place in the event that a person not associated with the operation comes within 30 m of
the RPA and should be prepared to take immediate action to
restore the safety buffer. Some examples of contingency plans
may be rerouting the RPA, returning to land, or holding over a
secure area until the minimum distance can be restored. Whatever
action is taken to maintain the safety distance, the pilot must
ensure the RPA does not fly within 30 m of one person while
trying to remain 30 m away from another person. Pre-planning
and site preparation during the site survey have proven to be
effective at reducing the risks associated with maintaining the required 30-metre safety buffer.
Operations between 30 m and 5 m from another person are
considered “near people” and are an advanced operation.
To operate an RPA “near people”, the RPA pilot needs to:
(a) possess a pilot certificate—advanced operations; and
(b) use the right RPAS in accordance with CAR 901.76 and
CAR Standard 922 Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems Safety
Assurance . This eligibility is written on the RPAS certificate
of registration.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPADifferent Systems for Measuring Distance - km/SM/NM
km: The kilometre is a standard metric measurement that is the
most commonly used in the world; 1 km equals 1 000 m. Most maps and software will use the metric system.
SM: The statute mile comes from the imperial system and refers
more commonly to the U.S survey mile, which is equal to 5 280 ft
or 1 609.347 metres. It is most commonly used in the U.S.A. and
the United Kingdom and is still commonly used in aviation.
NM: A nautical mile represents one latitudinal minute of the
earth spheroid. The most commonly used spheroid for calculating
the nautical mile is the WGS84 geoid, which equates 1 nautical
mile to 6 076.1 ft, 1 852 metres, or 1.15 statute mile. It is the main
distance unit used in aviation and marine applications.Two methods can be used to measure distances at the field site
without being directly on the ground. Using the scale on your maps or chart, calculate the distance using a metric or imperial
ruler and translate the distance calculated on the map. For
example, if the map scale is 1:20 000, then 1 linear centimetre
calculated on the map represents 20 000 centimetres on the
ground. The second method would consist of using an online
Geographic Information System platform (e.g. Google Earth
and ArcGIS Earth) that has spatial calculation tools that provide
instant measurements of the terrain surface.
3.2.15 Site Survey
3.2.15.1 Understanding Your Area of Operation
It is important to understand your area of operation prior to
conducting your flight mission. Multiple options are available for this preliminary step, including looking at satellite imagery
or topographic/aviation maps and visiting the site in person.
Satellite imagery is now freely available on the web through
multiple service providers and applications (e.g. Google Earth
and Bing). The GeoGratis spatial products portal of Natural
Resources Canada also offers free topographic information,
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), satellite imagery, and more. Aviation charts are available at a cost through NAV CANADA
and through mobile and web apps. Ensure that these third-party
applications are using up-to-date and official NAV CANADA
information. It is best to use site coordinates in order to localize
the area of operation on a map or other imagery source. If
coordinates are not available, using a landmark, nearby structure,
or point of reference is a reasonable substitute.
Once the site has been identified, the following points must be
defined:
(a) Operation boundaries;
(b) Airspace classes and applicable regulatory requirements;
(c) Routes and altitudes to be followed during the entire
operation;
(d) Proximity of traditional aircraft and/or aerodromes;
(e) Location and height of nearby obstacles;
(f) Security measures for warning the public of the RPAS
operations site;(g) Predominant weather conditions for the area of operation;
(h) Minimum separation distances from persons;
(i) An alternate landing site in case of precautionary or
emergency landing; and
(j) Aviation maps and symbols.
3.2.15.2 Locating Local Aerodromes and Airports
To identify an aerodrome or an airport, it is recommended that
a combination of aeronautical charts and the CFS issued by
NAV CANADA be used. The two main charts used by pilots
are the VNC, meant for low- to medium-altitude flights at a
1:500 000 scale, and the VTA, meant for providing information about the most congested airspace within Canada at a scale of
1:250 000. The CFS is a reference document updated every 56
days containing all the information relevant to the registered
aerodromes and certified airports in Canada. For information
regarding water aerodromes, refer to the Canada Water
Aerodrome Supplement (CWAS).
To identify the different symbols presented on the maps and
charts, you should refer to the legend presented in the first pages
of the charts and the CFS. Information with regard to date of
publication, author, projection, scale, and more would also be
found there.
3.2.15.3 Identifying Classes of Airspace
To identify the classes of airspace present at the area of operation,
it is recommended that you use resources such as the Drone Site
Selection Tool, the NAV Drone Viewer (at < https://www.
navcanada.ca/en/flight-planning/drone-flight-planning.aspx >),
the CFS, the aeronautical charts of the area of operation, and
the DAH. Airspace will be classified according to the Canadian
airspace classification (a range from A to G). A basic description
of the classes of airspace can be found in subsection 3.2.3.2 of this chapter. Additional information can be found in the DAH and in RAC 2.8.
Anyone holding an RPA pilot certificate (basic or advanced)
can operate an RPA within uncontrolled airspace only, in class G
and some class F airspace.
For flight within controlled airspace, the RPA pilot must:
(a) possess an RPA pilot certificate—advanced operations;
(b) receive an authorization from the local ANSP; and
(c) use the right RPAS in accordance with CAR 901.76 and
CAR Standard 922— Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems
Safety Assurance . This eligibility is written on the RPAS
certificate of registration.
3.2.16 Other Pre-flight Requirements
Prior to commencing flight the pilot must be satisfied that the
RPA has a sufficient amount of fuel/energy to safely complete
the flight, the crew members have received sufficient instruction
to perform their duties, and any required emergency equipment
is on site, with its location and method of operation known and
readily accessible.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAIn addition to the requirements above, the pilot must determine
the maximum distance the RPA can safely be flown from the
control station for the planned flight. This distance may vary
depending on the environment (e.g. visibility, cloud cover, and
wind), the location (e.g., a background of buildings can make
the RPA difficult to see), and the RLOS (the strength of the radio
signal and the presence of interfering signals).
3.2.17 Serviceability of the RPAS
All RPASs, just like all aircraft, must be inspected before flight
to ensure they are safe to operate and also after landing at the conclusion of the flight to check that they are safe for the next
flight. The RPA pilot is responsible for ensuring that the RPA
is serviceable and the RPAS has been maintained (CAR 901.29).
The list below is generic in nature but includes points for
inspection applicable to most RPAs. For details, refer to the
manufacturer’s instructions for the specific type of RPAS.
Following the “walk around” or RPAS visual inspection, a fully
charged battery can then be installed for the next flight. For a larger RPAS, a normal engine ground run can be carried out on
the ground for a check of the flight controls and avionics systems.
Just after takeoff, a short test flight and/or a ground run should
be completed to make sure all controls and switches are
functioning and correct.
3.2.17.1 Airframe (All Types)
Depending on the weight of the aircraft (25kg or less), pick up the RPAS or walk around it and inspect the entire aircraft. Pay attention to the following:
(a) Check all antennas, ensuring they are secure and in good condition;
(b) Check the battery emplacement and secure attachment, and
ensure that there are no cracks;
(c) Check that all lights are operating normally;
(d) Check the pitot tube (if applicable) and make sure it is secure
and clear of any obstructions;
(e) Check that the GPS is receiving satellites and providing a navigation solution (if applicable).
For fixed wings, check:
(a) Wings, ensuring that they are securely attached to fuselage;
(b) Wing leading edge surfaces;
(c) Top and bottom of wing surfaces;
(d) Wing tip surfaces;
(e) Rear of wing and all flight control surfaces for freedom of
movement, security, and any skin damage (composite/metal).
For rotary aircraft:
(a) Inspect the top and bottom of the airframe arms for cracks,
loose parts, or signs of damage;
(b) Check that the levels of all fluids (oil/hydraulic fluid) are
within limits and ensure there are no leaks.3.2.17.2 Landing Gear
Check that the landing gear is secure, as applicable.
Larger RPAs may have retractable or fixed landing gear and may
have wheel brakes. Check for leaks on oleos and leaks in the
brake system as appropriate. Check brake wear indicators if
applicable.
For servicing and scheduled maintenance items, always refer to
the manufacturer’s maintenance manual. If in doubt, contact
the manufacturer directly for technical support.
Inspect skids or wheels as applicable depending on type, especially
the attachment points, which should be secure with no cracks.
In addition, check for cracks in welds.
3.2.17.3 Powerplant
Inspect the following:
(a) Cowling or motor casing as applicable;
(b) Power plant for security of engine mounts;
(c) The presence of any cracks;
(d) All lines, ensuring there are no fluid leaks (fuel, oil, or
hydraulic);
(e) All wiring and connectors, ensuring there are no cracks,
loose connections, or chaffing;
(f) The oil level, ensuring it is within limits, if applicable.
3.2.17.4 Propellers
Inspect the following:
(a) Spinner(s), if installed, ensuring that they are secure and
there is freedom of movement;
(b) The propeller, ensuring it is secure;
(c) The propeller blades, checking for nicks, chips, or cracks, especially on the plastic blades on RPASs weighing 25kg or
less. Chips, nicks, or cracks on a plastic blade mean it is
time to replace the propeller. For metal blades refer to the
manufacturer’s instructions to see what the limits are to
file the nicks or chips before replacing the propeller.
3.2.17.5 Battery—Lithium Polymer
Inspect the battery for overall condition. There should be no
signs of swelling, external leaking, or other defects.
Ensure the battery wiring and connectors from the battery and
the aircraft are connected securely.
The battery and spare batteries necessary to complete the
operation should be adequately charged before flight to complete
the mission.
Be careful not to pinch the wires when installing the battery,
attaching the connectors, and closing the battery door.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPA3.2.17.6 RPAS Control Station/Receiver/Transmitters
The battery and spare batteries (if applicable) necessary to
complete the operation should be adequately charged before
flight to complete the mission.
Check that all flight interface is functioning normally.
3.2.18 Availability of RPAS Operating Manuals
In order to ensure the RPAS can be operated within the limitations
specified by the manufacturer, it is important that the pilot and
crew members have access to the most current system operating
manuals. These manuals can be available either in digital format
or in print; the key is that they are immediately available for the
pilot and crew members (CAR 901.30).
Failure to have manuals immediately available could result in
individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.2.19 Manufacturer’s Instructions
RPASs are complex systems that have both system and environmental limitations that allow them to operate in a
predictable manner. To ensure the maximum reliability of the
RPAS it is required that the RPAS be operated in accordance
with the manufacturer’s operating instructions (CAR 901.31).
Failure to operate the RPAS in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions could result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.2.20 Control of RPAS
RPA pilots are not permitted to operate autonomous RPAs for which they are unable to take immediate control of the aircraft. (CAR 901.32).
Automation (i.e. “automated” or “automatic”) refers to a
deterministic system that behaves in a predictable manner using
pre-set rules. This type of system will always produce the same
output given the same set of inputs, user error notwithstanding.
An example of this in an RPAS context would be a user plotting
a route on the control station and the aircraft following that
route on autopilot while the pilot monitors the flight.
In contrast, an autonomous system is goal-based and not
deterministic. The path to the desired outcome may not be easily
predicted and the system may model behaviours that result in
unique outcomes in each instance of operation. An autonomous
RPA is one that operates without pilot intervention in the
management of the flight, and in fact, there may be no mechanism
for pilot intervention by design. An autonomous RPA may react to changing environmental conditions or system degradations in a manner that it determines on its own.
Pilots found to be operating autonomous RPAs for which they
are unable to take immediate control are subject to individual
penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up
to $5,000. 3.2.21 Takeoffs, Launches, Approaches, Landings, and Recovery
Prior to conducting an RPAS operation the pilot must ensure
that there is no likelihood of a collision with another aircraft, a person, or an obstacle and that the site chosen is suitable for the operation (CAR 901.33).
When choosing a site for an RPA’s takeoff, launch, landing, or
recovery, the pilot should ensure that he or she has the land
owner’s permission to use the site and that the site is free of
obstacles that could interfere with the operation of the RPA.
Obstacles include physical obstacles like trees, buildings, or open
water as well as non-physical obstacles like electronic or magnetic
interference. It is also important that the site selected be secured
to ensure bystanders do not venture too close to or enter the
take-off or landing area. Securing a site can be done by erecting
physical barriers to ensure the public does not access the area
during the operation or by having crew members perform a
crowd control function. It is important that the RPA pilot
understand and follow any municipal, provincial, and federal
laws and regulations when securing a site. In some situations,
restricting public access to a site may not be allowed.
3.2.22 Minimum Weather Conditions
The weather is a primary concern for pilots of all types and
should be something of which they have a thorough understanding.
The minimum weather requirements for RPA pilots are different
from those of more traditional aircraft pilots, even for larger
RPAs. Sufficient weather conditions must be present to ensure
that the RPA can be operated in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions (i.e., temperature, wind, precipitation, etc.) and to
allow the pilot or visual observer to keep the RPA within VLOS at all times.
3.2.22.1 Sources of Weather Information
Climate data, weather forecasts, and real-time weather conditions
are a central pillar of every aeronautical operation. Aircraft are
particularly vulnerable to the elements due to the medium in
which they operate, as the atmosphere does not provide any
shielding from the weather. Various sources of information are available for monitoring weather and ensuring the safe conduct of the RPAS operations. Depending on the time scale at which
the weather or climate needs to be determined, different sources
of weather information might be required.
For climatic and long-term predictions of a few months or more
Environment and Climate Change Canada’s (ECCC) Canadian
Climate Normals is available on the ECCC Web site: < https://
weather.gc.ca/canada_e.html >. This tool is more suitable for
evaluating whether operations at a given time/location would
be possible given the historical climatic patterns. This should
be used as a means of evaluation for long-term operation planning
and/or in Canadian regions where pilots are not familiar with
the weather patterns at a given time. The portal gives pilots
access to a large array of data and graphs giving punctual
measurements of weather conditions along the Canadian weather
stations system. Data is freely available to download in .csv
format. Thirty-year averages (1981-2010/ 1971-2000/ 1961-1990)
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAare also available for analysis. For example, this would help a
pilot to establish when the ground is snow-free and the air
temperature is above 5°C according to the last 30 years, permitting
the planning mission in advance.
For medium- to short-term predictions of the weather, multiple
online and broadcast versions exist. ECCC offers daily weather forecasts as well as forecasts up to two weeks in advance on its
Web site, < https://weather.gc.ca/canada_e.html >. Weather radar
data is available for up to three hours, and satellite imagery is
offered at varying time intervals for the present day. This source
of weather information can be used for mission planning and/or the same day.
For same-day weather information, one of the most detailed
sources of information is on the NAV CANADA CFPS
at <https://plan.navcanada.ca >. This Web site is one of the main
sources of weather forecasts, reports and charts used for flight
planning by aviation professionals. For more information
regarding how to interpret different charts and reports, and the general procedures associated with the Web site, see the MET—Meteorology chapter of the TC AIM.
Additionally, there are a variety of weather apps available that
pull weather data from a variety of sources. Check to ensure you
are using NAV CANADA official data whenever possible.
Finally, no matter what tool is used, which preparations have
been made, and what the given predictions are for the day of
operation, it is essential to evaluate the weather at the site before launching the operation. Weather is a complex science and can
be subject to unpredicted fluctuations, especially on a small
geographic scale. Never operate an RPAS if the weather on site is outside your manufacturer’s recommended operating limits,
or if you judge based on your experience that local weather could
adversely affect your flight, even if the weather forecasts say
otherwise.
3.2.22.2 Micro vs. Macro Climate Environments
Micro Climate
Micro climate is defined as climatic variations localized in a
small or restricted area that differs from the surrounding region.
It is important to consider small climatic variations when planning RPAS flights. The altitude, nearby water bodies,
topography, ground surface, and obstacles are all factors that
can and will influence the conditions experienced at a specific site. Those variations might manifest themselves in the form of
variable wind strength and/or directions, convecting/advecting
air movements, variable temperatures, localized precipitation,
variable visibility levels, and more. These must be considered
carefully; weather forecasts for the region might be good, but
localized variations might compromise flight operation safety.
Due to the nature of most RPAS VLOS flights, which are flown
at low altitudes and over short distances, it is most likely that
the pilot will experience some impact from the micro climate
at the site. Recognizing factors that might influence weather
patterns at the site prior to takeoff will help mitigate possible
accidents or annoyances during the operations. Due to the high
variability of micro climate it is hard to establish the site-specific
conditions on a given day, before being physically there.Macro Climate
A macro climate will describe the overall climate of a large area
and represents the normal climatic patterns. This is what the
pilot needs to consider as the general pattern for the operation,
and it serves as a first step when considering weather information
in flight planning. As mentioned above, the low flight altitude
of most RPASs makes it more likely they will be subject to micro
climatic variations. Macro climate will be more significant for
beyond visual line-of-sight (BVLOS) flight over a large area, as
a simpler means to evaluate weather due to the altitude and
distance covered by the RPAS.
3.2.22.3 Wind
RPA pilots should refer to the manufacturer’s RPAS operating/
flight manual with regards to the aircraft’s wind speed tolerance.
If no such recommendation is made, the pilot should exercise
common sense and avoid conducting an RPAS flight in winds that might compromise safety.
Wind is the movement of air across the earth’s surface and is
one of the most important weather phenomena for pilots of all types of aircraft. Wind speeds are expressed in kilometres per
hour (km/h) or knots (kt) and the direction will represent where
winds originated.
RPA pilots will most likely be subject to surface wind, which
generally extends a couple thousand feet AGL. Surface winds
vary depending on surface roughness, temperature, waterbodies,
and obstacles (see the paragraph on micro climate above), and
they can therefore be very different from one geographical
location to the next. Wind speed in aviation weather forecasts is usually expressed in knots and is classified according to the
Beaufort Wind Scale (see AIM MET 2.6 Pilot Estimation of
Surface Wind), which is a scale ranging from breeze to hurricane.
Upper-level winds will not influence the vast majority of RPA
pilots as the altitude is much higher than standard flight altitude.
However, BVLOS flights with a large RPAS and a specially trained
crew might be conducted within this environment.
3.2.22.4 Visibility
For an RPAS flight conducted in VLOS, visibility should be at
a minimum equal to or greater than the extent of the desired
operation. While there is no minimum visibility prescribed in Part IX of the CARs, the visibility must be sufficient to keep the RPA in VLOS at all times.
Visibility is dynamic, can change rapidly, and might require the
pilot to adjust or end an ongoing operation if conditions change.
Local factors such as waterbodies and topography might create
heterogeneous visibility levels on a large or small scale. Flight
planning should take those variables into consideration.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPA3.2.22.5 Clouds
RPA pilots are prohibited from entering clouds as the RPA would
no longer be within VLOS.
Clouds are a great source of meteorological information for
pilots since they are a direct manifestation of the atmospheric
conditions at a given moment. Clouds are classified as low, middle,
or high altitude clouds and vertical development clouds. The
cloud ceiling is important information for RPAS flight and is
established based on the lowest layer of clouds on that day. Cloud
conditions and types will be influenced by the presence of weather
fronts, atmospheric pressure, winds, and topography. Information
regarding cloud conditions for a given day can be found on the
CFPS Cloud and Weather chart. For more information on this matter, please see MET– Meteorology 4.11 Clouds and Weather
Chart of the TC AIM.
3.2.22.6 Precipitation
In the absence of manufacturer guidelines for flights in precipitation, it is recommended that pilots avoid flying in
precipitation as it might compromise the airworthiness of the
aircraft and create hazards.
Precipitation is atmospheric water vapour produced from
condensation that falls under gravitational force toward the
ground. Precipitation will manifest itself in liquid (drizzle and rain) or solid forms (hail, snow pellets, snow ice prisms, and ice
pellets) and will have significant impact on RPAS operations.
Exposure to precipitation can impact an RPAS’ ability to perform
as expected. RPASs have varying levels of tolerance with respect
to precipitation. Refer to the RPAS manufacturer’s operating/
flight manual to verify the aircraft capability in precipitation.
3.2.22.7 Fog
Do not operate an RPAS in fog if visibility is too poor to maintain
proper VLOS with the RPA, even if it is equipped with lights.
Fog represents condensed water droplets found at the ground
level, or in other words, a low-level cloud. It usually brings
precipitation in the form of drizzle and will cause low visibility
conditions at ground level. This is of high concern for RPAS
operations in VLOS, as direct visual contact will be greatly
reduced in fog. Fog is dynamic, thus conditions at takeoff might
change during the operation and cause a threat to the RPA,
traditional aircraft, and the public.
3.2.22.8 Temperature
Air temperature is also an important concept for RPA pilots.
Since the human body is accustomed to a narrow temperature range, cold temperature can physically impair the efficiency of
pilots and ground crews if they are not dressed properly. A pilot’s
dexterity can decrease significantly and cold temperature stress
can add to other stress, such as that caused by fatigue. Cold
temperature will directly affect all other components of the
weather system and thus have a great impact on the aircraft
itself. You must operate the RPAS within the operational limits set by the manufacturer of the RPA, as each aircraft will have a
different range of temperature tolerance. Operating an RPA outside of those suggested ranges will compromise the
airworthiness and safety of the aircraft, and your operation. It is
also important to consider that RPASs are multi-component
systems. Although the aircraft might be approved for a certain
temperature range, other parts of the system might not be—
particularly if you have made any modifications to the payload
or aircraft. Consider all components when assessing flight
suitability in the field.
RPASs are operated within the airspace and are therefore subject
to atmospheric temperature changes, due to the adiabatic lapse
rate. Under normal conditions, atmospheric air temperature
will decrease with an increase in altitude due to lower atmospheric
pressure. This phenomenon is called the adiabatic lapse rate.
Water vapour content within the air column will decrease the lapse rate experienced, as more latent energy is required for an
equal change in temperate change in moist air. The adiabatic
lapse rate of unsaturated air is 3°C/1 000 ft and1.5°C/1 000 ft
for saturated air. Those values are set as standard but will be
variable in real-world scenarios as the water content will dictate
the precise lapse rate value. RPA pilots need to take the lapse
rate into consideration if operating in high-altitude BVLOS
flight or within a high-altitude environment as the weather
forecast and the conditions experienced by the aircraft might
differ greatly.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPA3.2.22.9 Urban Airflow
Figure 1.1—Urban Airflow Characteristics, SDSTV
S
SPEEDD
DIRECTIONS
SHEART
TURBULENCEV
VORTICITY
Further Information: www.Canada.ca/drone-safety1.5 x U10 = U122
U122 = 1.5 x U10
U100 = 0.92 x U122
U75 = 0.82 x U122
U50 = 0.70 x U122
U25 = 0.53 x U122
U10 = 0.37 x U122 U10 weather station
hourly wind speed
Height
[m]Height
[ft]Wind Speed
[km/h]
502510 3080165250330400
up to
double
the
wind
speedupdraft
downdraft
horizontal
reversedflapping
speed
gradient
10%
free atmosphere40%
urban airflowintensity vortex shedding
side-to-side
rooftop
vortex sheddingU122±18 km/h
Urban Airflow: What Drone Pilots Need to Know
venturi effect
TC would like to remind you of the potential environmental
challenges of flying an RPA in urban areas. Provided you are
authorized to fly an RPA in urban areas, exercise caution when
flying due to unforeseen changes in wind characteristics caused
by tall buildings and structures. These changes can include
increased wind gusts exceeding the RPA limits, as well as shifts
in direction which can blow the RPA off course.
TC worked with National Research Council Canada (NRC) on
a video to help you understand some of the impacts: < https://
tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/drone-safety/tips-best-practices-drone-
pilots/urban-airflow-what-drone-pilots-need-know >.
3.2.22.10 Sun
Sun will influence the conditions encountered by the RPAS in
direct and indirect ways. The pilot and visual observers need to
be aware of the sun glare that might prevent them from
maintaining proper visual line-of-sight with the RPA. Crew
members should take care to reduce the amount of time facing into the sun and looking at the sky. In the event that the RPA is flying in line with the sun, the crew should stare to the side of
the aircraft and the sun. Polarized sunglasses can cause visibility
issues on tablet displays, so they may not be a viable option for all crew members. Solar activities can also create geomagnetic interferences that
have been shown to impact the navigation system (e.g. GPS,
GLONASS) and electronic components of the RPAS, specifically
the C2 link. For more information about the solar activity forecast
in Canada, refer to the Space Weather Canada forecast Web site:
< www.spaceweather.gc.ca/index-en.php >
<https://www.spaceweather.gc.ca/forecast-prevision/index-en.php >
It is recommended that pilots refer to the Energetic Electron
Fluence forecast and use caution in periods of moderate or higher
radiation. The greater the electron fluence, the lesser the range
and quality of the C2 link, and the greater the possibility of
lost link.
3.2.23 Icing
Icing refers to atmospheric water droplets that are often defined
as supercooled (< 0 °C), which freeze upon contact with a surface.
Icing intensity is classified from trace to severe and icing types are rime, clear, and mixed ice. Icing is common on all types of aircraft and RPAs are no exception. Icing can occur before and
during the flight, greatly compromising the ability of the aircraft
to operate properly. Formation of ice on the propeller and frame
of the aircraft will increase take-off weight, change the aircraft’s
aerodynamic properties, and prevent components from operating
properly. Critical surfaces such as wings, control surfaces, rotors,
propellers, and horizontal and vertical stabilizers should all be
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPAconfirmed clear of contamination prior to takeoff and must
remain so, or the flight be terminated. Refer to the RPAS
operating/flight manual provided by the manufacturer to verify
the aircraft’s tolerance of icing. In the absence of an RPAS Safety
Assurance, it is recommended that you avoid flying in icing
conditions unless a method exists to de-ice and provide anti-ice
capabilities in flights. For more details about icing, please see
MET— Meteorology subpart 2.4 of the TC AIM.
3.2.24 Formation Flight
Formation flights between two or more RPAs or between an
RPA and another aircraft are permitted. If a formation flight is
to be undertaken, it must be pre-arranged; impromptu formations
are not permitted (CAR 901.36). Formation flights of more than
5 RPAs that are controlled by a single pilot from the same control
station are only authorized under an SFOC—RPAS (CAR 903.01 e).
The purpose of the pre-arrangement requirement is to ensure
that all the pilots associated with the operation are aware of how
the aircraft are to be flown to eliminate the risk of collision
(CAR 901.18 prohibits the operation of an RPA in such proximity
to another aircraft as to create a risk of collision) and to identify
and mitigate any risks associated with the flight.
3.2.25 Operation of Moving Vehicles, Vessels, and Traditional Aircraft
Pilots are prohibited from operating an RPA while at the same
time operating a moving vehicle (CAR 901.37). If it necessary
to operate an RPA from a moving vehicle, there must be a
dedicated person operating the vehicle while the pilot operates the RPAS. If a visual observer is used in the operation, they are
also prohibited from operating the vehicle while performing
their duties as a visual observer (CAR 901.20(4)).
When launching from a vehicle (e.g. a boat) that is in motion or
that will be in a different location when the RPA is recovered,
consider that the return to home (RTH) automatic function may
register the initial position at takeoff. Some RPASs give you the
option of using the launch point or alternatively, going to the
location of the transmitter. Plan ahead for manual landing, or other landing procedures, in a specifically designated location
and adjust the contingency plans to avoid having the RPAS
return to a dangerous location.
Failure to abide by these prohibitions may result in individual
penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to
$5,000.
3.2.26 First-person View (FPV) Devices
FPV offers an immersive RPA piloting experience but cuts the
pilot off from his or her surroundings and greatly affects detect
and avoid capability (i.e. the pilot’s ability to scan for other
aircraft). If you are using an FPV system that reduces the field of view of the pilot, visual observers must be used. The number of visual observers needed will depend on the complexity and
area of the operation. The area surrounding the pilot should
also be safe and free of hazards, as the FPV will also prevent the pilot from being aware of his or her own surroundings.3.2.27 Night Flight
There are risks associated with night flight that result from
operating in an environment of reduced visibility. From the RPA
pilot’s perspective, the greatest concern is maintaining VLOS
with the RPA and detecting and avoiding unlit objects on or
near the ground like trees and power lines.
Night is legally defined in aviation as the period of time that
starts at the end of evening civil twilight and ends at the start
of morning civil twilight. In the evening, civil twilight ends
when the centre of the sun’s disc is 6° below the horizon and is
descending, approximately 25-35 min after sunset. In the
morning, civil twilight begins when the centre of the sun’s disc is 6° below the horizon and is ascending, approximately 25-35 min before the sunrise. The evening civil twilight is relative to
the standard meridians of the time zones, the period of time
that begins at sunset and ends at the time specified by the Institute
for National Measurement Standards of the Standards Council
of Canada and available at: < https://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/
services/sunrise/index.html >.
Night, in practice, is when you cannot effectively see the hazards
that would be visible during the day. In these situations, a day site survey is advisable to ensure separation between the RPAS flight path and any dangers that are not visible.
Night operations are permitted in both the basic and advanced
operating environments provided that the RPA is equipped with
position lights sufficient to allow the aircraft to be visible to the
pilot and any visual observer.
3.2.27.1 Detecting Aircraft During Night Operations
Scanning Technique
The approach to scanning the sky for aircraft at night is much
the same as scanning the sky during the day; however, limitations
of equipment and human physiology should be taken into account.
With sufficient lighting on the aircraft, it is very often easier to
track your aircraft and other aircraft than doing so during the day.
Aircraft are easier to identify at night, but it is more difficult to determine the range of these aircraft. It is therefore possible the RPAS could be within VLOS, but much farther away than what would be by day operations.
Traditional aircraft will also be easier to detect but may be at a
greater distance and appear much closer than they actually are.
Depth perception at night is difficult, which affects the assessment
of relative position. Although it may be easier to spot aircraft
lights at night, judging the distance to an aircraft is challenging.
Noise
In some cases sound may be the only way to detect other aircraft
when operating at night. For t his reason it is important that the
crew enforce a sterile environment around the control station
and anywhere visual observers are stationed. Any unnecessary
talking or noise should be avoided to ensure the best chance of
detecting other aircraft. Sound is also useful to monitor your
own aircraft’s performance when visual cues are limited. Rapidly
changing motor sounds on a multirotor may indicate wind at
altitude, for example.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAVision
Vision can be affected at night, and there are several illusions
that can affect the pilot or observer’s ability to detect aircraft.
Additional information on vision can be found in AIR 3.5 Vision
of the TC AIM.
3.2.27.2 Aircraft Lighting
Traditional aircraft are equipped with special lights to aid in
their detection and orientation. Traditional aircraft are required
to have position lights, which include a red light on the port side
(left side when sitting in the pilot’s seat), a green light on the
starboard side (right side when sitting in the pilot’s seat), and a
white light on the tail. An observer can determine which way
an aircraft is travelling by identifying the lights they can see.
For example, if the observer can see a red and white light, the
aircraft is travelling across their field of view from right to left
and moving away from them. If the observer can see only a green
light the aircraft is moving across their field of view from left
to right and may be moving towards them. If the observer can see both a green light and a red light, the aircraft is coming at them.
Aircraft are also equipped with anti-collision lighting, typically
an omnidirectional rotating or flashing red beacon. This light can be affixed to either the top or bottom of the aircraft. Some
aircraft are equipped with strobe lights, landing lights, or
recognition lights. Strobe lights are generally white and attached
to the wing tips or the sides of the aircraft. They flash in a
repeating pattern and make an aircraft very visible, especially
at night. Landing lights are generally white and affixed to the
inboard sections of the wing, the front of the fuselage, or the
landing gear. Landing lights will be brightest when an aircraft
is coming towards the observer. Not all aircraft will have landing
lights on when flying at night so they should not be relied upon
to detect aircraft. Recognition lights are generally white and
affixed to the sides of the aircraft. Unlike strobe lights, they do not flash and generally point in the direction of flight much like a landing light.
Not all aircraft are required to have lights when operating at
night. Some aircraft such as those used by law enforcement
pilots, military, and first responders may have mission
requirements that necessitate operations without lights. RPA
pilots and visual observers should be particularly alert for an
aircraft that may only be identifiable by sound.
3.2.27.3 Use of Lights
Pilots operating RPASs at night shall ensure their RPA is lighted
sufficiently to ensure the pilot and the visual observer (if used) can maintain VLOS with the RPA. It’s the pilot’s responsibility to ensure the lights are functioning prior to takeoff or launch.
3.2.27.4 Night Vision Goggles
Night vision goggles can be used to supplement the RPAS crew’s
view of the RPA but caution should be exercised as night vision may inhibit the pilot’s ability to detect and avoid other aircraft.
Many aircraft are equipped with LEDs instead of the traditional
incandescent lights. These LED lights may emit light that is outside the combined visible and near infrared spectrum of
night vision goggles and, as a result, may not visible. For this
reason it is required that all RPA crews have a method of detecting
all light within the visible spectrum. The simplest way to meet this requirement is to employ a visual observer using unaided vision as part of the detect and avoid system.
3.2.28 Multiple Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA)
Pilots may operate up to five RPAs from one control station
provided the system is designed for such an operation
(CAR 901.40). Special care must be taken when operating more
than one RPA from a single control station as there is a significant
risk the pilot can become distracted and lose track of one or
more of the RPAs.
The risks associated with this type of operation can be mitigated
by careful pre-planning and site surveys. Pilots should take extra
care to ensure that sufficient visual observers are employed to ensure that each aircraft is kept within VLOS and monitored.
Piloting more than five RPAs from one control station requires
an SFOC—RPAS (see subpart 3.6).
3.2.29 Special Events
3.2.29.1 Special Aviation Events
An SFOC—RPAS for a special aviation event is needed when a pilot is operating an RPA as a performer in this event (referred to as an “airshow”). See CARs 901.41 and 903.01(f).
If the RPAS operation is not a performance that is part of the
special aviation event (i.e. the operation is conducted for taking
videos or photos of the event, or for surveillance or security
purposes), the SFOC—RPAS application is to be processed as it would be for an advertised event.
3.2.29.2 Advertised Events
An SFOC—RPAS for an advertised event is needed when a pilot is operating an RPAS less than 100 ft away from the boundaries
of an advertised event (CAR 901.41 and 903.01(f)). For reference,
see also the following sections and subpart in this chapter: 3.4.6—
Operations Near People, 3.4.7—Operations Over People, and
3.6—Special Flight Operations – RPAS.
The boundaries of an advertised event (outdoor event including
a concert, performance, festival, market, amusement park, or
sporting event) are limited by perimeter fences and the gates
where people are restricted by the event personnel, volunteers, and security or peace officers.
Where no such perimeter is defined for outdoor advertised
events like marathons, triathlons, cycling, swimming, skiing,
fishing derbies, sailing, cruise ships, fireworks, and so on, it is expected that the boundaries of the advertised event be at least 100 ft from people participating in the advertised event and 100 ft from the track of the sporting event for all categories of RPA pilot certificates and models of RPAs.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPA3.2.30 Handovers
If an RPAS command handover is to be conducted during the
operation, a handover plan agreed upon by all responsible parties
has to be established before takeoff (CAR 901.42). The plan must
lay out the procedures to follow for the handover, the plan to
mitigate the loss of control during the handover, and the plan
for how the see and avoid measures are to be continued during
the exchange.
3.2.31 Payloads
Laser-based systems, including LIDAR, are becoming increasingly
popular payloads on RPASs for a number of operations. Class 1
lasers, as designated by Health Canada, are considered to be
incapable of causing harm and will not create a hazard to
traditional aircraft provided that they are operated as per the
manufacturer’s specifications. If the laser equipment that the
operator intends to use is classified as Class 1 or Class 1M, has an average output power of less than 1 mW, and utilizes a non-visible beam, no further assessment or notification is required.
The operator is still responsible for safe operation within the
bounds of the manufacturer’s specifications and operating
instructions.
Operators who want to operate an RPAS fitted with laser
equipment other than the types noted in the previous paragraph
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions must notify
TC that they intend to operate a laser in airspace shared with
traditional aircraft (CAR 601.21). RPAS operators shall complete
a Notice of Proposal to Conduct Outdoor Laser Operation(s)
and submit it to their TC regional office. An aeronautical
assessment is then conducted and the NOHD calculated by the operator is validated. The normal processing time is at least 30
days to review the notification and determine if a laser
authorization can be issued.
For more information and further guidance on the regulation
of lasers, refer to sections 601.20, 601.21, 601.22, and 901.43 of the CARs.
In addition, if the RPA pilot intends to carry or deliver payloads
with an RPA, the pilot must also comply with the Transportation
of Dangerous Goods Regulations (TDG Regulations) and the
Canadian Transportation Agency’s (CTA’s) Air Transportation
Regulations (ATR), as applicable.
More information on the TDG Regulations can be found in RAC
Annex 12.3 and at < https://tc.canada.ca/en/dangerous-goods/
transportation-dangerous-goods-canada >.
More information on the CTA’s ATR can be found at < https://
www.canada.ca/en/transportation-agency.html > and < https://
laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-88-58/index.html >.
RPA are considered aircraft according to the CARs. The
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act (TDG Act) (by air) and
the CTA detail various requirements for when products or people
are transported by aircraft. As the Act and the Agency do not
separate RPA and simply use the term “aircraft,” this also includes
remotely piloted aircraft.Before transporting items of any kind from one location to the next, the CTA’s ATR must be considered. This is outside of the
scope of Part IX of the CARs but is applicable if you are operating
an RPA under Subpart 1 of Part IX of the CARs (901.xx), or with
an SFOC—RPAS issued under section 903.03. There are exceptions
within the CTA’s ATR that may be applicable in some cases,
which is why the CTA’s ATR need to be considered for
all operations.
Before transporting goods that may be considered dangerous,
the TDG Act must be consulted. If the goods are in fact dangerous,
the TDG Act explains what is required. CAR 901.43 explains
when an SFOC—RPAS is needed to transport payloads that are
also considered dangerous. This includes explosive, corrosive,
flammable, or biohazardous material, and weapons, ammunition,
or other equipment designed for use in war. An effort was made to link the TDG Act with section 901.43, but this has not been finalized. In other words, there may be situations that require
an SFOC—RPAS under CAR 903.01(g) but are outside of the
TDG Act for some reason. There may be other situations that
do not require an SFOC—RPAS under CAR 901.43 but do require
operation under the TDG Act.
It is the responsibility of the RPA pilot to ensure compliance
with all regulations before an RPAS operation.
A pilot may operate an RPAS when the aircraft is transporting
a payload referred to in CAR 901.43(1) if the operation is
conducted in accordance with an SFOC—RPAS. For more
information, see section 3.6.1 of this chapter.
3.2.32 Flight Termination Systems
A Flight Termination System is a system that, upon initiation, terminates the flight of an RPA in a manner so as not to cause
significant damage to property or severe injury to persons on
the ground. In order to avoid flyaway situations and safeguard
other airspace users, RPASs that lack redundancies may need
to have an independent flight termination system that can be
activated by the RPA pilot. The process and procedures for
initiating and activating a flight termination system vary significantly depending the manufacturer and operating
procedures for each system. Initiation of a flight termination
system may only be done if it does not endanger aviation safety or the safety of any person (CAR 901.44). Attachment of a flight
termination system to an RPAS which is not standard equipment
for the RPAS is a modification and must meet the requirements of CAR 901.70.
3.2.33 Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)
RPAs are prohibited from being equipped with ELTs (CAR 901.45).
RPAs are permitted to have other types of tracking devices that
would allow pilots to locate them without notifying first
responders.
ELTs provide an emergency signal to SAR in the event of a missing
aircraft. In order to ensure valuable resources are not dispatched
to find missing aircraft where no life is at stake, RPAs are not
permitted to have ELTs on board. More information on ELTs
can be found in SAR part 3.0 Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)
of the TC AIM.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAPilots operating RPAs equipped with ELTs are subject to
individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties
of up to $5,000.
3.2.34 Transponders and Automatic Pressure-Altitude Reporting Equipment
Transponders augment the capabilities of ATS surveillance,
allowing ANSPs to determine an aircraft’s position and, when
a transponder is capable of pressure-altitude reporting, its
altitude. Small RPAs are not typically equipped with transponders
and, as a result, they pose a challenge from an air traffic
surveillance perspective due to their small size, low operating
altitude and lack of a common altitude reference system. For
that reason, ANSPs cannot offer these aircraft the same,
traditional air traffic services (i.e. aircraft separation or conflict
resolution) that they provide to VFR or IFR aircraft.
In order to ensure the safe operation of all aircraft in controlled
airspace, RPAs need to obtain authorization from the ANSP (either
NAV CANADA for civil-controlled airspace or the Department
of National Defence in the case of military-controlled airspace)
before operating in controlled or transponder airspace.
3.2.34.1 Transponder-required Airspace
Transponders are required in all Class A, B, and C airspace as well as some Class D and Class E airspace. The requirement for
a transponder in Class D and E airspace can be found in the
DAH (CAR 601.03). Additional information can be found in
COM subpart 8.2 of the TC AIM.
3.2.34.2 Transponder Requirements
ANSPs may allow an RPAS to enter transponder-required airspace
without a transponder if the pilot requests permission prior to entering the area and aviation safety is not likely to be affected
(CAR 901.46(2)). Except when permitted by the ANSP, all aircraft
flying in transponder-required airspace including RPAs are
required to have transponders (CAR 901.46(1)).
The decision as to whether aviation safety is likely to be affected
depends on a variety of factors that may not be readily apparent
to the RPA pilot. These factors may include the volume of air
traffic in the area, a potential emergency or priority situation,
system capability, equipment failures, and a myriad of other
factors. RPA pilots should understand that ANSPs may not be able to grant all requests to enter transponder airspace without a transponder. Flexibility and patience on the part of the pilot will be required.
Entering transponder airspace without a transponder or without
permission from the ANSP puts other aircraft in the area at risk
and may result in individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or
corporate penalties of up to $5,000. 3.2.35 Operations at or in the Vicinity of an Aerodrome, Airport or Heliport
Operations in the vicinity of or at aerodromes, water aerodromes,
airports, and heliports are higher risk. Operations inside a
3 NM (5.6 km) radius from the centre of airports or a 1 NM (1.8 km)
radius from the centre of heliports are prohibited to RPA pilots
holding a basic certificate (CAR 901.47) and are reserved for
RPA pilots holding an advanced certificate.
RPA pilots shall always keep the RPA in VLOS, shall give way
at all times to traditional aircraft, and shall not interfere with
an aircraft operating in the established traffic pattern
(CARs 901.11, 901.17, 901.18, and 901.47).When operating an RPA at or in the vicinity of an aerodrome,
water aerodrome, airport, or heliport, the RPA pilot should
contact the aerodrome operator to inform them of the RPAS
operation, regardless of whether the RPA is operated in controlled
or uncontrolled airspace.
Although aerodrome operators can prohibit someone from using
their premises, they cannot forbid the use of the airspace
surrounding an aerodrome, airport, or heliport. Airspace access
is regulated through the CARs, and any aircraft or pilot meeting
the requirements therein could use the airspace.
Please note that aerodrome, water aerodrome, airport, and
heliport operators don’t have access to NAV Drone RPA flight
authorization information. If you choose to operate your RPA in one of these areas and see traditional aircraft operating, it is recommended to land the RPA and reassess the situation. If you
notice regular aircraft activities at a location, it is recommended
to contact the aerodrome operator to better understand the local
traffic circuit procedures and to coordinate your RPA operations.
The RPA pilot should also maintain a listening watch of the
applicable aerodrome traffic frequency found in the CFS or on
VNCs. Any person operating a VHF radio must hold a Restricted
Operator Certificate with Aeronautical Qualification (ROC-A).
TC AIM COM 1.0, NAV CANADA’s VFR Phraseology Guide ,
and ISED’s study guide RIC-21 for the ROC-A provide additional
information on radiotelephony procedures.
If an aerodrome, water aerodrome, airport, or heliport is located
inside controlled airspace, the RPA pilot needs an advanced
small RPA (VLOS) pilot certificate being in an advanced environment and shall receive an authorization from the
appropriate ANSP. This is described in section 3.4.4 of this
chapter and requires a manufacturer declaration that the RPAS
meets the appropriate safety assurance profile for controlled
airspace as described in section 3.4.3 of this chapter. See
subsection 3.2.3.2 and section 3.4.4 for information about RPA
operation in controlled airspace. See also section 3.4.5 of this
chapter for information on how to conduct an RPAS operation in accordance with the established procedure when at or in the vicinity of an airport or heliport (as per CAR 901.73).
An aerodrome means any area of land, water (including the
frozen surface thereof) or other supporting surface used,
designed, prepared, equipped or set apart for use either in whole
or in part for the arrival, departure, movement or servicing of
aircraft and includes any buildings, installations and equipment
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPAsituated thereon or associated therewith. All registered and
certified aerodromes are listed in the CFS or the CWAS.
An airport means an aerodrome in respect of which an airport
certificate issued under Subpart 302 of the CARs is in force. To
know if an aerodrome is registered, certified as an airport or
heliport or as a military aerodrome, look for the word “Reg,”
“Cert” or “Mil” in the Operator (OPR) section of the CFS. You
can also find this information with the NRC drone site selection
tool at < https://cnrc.canada.ca/en/drone-tool/ > or with the
NAV Drone Viewer at < https://map.navdrone.ca/ >.
A heliport means an aerodrome in respect of which a heliport certificate issued under Subpart 305 of the CARs is in force.
An operation within 3 NM (5.6 km) of an aerodrome conducted
under the authority of the DND is possible if the operation is
conducted in accordance with an SFOC—RPAS. To be issued
an SFOC for the operation of an RPA within 3 NM of an aerodrome operated under the authority of the
DND (CAR 903.01(h)), the pilot must obtain authorization from
the DND aerodrome authorities. If a military aerodrome is
located in controlled airspace, it is advanced operations. The
pilot needs a Pilot Certificate - small RPA (VLOS) – Advanced
Operations and must use an RPAS equipped with a manufacturer
declaration with the appropriate safety assurance profile as
described in section 3.4.3 of this chapter. See section 3.6.1 for
information about SFOC—RPAS.
3.2.36 Records
Every owner of an RPAS shall keep a record containing the
names of the pilots and other crew members who are involved
in each flight and, in respect of the system, the time of each
flight or series of flights. This record shall be available to the
Minister on request and is retained for a period of 12 months
after the day on which it is created (CAR 901.48 1)(a)).
Every owner of an RPAS shall keep a record containing the
particulars of any mandatory action and any other maintenance
action, modification, or repair performed on the system, including
the names of the persons who performed them and the dates
they were undertaken. In the case of a modification, the
manufacturer and model, as well as a description of the part or
equipment installed to modify the system and, if applicable, any
instructions provided to complete the work are required. This
record shall be available to the Minister on request and is retained
for a period of 24 months after the day on which it is created
(CAR 901.48(1)(b)).
Every owner of an RPAS who transfers ownership of the system
to another person shall also deliver to that person at the time of
transfer all of the records containing the particulars of any
mandatory action and any other maintenance action, modification,
or repair performed on the system (CAR 901.48(3)).3.2.37 Incidents and Accidents
A pilot who operates an RPA shall immediately cease operations
if any of the listed incidents or accidents (CAR 901.49(1)) occur, until such time as an analysis is undertaken as to the cause of
the occurrence and corrective actions have been taken to mitigate
the risk of recurrence:
(a) injuries to any person requiring medical attention;
(b) unintended contact between the aircraft and persons;
(c) unanticipated damage incurred to the airframe, control
station, payload, or command and control links that adversely
affects the performance or flight characteristics of the
aircraft;
(d) any time the aircraft is not kept within horizontal boundaries
or altitude limits;
(e) any collision with or risk of collision with another aircraft;
(f) any time the aircraft becomes uncontrollable, experiences a flyaway, or is missing; and
(g) any incident not referred to in paragraphs (a) to (f) for which
a police report has been filed or for which a CADORS report
has resulted.
The RPA pilot shall keep a record of the incident or accident
analyses for a period of 12 months after the day on which the
record is created and make it available to the Minister on request
(CAR 901.49(2)).
If any incident or accident occurs while an RPA is being operated
under an SFOC—RPAS, it shall be reported to TC using the
RPAS Aviation Occurrence Reporting Form sent with the issuance
of the SFOC—RPAS.
In addition to the criteria listed in CAR 901.49, certain types of
RPAS occurrences need to be reported to the TSB, including when:
(a) an RPA weighing more than 25 kg is involved in an accident,
as defined by paragraph 2(1)(a) of the TSB Regulations; or
(b) a person is killed or sustains a serious injury as a result of
coming into direct contact with any part of a small RPA
(an aircraft with a maximum take-off weight of at least
250 g [0.55 lb] but not more than 25 kg [55 lb]), including
parts that have become detached from the small RPA; or
(c) a collision occurs between an RPA of any size or weight and
a traditional aircraft.
The purpose of an aviation safety investigation into an aircraft
accident or incident is to prevent a reoccurrence; it is not to
determine or assign blame or liability. The TSB, established
under the CTAISB Act, is responsible for investigating all aviation
occurrences in Canada involving civil aircraft registered both
in Canada and abroad. A team of investigators is on 24-hr standby.
TC AIM GEN 3.0 provides additional information on aircraft accident reporting to the TSB, including time limits and what
information to report. An RPA is defined as an aircraft in
the CARs.
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPA3.2.38 Tethered Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA)
CAR 101.01(1) defines a remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) as “a
navigable aircraft, other than a balloon, rocket or kite that is
operated by a pilot who is not on board.”
When an RPA is not navigated horizontally and is tethered to
the ground, it no longer meets the definition of an RPA, and the regulatory requirements contained in Part IX of the CARs no
longer apply; instead, operators of tethered objects must meet
the obstruction requirements of CAR Standard 621 Chapter 11.
This interpretation recognizes that RPAs that are prevented
from being navigated along a path pose a different set of hazards
from RPAs that are free-flying. If the RPA is being manoeuvred or the navigation is controlled while the RPA is on the tether, it is navigable and it once again meets the definition of an RPA, and Part IX of the CARs will apply. Control-line flying models are not designed to be navigated and do not meet the definition of an RPA.
A tether can be used to extend the flight time of the RPA by
supplying power from the ground. A tether can also be used as
a means to mitigate the risk of the flyaway by physically restricting
the RPA from reaching certain locations. A tether should not
be used as a means to circumvent or exempt an operation from the safety requirements of Part IX.
As an example:
(a) An RPA tethered to the ground by a power cable hovering
at a specific location without pilot input while it serves to
boost a communication signal does not meet the definition
of an RPA.
(b) An RPA attached to a line while it is being manoeuvred or
navigated by a pilot does meet the definition of an RPA,
and CARs Part IX provisions governing small RPAs apply.
(c) A tether should not be used for the sole purpose of exclusion
from the safety requirements of Part IX. Tethered RPAs
should comply with the requirements of Part IX that are
applicable to the type of operation being performed.
The addition of a tether to an RPA is considered a modification to an RPAS. Therefore, if an RPAS safety assurance declaration
has been made under CAR section 901.76 for advanced operations,
the installation of a tether on the RPA will invalidate this RPAS safety assurance declaration unless:
(a) the modification was performed according to the instructions
from the manufacturer of the part or equipment used to
modify the system (CAR 901.70(b)); and
(b) the pilot installing the tether on the RPA is able to demonstrate
that the system continues to meet the technical requirements
set out in Standard 922— RPAS Safety Assurance that are
applicable to the operations referred to in subsection 901.69(1)
for which the declaration was made (CAR 901.70(a)).
Best practices dictate that tethered RPA operations should not
be conducted closer to people than the length of the tether
restraining the RPA plus at least 5 m. For example, if the length of the tether is 120 m, a safety margin of more than 125 m from people extending laterally from the point the tether is attached
to the ground should be maintained. Moreover, to mitigate significant risk of injuries or damages, sufficient space is to be
allocated to allow for post-crash RPA flying debris (e.g. spinning
rotor components can be flung a great distance). This is to be
taken into account at the planning stage and confirmed during the site survey.
3.3 BASIC OPERATIONS
3.3.1 General
Basic operations require small RPA pilots to have the necessary qualifications and skills.
Basic operations are for those intending to operate an RPA:
(a) in uncontrolled airspace (CAR 901.14);
(b) at a distance of 100 ft (30 m) or more from another person
except from a crew member or other person involved in the operation (CAR 901.26);
(c) at a distance of three nautical miles (5.6 km) or more from
the centre of an airport or an aerodrome operated under
the authority of the Minister of National Defence or one
nautical mile (1.8 km) or more from the centre of a heliport (CAR 901.47).
For more information, refer to 3.2.35 Operations at or in the
Vicinity of an Aerodrome, Airport, or Heliport.
Pilots carrying out basic RPA operations without a pilot
certificate—small remotely piloted aircraft (for basic or advanced
operations) may be subject to individual penalties of up to $1,000
and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.3.2 Pilot Requirements
3.3.2.1 Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) Pilot
Certificate
A pilot certificate—small RPA (VLOS)—basic operations is
issued by the Minister to those that are at least 14 years of age
and have successfully completed the RPAS Basic Operations
examination (CARs 901.54, 901.55). The RPAS 101 guide has
been developed in cooperation with TC and the Aerial Evolution
Association of Canada (AEAC) to provide general knowledge
to Canadian RPA pilots: < https://www.aerialevolution.ca/
wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Nov-27-RPAS-101_EN-Final.pdf >.
A person of less than 14 years of age may conduct basic operations
if they are under the direct supervision of the holder of a basic or advanced RPA pilot certificate (CAR 901.54(2)).
3.3.2.2 Recency Requirements
Holders of the basic or advanced small RPA (VLOS) pilot
certificate must keep up their skills and knowledge by showing
that they have met the recency requirements within the last
24 months (section 921.04 of CAR Standard 921). This involves
being issued a basic or advanced small RPA (VLOS) pilot
certificate (CAR 901.55 or 901.64) or successfully completing a
flight review (CAR 901.64(c)) or recurrent training activities
(section 921.04 of CAR Standard 921), including attendance at
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPAa safety seminar or completion of a self-paced study program
endorsed by TCCA or of an advanced RPAS recurrent training
program that includes human factors, environmental factors,
route planning, operations near aerodromes/airports, and
applicable regulations, rules, and procedures. Certificate holders
can rewrite either RPAS exam to accomplish the recency
requirements, regardless of which certificate they have (advanced
RPA pilot certificate holders can write and pass the RPAS Basic
Operations exam to accomplish the recency requirements).
The self-paced study program endorsed by TCCA is available
on the TC drone safety Web site: < https://tc.canada.ca/en/
aviation/drone-safety/getting-drone-pilot-certificate/remotely-
piloted-aircraft-system-rpas-recency-requirements-self-paced-
study-program >. The completed copy shall be retained by the
pilot and be easily accessible to them during the operation of an RPAS. The completed copy does not need to be sent to TC.
RPA pilots who fail to maintain recency but continue to operate
their RPA may receive individual penalties of up to $1,000
and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.3.2.3 Access to Certificate and Proof of Currency
When operating an RPAS, the pilot must be able to easily access
both their basic or advanced RPA pilot certificate (CAR 901.55
and 901.64) and documentation demonstrating recency
(CAR 901.56).
RPA pilots failing to demonstrate recency may receive individual
penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up
to $5,000.
3.3.2.4 Examination Rules
It is not permitted to copy or remove all or any portion of the
RPAS examination, to help or accept help from any person during
the examination, or to complete any portion of the examination
on behalf of any other person (CAR 901.58). If a person fails the
examination or flight review they must wait at least 24 hours
before a retake (CAR 901.59).
3.3.3 Small Remote Pilot Aircraft (RPA) Requirement
No RPA manufacturer declaration is needed for basic operations
but the RPA needs to be operated in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions (CAR 901.31). The small RPA must
have an issued registration number issued that is clearly visible on the remotely piloted aircraft (CAR 901.03 and 901.05).
3.4 ADVANCED OPERATIONS
3.4.1 General
Advanced operations are for pilots intending to operate an
RPA (CAR 901.62):
(a) in controlled airspace;
(i) with an RPA holding a safety assurance declaration
for controlled airspace (CAR 901.69(1)(a)), as
specified on the certificate of registration issued,(ii) if an authorization has been issued by the air navigation
services provider (ANSP) (CAR 901.71), and
(iii) if the RPA pilot complies with all of the air traffic
control instructions directed to them (CAR 901.72).
(b) less than 100 ft (30 m), up to 16.4 ft (5 m) from another
person not involved in the operation, measured horizontally
and at any altitude, with an RPAS holding a safety assurance
declaration to fly near another person (CAR 901.69(1)(b)), as specified on the certificate of registration issued;
(c) less than 16.4 ft (5 m) from another person not involved in
the operation, measured horizontally and at any altitude,
with an RPAS holding a safety assurance declaration to fly over another person (CAR 901.69(1)(c)), as specified on the certificate of registration issued;
(d) within 3 NM (5.6 km) from the centre of an airport; or
(e) within 1 NM (1.8 km) from the centre of a heliport.
NOTE:
To know if an aerodrome is registered, certified as an airport or
heliport or as a military aerodrome, look for the word “Reg,” “Cert”
or “Mil” in the Operator (OPR) section of the Canada Flight
Supplement (CFS). You can also find this information with the
NRC drone site selection tool at < https://cnrc.canada.ca/en/drone-
tool/ > or with the NAV Drone Viewer at < https://map.navdrone.
ca/>.
RPA pilots require the necessary qualifications and skills and
must follow the established procedures of airports and
heliports (CAR 901.73) and operate an RPA that has a manufacturer
safety assurance declaration for the type of operations and
distances from people (CAR 901.76(1)). The manufacturer’s
safety assurance declaration eligibility is written on the RPAS certificate of registration.
RPA pilots carrying out advanced operations without the
advanced RPA pilot certificate and necessary RPA manufacturer’s
safety declarations may receive individual penalties of up to
$1,000 and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.4.2 Pilot Requirements
3.4.2.1 Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) Pilot
Certificate
A pilot certificate—RPA (VLOS)—advanced operations is issued
by the Minister to pilots who have demonstrated that they are
at least 16 years of age and have successfully completed the RPAS
Advanced Operations examination and flight review
(CAR 901.64). The RPAS 101 guide has been developed in cooperation with TC and Aerial Evolution Association of
Canada (AEAC) to provide general knowledge to Canadian RPA
pilots: < https://www.aerialevolution.ca/wp-content/
uploads/2022/02/Nov-27-RPAS-101_EN-Final.pdf >.
A person younger than 16 years of age may conduct advanced operations if they are under the direct supervision of the holder of an advanced RPA pilot certificate (CAR 901.64(c)). A person
operating an RPAS as part of a flight review is exempt from
the requirement to hold an advanced pilot certificate
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPA(CAR 901.63(2)(b)) and can ask an ANSP for permission to
operate in controlled airspace with only a basic RPA pilot
certificate.
3.4.2.2 Recency Requirements
Holders of the advanced small RPA (VLOS) pilot certificate
must keep up their skills and knowledge by showing that they
have met the recency requirements (CAR 901.65) within the last
24 months. This involves being issued an advanced small RPA
(VLOS) pilot certificate (CAR 901.64) or successfully completing
a flight review (CAR 901.64(c)) or recurrent training activities
(section 921.04 of CAR Standard 921), including attendance at
a safety seminar or completion of a self-paced study program
endorsed by TCCA or of an advanced RPAS recurrent training
program that includes human factors, environmental factors,
route planning, operations near aerodromes/airports, and
applicable regulations, rules, and procedures. Certificate holders
can rewrite either RPAS exam to accomplish the recency
requirements, regardless of which certificate they have (advanced
RPA pilot certificate holders can write and pass the RPAS Basic Operations exam to accomplish the recency requirements).
The self-paced study program endorsed by TCCA is available
on the TC drone safety Web site: < https://tc.canada.ca/en/
aviation/drone-safety/getting-drone-pilot-certificate/remotely-
piloted-aircraft-system-rpas-recency-requirements-self-paced-
study-program >. The completed copy shall be retained by the
pilot and be easily accessible to them during the operation of an RPAS. The completed copy does not need to be sent to TC.
RPA pilots who fail to maintain recency but continue to operate
their RPA may receive individual penalties of up to $1,000
and/or corporate penalties of up to $5,000.
3.4.2.3 Access to Certificate and Proof of Currency
When operating an RPAS, the pilot must be able to easily access
both their advanced RPA pilot certificate (CAR 901.64) and
documentation demonstrating recency (CAR 901.65).
RPA pilots failing to demonstrate recency may be subject to
individual penalties of up to $1,000 and/or corporate penalties
of up to $5,000.
3.4.2.4 Examination Rules
It is not permitted to copy or remove all or any portion of the
RPAS examination, to help or accept help from any person during
the examination, or to complete any portion of the examination
on behalf of any other person (CAR 901.58). If a person fails the
examination or flight review they must wait at least 24 hours
before a retake (CAR 901.68).3.4.3 Manufacturer Declaration
Advanced operations require that the manufacturer of an RPA
provide the Minister with a safety assurance declaration (CAR 901.76) stating that it is intended for these advanced operations (CAR 901.69), has all necessary documentation
(CAR 901.78), and meets the technical requirements set out in
CAR Standard 922— RPAS Safety Assurance . The RPA eligibility
is written on the RPA’s certificate of registration.
Advisory Circular (AC) 922-001— RPAS Safety Assurance
provides a means (but not the only means) of compliance to the technical requirements in CAR Standard 922. AC 922-001 is a good place for RPAS manufacturers to start their due diligence with respect to compliance. AC 922-001 is available at < https://
tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/reference-centre/advisory-circulars >.
Manufacturers failing to maintain or demonstrate adherence
to these requirements may be subject to individual penalties of $3,000 and/or corporate penalties of $15,000.
3.4.4 Operations in Controlled Airspace
Operations in controlled airspace are advanced operations. Pilots
must have an advanced RPA pilot certificate (CAR 901.64) and
must use an RPAS that has been declared for the relevant operation
(CAR 901.69). The declaration states that the RPA has the required
positional accuracy of at least +/- 10 m laterally and +/- 16 m
altitude. The required accuracy for operations within controlled
airspace is identified for purposes of communication with other
users of the airspace (e.g. the control tower) in order to provide
a minimum confidence related to the altitude and position reports
from an RPA pilot (CAR Standard 922.04). This eligibility is
stipulated in 922.04.
This CAR Standard 922.04 eligibility is written on the RPA
certificate of registration. RPAS operated outside of the
manufacturer’s operational limitations (including but not limited
to wind, temperature or other operational limits and minimums)
are not considered to be within the declared capabilities of the RPAS and are not safe for flight (CAR 901.31).
The ANSP unit may approve the use of airspace above 400 ft AGL
only within the airspace under that unit’s jurisdiction, subject to all other provisions (CAR 901.71(2)).
The RPA pilot must communicate with the ANSP in the area of
operations in advance of the operations. A pilot may not operate
an RPA in controlled airspace unless he or she has received a
written RPAS Flight Authorization from the ANSP (CAR
901.71(1)). The pilot must then comply with all instructions given
by the ANSP (901.72).
An RPA flight authorization can be completed and obtained
using NAV Drone, NAV CANADA’s drone flight planning tool.
More information is available at < https://www.navcanada.ca/
en/flight-planning/drone-flight-planning.aspx>.The following information is required:
(a) the date, time, and duration of the operation;
(b) the category, registration number, and physical characteristics
of the aircraft;
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPA(c) the vertical and horizontal boundaries of the area of
operation;
(d) the route of the flight to access the area of operation;
(e) the proximity of the area of operation to traditional aircraft
approaches and departures and to patterns of traffic formed
by traditional aircraft;
(f) the means by which two-way communications with the
appropriate ATC unit will be maintained;
(g) the name, contact information, and pilot certificate number
of any pilot of the aircraft;
(h) the procedures and flight profiles to be followed in the case
of a lost command and control link;
(i) the procedures to be followed in emergency situations;
(j) the process and the time required to terminate the operation;
and
(k) any other information required by the ANSP that is necessary
for the provision of air traffic management.
3.4.5 Operations at or in the Vicinity of an Airport or Heliport—Established Procedure
This section is for advanced RPA pilots operating in advanced
environments, when the RPA is within 3 NM from the centre
of an airport or water airport and within 1 NM from the centre of a heliport, regardless of whether the RPA is in controlled or
uncontrolled airspace. Advanced RPA pilots in this situation
are required by CAR 901.73 to conduct their RPAS operations
in accordance with the established procedure. Please refer to the
NRC Drone Site Selection Tool, the NAV Drone Viewer, the CFS,
the CWAS, or VNCs for more information and the location of an airport, heliport, or water airport at or in the vicinity of an
RPAS operation. If a procedure is established for an airport,
heliport, or water aerodrome, it is published in the PRO section
of the current CFS for airports or heliports, or in the current
CWAS for water airports. Procedures may also be provided in
an ANSP RPA flight authorization notice for controlled airspace.
Below is the TC generic established procedure that should be
followed if there is none published or provided and when the
RPA pilot is operating in an advanced environment at or in the vicinity of an airport, heliport, or water airport.
(a) Always give way to traditional aircraft and keep the RPA
within VLOS (CARs 901.11, 901.17, and 901.18). See
subsection 3.2.1.1 of this chapter for information about
visual line-of-site (VLOS) and section 3.2.5 about right of way.
(b) Ensure that you have a pilot certificate—RPA (VLOS)—
advanced operations.
(c) Adhere to the CARs and respect the limits of the privileges
granted by the TC advanced RPA pilot certificate with
regards to Part IX.
(d) Prior to an advanced RPAS operation and as part of the site
survey required by CAR 901.27 , consult the CFS, CWAS,
VFR charts, Drone Site Selection Tool or NAV Drone Viewer
to research the airport, heliport or water airport where operations are to be conducted so that you understand the relevant information.
(e) When operating an RPA at or in the vicinity of an aerodrome,
water aerodrome, airport, or heliport, the RPA pilot should
contact the aerodrome operator to inform them of the RPAS
operation, regardless of whether the RPA is operated in
controlled or uncontrolled airspace. Please note that
aerodrome, water aerodrome, airport, and heliport operators
don’t have access to NAV Drone RPA flight authorization information.
(f) The RPA pilot should maintain a listening watch of the
applicable aerodrome traffic frequency found in the CFS
or on VNCs. Any person operating a VHF radio must hold
an ROC-A. TC AIM COM 1.0, NAV CANADA’s VFR
Phraseology Guide , and ISED’s study guide RIC-21 for the
ROC-A provide additional information on radiotelephony procedures.
Please note that aerodrome, water aerodrome, airport, and
heliport operators don’t have access to NAV Drone RPA flight authorization information. If you choose to operate your RPA in one of these areas and see traditional aircraft operating, it is recommended to land the RPA and reassess the situation. If you
notice regular aircraft activities at a location, it is recommended
to contact the airport operator to better understand the local
traffic circuit procedures and to coordinate your RPA operations.
Although aerodrome operators can prohibit someone from using
their premises, they cannot forbid the use of the airspace
surrounding an aerodrome, airport, or heliport. Airspace access
is regulated through the CARs, and any aircraft and pilot meeting
the requirements therein could use the airspace.
NOTE :
Under section 5.1 of the Aeronautics Act , only the Minister or
delegate can restrict access to airspace: < https://laws.justice.
gc.ca/eng/acts/A-2/page-4.html >.
3.4.6 Operations Near People
Operations near people (section 922.05 of CAR Standard 922)
are those less than 100 ft (30 m) but more than 16.4 ft (5 m)
horizontally from another person, except for the crew or people
involved in the RPAS operation. For these operations, the pilot must have an advanced RPA pilot certificate (CAR 901.64) and
must use an RPAS that has been declared for the relevant operation
(CAR 901.69).
This CAR Standard 922.05 eligibility is written on the RPA
certificate of registration. RPAS operated outside of the
manufacturer’s operational limitations (including but not limited
to wind, temperature or other operational limits and minimums)
are not considered to be within the declared capabilities of the RPAS and are not safe for flight (CAR 901.31).
3.4.7 Operations Over People
Operations that pose the highest risks when it comes to the
system reliability of the RPAS are those over people at less than 16.4 ft (5 m) (measured horizontally and at any altitude) from
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAanother person who is not included in the crew and is not involved
in the operation. For these operations, pilots must have an
advanced RPA pilot certificate (CAR 901.64) and the pilot must
use an RPAS that has been declared for the relevant operation
(CAR 901.69) required by CAR 901.76 and Standard 922.06,
confirming that no single failure of the RPAS may result in
severe injury to a person on the ground and that any combination
of failures of the RPAS which may result in severe injury to a
person on the ground must be shown to be remote. This CAR Standard 922.06 eligibility is written on the RPA certificate of registration.
RPA pilots equipped with parachute systems declared for
operations over people are responsible for ensuring they have
properly registered their RPA to reflect the operating environments
afforded by the parachute, and that the RPA is operated within
the published limitations from the manufacturer (including but
not limited to altitude, wind, temperature, or other operational
limits and minimums). For example, if the parachute manufacturer
has identified a minimum deployment altitude for their parachute
to function, it is the RPA pilot’s responsibility to ensure that
they abide by this operational limitation and fly above the
manufacturer’s stated altitude minimum. RPAs operated outside
of the manufacturer’s operational limitations are not considered
to be within the declared capabilities of the RPAS and are not safe for flight (CAR 901.31).
3.4.8 RPA Modification
Modifications to an RPAS that has a safety assurance declaration,
including the addition of add-on equipment, should be made in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations
(CAR 901.70). The integration of third-party add-on equipment,
changes to an RPAS structure or electrical systems (hardware
and software), or any other changes that are not within the
manufacturer’s specifications may constitute a modification to an RPAS. Modifications that do not impact the original RPAS Safety Assurance declaration and thus do not alter the declared
capabilities of the RPAS do not require notification to the
Minister. An RPAS must still be operated within the operating limits as defined by the RPAS manufacturer (CAR 901.31) who
made the RPAS Safety Assurance declaration. Modifications
that can affect the declared capabilities of the original RPAS,
add additional advanced operating capabilities, or have an adverse
effect on the safety or “airworthiness” of the original RPAS
require a new RPAS Safety Assurance declaration to the Minister
as a modified RPAS by the party making the modification.
It is the responsibility of the party making the modification or
adding equipment to evaluate whether there is an effect on the declared capabilities of that RPAS and that the RPAS remains
within the published specifications from the manufacturer. The
evaluation on the impact the modifications may have should
ensure that the modification or add-on equipment can be
integrated safely with existing systems and does not introduce new failure conditions not accounted for in the original design by the manufacturer. If the modification can affect the declared
capabilities of the original RPAS, or the party making the
modification does not possess the technical information on the
original design to properly conduct the evaluation, the RPAS manufacturer declaration is invalidated and the RPAS is limited
to operations in basic environments only, unless the RPAS
modifier makes a new safety assurance declaration. A modifier that makes a declaration for a modified RPAS takes on the same
regulatory responsibilities as a declared RPAS manufacturer
(CAR 901.76). AC 922-001— RPAS Safety Assurance serves as
guidance to the considerations that should be made for parties making safety assurance declarations.
The addition of a parachute system may constitute a modification
if its integration affects the ability of the RPAS to continue to
meet its declared capabilities, or it serves to add additional operating capabilities, such as operations over people. The
inclusion of a parachute on its own does not allow the RPA to
operate over people; rather, a safety assurance declaration for
operations over people is required (CAR Standard 922.06).
3.5 FLIGHT REVIEWERS
3.5.1 General
The flight review is an in-person, holistic operational assessment
of an RPA pilot’s skills. Flight reviews are conducted by qualified
flight reviewers who have undergone additional Transport Canada
testing and are monitored closely by both the self-declared RPAS
training organization with which they associate as well as
Transport Canada. In addition to confirming that advanced
category applicants have the CARs-required documentation—
pre-flight information (CAR 901.24), normal checklists,
emergency checklists, and site survey (CAR 901.27)—they are
also acting to validate the identity and knowledge of the candidate
as well as their operational and flight skills.
3.5.2 Pilot Requirements
3.5.2.1 Flight Reviewer Rating
Flight reviewers must meet and maintain several requirements
before they are able to qualify as flight reviewers. Flight reviewers
must be over 18, have a good record with respect to aviation,
and have no enforcement action against them, past or pending.
They are expected to read, understand, and comply with the
Flight Reviewer’s Guide for Pilots of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems 250 grams (g) up to and including 25 kilograms (kg ),
Operating within Visual Line-of-Sight (VLOS) (TP 15395) and
meet the knowledge requirements outlined in Knowledge
Requirements for Pilots of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems
250 g up to and including 25 kg, Operating within Visual Line-
of-Sight (VLOS) (TP 15263). They must successfully pass the
flight reviewer exam. Additionally, they must hold an advanced
RPA pilot certificate for at least six months before they are eligible
to receive the endorsement and must remain affiliated with a
TP 15263 self-declared RPAS training provider to exercise the privileges of their endorsement.
3.5.2.2 Examination
The flight reviewer exam is available in the Drone Management
Portal to advanced certificate holders with more than six months
of experience. The examination contains 30 questions, requires
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPAa mark of 80% to pass, and focuses on both advanced category
operations and flight review requirements. Once successful,
applicants pay a fee to have the flight reviewer endorsement
added to their pilot certificate. To exercise the privileges of a
flight reviewer, the reviewer must remain associated to at least
one TP 15263 self-declared RPAS training provider, though
multiple associations are also permitted.
3.5.3 Conduct of Flight Reviews
Flight reviews are conducted in-person at a site of the candidate’s
choosing. They can be conducted in controlled or uncontrolled
airspace, though the flight review itself is not exempt from
complying with Part IX of the CARs. The applicant must be able
to meet the requirements to operate the RPA within that airspace
with the exception of having the advanced RPA pilot certificate.
Prior to the flight review, the flight reviewer may assign the
candidate a realistic advanced RPA operational type of mission
(for planning purposes). This will be used during the ground
portion of the flight review to validate the candidate’s ability to
plan and execute an advanced RPA operation.
Only a small RPA (250 g to 25 kg) may be used to conduct a
flight review. Standard 921.06(1)(c)(i) states the RPA used for
the flight review must be registered under CAR 901.02: < https://
tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/acts-regulations/list-
regulations/canadian-aviation-regulations-sor-96-433/standards/
standard-921-small-remotely-piloted-aircraft-visual-line-sight-
vlos-canadian-aviation-regulations-cars >.
The flight review consists of both ground-based and flight
assessment items. If any of the eight assessed items are determined
to not meet the requirements or if the candidate displays unsafe
flying or behaviour, does not complete an appropriate site survey,
lacks training or competency, or does not use effective scanning
techniques, the flight review is marked a failure. Candidates
who have failed flight reviews may reattempt after 24 hours have
elapsed.
Following a successful flight review, the flight reviewer shall
enter the required information into the Drone Management
Portal within 24 hours. The successful candidate will then be
automatically notified via e-mail and routed to the Drone
Management Portal to pay for the issuance of the advanced RPA
pilot certificate.
3.6 SPECIAL FLIGHT OPERATIONS—RPAS
3.6.1 General
Not every operational consideration can be addressed through
regulation. This is particularly true in industries where technology
is rapidly evolving, such as the RPAS industry.
Subpart 3 of CARs Part IX allows the Minister to issue an SFOC—
RPAS to allow certain operations that are not covered by the
Part IX regulation. Operations possible under section 903.01 of the CARs include:
(a) RPAs with an operating weight greater than 25 kg;
(b) BVLOS operations;(c) foreign operators or pilots;
(d) operation at altitudes greater than 400 ft AGL;
(e) operation of more than 5 RPAs from a single control station;
(f) operation at a special aviation event or an advertised event;
(g) operations with restricted payloads;
(h) operations within 3 NM of an aerodrome operated under the authority of the Minister of National Defence; and
(i) any other operation determined by the Minister to require an SFOC.
3.6.2 Application for a Special Flight Operations Certificate
(SFOC)—Remotely Piloted
Aircraft System (RPAS)
Guidance to complete the application form for the issuance of an SFOC—RPAS (Form
26-0835E) < https://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/
Corp-Serv-Gen/5/forms-formulaires/download/26-0835_%20BO_PX > is available in AC
Application Guidelines for a Special Flight Operations Certificate
for a Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (SFOC—RPAS) available
at: <https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/reference-centre/advisory-
circulars/advisory-circular-ac-no-903-002 >.
More guidance as well as compliance checklists to complete and
provide with the application are available on TC’s drone safety
Web site at < https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/drone-safety/drone-
pilot-licensing/get-permission-special-drone-operations >.
The applicant shall submit the information required by
section 903.02 of the CARs via the SFOC—RPAS application
form (26-0835E). For reference:
PART A—PERSON RESPONSIBLE FOR THE RPAS
OPERATION: Name of the Accountable Executive and position,
or your name for an individual, also with email address and
phone number;
PART B—ADDRESS AND CONTACT INFORMATION OF
THE APPLICANT: Address of the individual or for a business
the headquarters of the registered business. Also enter the
applicant’s file number (9xxxxx) if you ever applied for an SFOC—
R PAS since 2019. Enter yes if this application is for a reissue of
an existing SFOC—RPAS with same supporting material;
PART C—LEGAL NAME INFORMATION OF THE
APPLICANT (for business only): The legal name of a corporation
can be a word name or a numbered name (for example:
12345678 Canada Inc.). The trade name is the name under which
you conduct your business. It is the name that shows on your
storefront and how most people would refer to your business.
Your trade name can be the same as your corporate name;
PART D—MEANS BY WHICH THE PERSON RESPONSIBLE
FOR THE OPERATION OR THE PILOT MAY BE CONTACTED
DIRECTLY DURING OPERATIONS: Email and cell phone
number to contact the responsible person or the pilot;
March 20, 2025 TC AIM
RPAPART E—TYPE OF SFOC—RPAS REQUESTED UNDER
CAR 903.01: For CARs 903.01(a), (b), (d), (e) and (g), provide
the SORA—SAIL as per AC 903-001— Remotely Piloted Aircraft
Systems Operational Risk Assessment or as per Appendix D
standard scenario. For Foreign Operator or Pilot SFOC—RPAS
application, provide if the intent is for conducting commercial air service, which means any use of aircraft for hire or reward as per Aeronautics Act
3(1) definition;
PART F—PURPOSE OF THE RPAS OPERATION: Provide
detailed descriptions of the operation in the supporting
documentation. For example, the concept of operations (CONOPS),
operational procedures site survey or the Specific Operational
Risk Assessment (SORA) for higher risk operation. Where an
RPAS will be used for multiple purposes, these purposes and
the associated risk assessments (as applicable) must all be detailed
in the SFOC—RPAS application material supporting
documentation;
(a) for CAR 903.01(c) foreign operators and (h) MND aerodrome,
write in this field: Canada;
(b) for CAR 903.01(e) more than 5 RPAs at one time and (f)
special aviation/advertised events, the SFOC—RPAS will
be site-specific: enter city address or latitude/longitude;
(c) more complex SFOC—RPAS issued for Canada-wide
operations are more complicated to process than site-specific
ones, will have additional requirements and longer
reviewing times and are not generally supported for initial applications; and
(d) for CAR 903.01(a) above 25 kg, (b) BVLOS, (d) above 400 ft
and (g) dangerous payload, enter either the city address,
latitude/longitude or Canada.
PART G—PROPOSED PERIOD OF RPAS OPERATIONS:
Planned start and end dates of RPAS operations up to a maximum
of the 1st day of the 13th month following the date of issuance;
Parts H, I and J—RPAS, RPA PILOTS, VISUAL OBSERVERS AND MAINTAINERS LIST: For a business, if there is no more space available on any of these three parts of the SFOC—RPAS
application form, it is not necessary to provide the entire lists
or to contact us when there are additions or changes. As per
CAR 901.48, RPAS owners shall keep records containing the
names of the pilots and other crew members who are involved in each flight, including visual observers and maintainers.
PART K—DECLARATION: The SFOC—RPAS application is
signed by the individual applicant or a representative from the company duly authorized to execute this form on behalf of the
applicant. For a company, this may or may not be the person
responsible for the RPAS operation—Accountable Executive.
All lower-risk SFOC—RPAS applications, including those under
CAR 903.01(c) foreign operators, (e) more than 5 RPAs from a
single control station and at more than 5 NM (9.3 km) of an
aerodrome or in uncontrolled airspace, (f) special aviation/
advertised events and (h) MND aerodrome, applicants don’t
need to provide an operational risk assessment.
For higher-risk SFOC—RPAS applications, including those
under CAR 903.01(a) RPA above 25 kg, (b) BVLOS, (d) above
400 ft, (e) more than 5 RPAs from a single control station and within 5 NM (9.3 km) of an aerodrome or in controlled airspace
and (g) dangerous payload, applicants are to complete an RPAS
Operational Risk Assessment (ORA) as specified in AC 903-001
and are to provide us the SAIL by the SFOC—RPAS application form. Look if AC
903-001— Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems
Operational Risk Assessment Appendix D – Standard Scenarios
could apply to the proposed higher risk operations.
AC 903-001— Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems Operational
Risk Assessment provides information and guidance to
manufacturers and operators intending to develop or operate
an RPAS for operations in accordance with the requirements of Part IX, Subpart 3 of the CARs.
AC 903-001 is available at < https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/
reference-centre/advisory-circulars >.
As per CAR 903.02, the SFOC—RPAS applicant is responsible
for submitting all required additional information to the Minister,
along with a duly completed copy of Form 26-0835E and a
compliance checklist (except for the foreign pilot SFOC request)
at least 30 working days before the date of the proposed operation.
Compliance Checklists may be updated from time to time and may not conform to the requirements at the time of processing the SFOC—RPAS. The most recent and applicable Compliance
Checklists are available on the TC drone safety Web site
at <https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/drone-safety/drone-pilot-
licensing/get-permission-special-drone-operations >.
Complete and accepted SFOC applications will be processed
in the order they are received. SFOC applications received
within less than 30 working days from the operation date
will not be accepted, but if the requested window is for a longer
term, the SFOC—RPAS application will be accepted. It may
take up to 60 working days to process an SFOC—RPAS for
higher-risk operations.
NOTE :
Addi tional information can be requested based on the type of
SFOC—RPAS you are applying for and based on the quality of
the supporting documentation provided. Delays thus incurred are the sole responsibility of the applicant.
TC AIM March 20, 2025RPAProc essing times can be longer depending on the complexity of
the RPAS operation and completeness of the application, like
for operations under CAR 903.01(a), (b), (d) and (g). For any
application under CAR 903.01(a) above 25 kg and (b) BLVOS,
a manufacturer safety assurance declaration shall be submitted
for all operations requiring an RPAS ORA which yielded a
SAIL III or higher, or for any other application if required to
address containment objectives. SFOC—RPAS applications for
CAR 903.01(a) above 25 kg without a manufacturer safety
assurance declaration will not be accepted.
Addi tionally, BVLOS applications shall include an acceptable
means to detect and avoid (DAA) other traditional aircraft,
based on performance objectives specified in AC 903-001—
Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems Operational Risk Assessment .
SFOC—RPAS applications for CAR 903.01(b) BVLOS without
an acceptable means of DAA will not be accepted.
All the above-mentioned documents and requested information
shall be provided at the time the application is submitted for
review. The application will only be deemed accepted once all
the information has been received by the TCCA RPAS Centre
of Expertise (RCE) office. Once a complete SFOC—RPAS
application is accepted, the applicant will be informed via a
TCCA RCE office email. SFOC—RPAS applications with
an end date of less than 30 working days in the future will not
be accepted.
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