← The Saudi aviation reference, in one place.
AC 61-98D - Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check
Reproduced for study. Always verify against the official GACAR at gaca.gov.sa.
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration Advisory
Circular
Subject: Currency Requirements and
Guidance for the Flight Review and
Instrument Proficiency Check Date: 4/30/18 AC No: 61-98D
Initiated by: AFS-800 Change:
This advisory circular (AC) provides information for certificated pilots and flight instructors
to use in complying with the flight review required by Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) part 61, § 61.56 and the recent flight experience requirements of § 61.57 .
This AC is directed to General Aviation (GA) pilots and flight instructors.
This AC does not apply to training programs or proficiency checks conducted pursuant
to 14 CFR part 121 or 135, nor to curriculu ms approved pursuant to 14 CFR part 142. Full flight
simulators (FFS) and flight training devices (FTD) may not be used for logging airman
experience or for any training, checking, or qualification credit unless qualified and approved by
the Administrator (§ 61.4). Additionally, a flight review cannot be accomplished in an FFS or
FTD unless it is used in accordance with an approved course conducted by a training center
certificated under part 142 (§ 61.56(i)(1) ).
John S. Duncan
Executive Director, Flight Standa rds Service
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
ii CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
Chapter 1. General ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 1-1
1.1 Purpose of This Advisory Circular (AC) ................................ ................................ ... 1-1
1.2 Audience ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 1-1
1.3 Where You Can Find This AC ................................ ................................ ................... 1-1
1.4 What This AC Cancels ................................ ................................ ............................... 1-1
1.5 Related 14 CFR Sections ................................ ................................ ........................... 1-1
1.6 Related Reading Mater ial ................................ ................................ .......................... 1-1
1.7 Background ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 1-2
1.8 FAA Aviation English Language Standard (AELS) ................................ .................. 1-3
1.9 Personal Curr ency Program ................................ ................................ ....................... 1-4
1.10 Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application ................................ ........................... 1-5
1.11 AC Feedback Form ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 1-5
Chapter 2. Reducing General Aviation Accidents ................................ ................................ ....... 2-1
2.1 General Aviation (GA) Accidents ................................ ................................ ............. 2-1
2.2 Manual Flight After Automation Failure ................................ ................................ . 2-4
2.3 Runway Incursion Risks and Avoidance ................................ ................................ ... 2-6
2.4 Flight Instructor Responsibility and Safety Culture ................................ ................ 2-11
Chapter 3. Recent Flight Experi ence ................................ ................................ ........................... 3-1
3.1 Recent General Experience ................................ ................................ ........................ 3-1
3.2 Recent Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Experience ................................ ..................... 3-2
Chapter 4. Flight Review ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 4-1
4.1 Intent and Structure of the Flight Review ................................ ................................ .. 4-1
4.2 Pre-Review Considerations ................................ ................................ ........................ 4-3
4.3 Planning and Recording the Review ................................ ................................ .......... 4-5
4.4 Postreview Considerations ................................ ................................ ......................... 4-7
Chapter 5. Instrument Proficiency Check ................................ ................................ .................... 5-1
5.1 Structuring an Ins trument Proficiency Check (IPC) ................................ .................. 5-1
5.2 IPC Knowledge Portion ................................ ................................ ............................. 5-2
5.3 IPC Skill Portion ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 5-3
5.4 Post-IPC Considerations and Recordkeeping ................................ ............................ 5-4
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
iii Appendix A. Resources ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. A-1
Appendix B. Sample Airplane Pilot’s Proficiency Practice Plan ................................ ................ B-1
Appendix C. Sample Pilot’s Personal Aeronautical Goals ................................ .......................... C-1
Appendix D. Sample Flight Instructor ’s Flight Review Checkl ist ................................ ............. D-1
Appendix E. Regulatory Review Guide ................................ ................................ ....................... E-1
Appendix F. Sample Flight Review Checklist ................................ ................................ ............. F-1
Appendix G. Sample Pilot’s Instrument Experience Summary ................................ .................. G-1
Appendix H. Sample Instrument Training and Proficien cy Plan ................................ ............... H-1
Appendix J. Sample Flight Instructor’s Instrument Proficiency Check Checklist ....................... J-1
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
1-1 CHAPTER 1. GENERAL
1.1 Purpose of This Advisory Circular (AC) . This AC provides information to assist
General Aviation (GA) pilots , flight instr uctors, and ground instructors in complying with
the flight reviews required by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
part 61, § 61.56 and the instrument proficiency check (IPC)/ recent flight experience
requirements of § 61.57 . Additionally, this AC provides c ritical information to enhance
GA safety .
1.2 Audience. The primary audience for this AC is GA pilots, flight instructors, and ground
instructors. The secondary audience includes flight schools, collegiate aeronautical
institutions , and stakeholders supportin g GA pilot safety and training.
1.3 Where You Can Find This AC. You can find this AC on the Federal Aviation
Administration’s (FAA) website
at http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/adv isory_circulars .
1.4 What This AC Cancels . AC 61-98C, Currency Requirements and Guidance for the
Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check , dated November 20 , 2015 , is canceled.
1.5 Related 14 CFR Sections :
• Section 61.189 , Flight Instructor Records.
• Section 61.193 , Flight Instructor Privileges.
• Section 61.195 , Flight Instructor Limitations and Qualifications .
• Section 61.413 , What Are the Privileges of My Flight Instructor Certificate with
a Sport Pilot Rating?
• Section 61.415 , What Are the Limits of a Flight Instructor Certificate with a Sport Pilot
Rating?
1.6 Related Reading Mater ial. Flight instructors and airmen under review should reference
practical test standards (PTS) or Airman Certification Standards (ACS) docu ments
appropriate to t he certificates and ratings held by the pilot seeking a flight review or IPC
prior to the review. You can find additional infor mation in:
1. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), official guide to basic flight
information and air traffic control (ATC) procedures.
2. FAA Handbo oks:
• FAA -H-8083 -3, Airplane Flying Handbook.
• FAA -H-8083 -15, Instrument Flying Handbook .
• FAA -H-8083 -16, Instrument Procedures Handbook .
• FAA -H-8083 -25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
1-2 3. Information for Operators (InFO) 15012 , Logging Instrument Approach
Procedures (IAP), September 8, 2015.
4. FAA ACs (current editions):
• AC 60-28, FAA English Language Standard for an FAA Certificate Issued Under
14 CFR Parts 61, 63, 65, and 107 .
• AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots an d Flight and Ground Instructors.
• AC 61-89, Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings (guidance on advanced training
criteria, pilot certificates, and aircraft type ratings may also be appropriate if the
aircraft bei ng used requires a type rating).
• AC 61-136, FAA Approval of Aviation Training Devices and Their Use for
Training and Experience.
• AC 91-73, Parts 91 and 135 Single Pilot, Flight School Procedures During Taxi
Operations .
5. The FAA, commercial sources, and industry associations such as the Aircraft
Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), the Experimental Aircraft
Association (EAA), the General Aviation Manufacturers Association
(GAMA), and the Society of Aviation and Flight Educators (SAFE) make
many additional sources of media on pilot currency and qualification
available.
1.7 Background .
1.7.1 Regulatory Revie w. In 1997, the FAA initiated a major regulat ory review and update
of 14 CFR parts 61 and 141 to ensure that these regulations confo rmed to the then -current
technological and operational environ ment and to address future pilot certification needs.
This version of AC 61 -98 addresses changes in technology and the operational
environment, and their impact on recurrent training and proficiency checks. Edits t o this
AC, since the original version, have expanded the scope to include recent flight
experience and IPCs .
Note: The FAA no longer uses the term “Biennial Flight Review. ” This term
implied that pilots only needed currency training once every 24 calendar -months.
The FAA encourages currency training as often as appropriate to a pilot’s
individual needs. Consequently, the FAA now uses the term “Flight Review. ”
1.7.2 GA Pilots . The FAA supports initiatives designed to encourage volunt ary compliance
with existing re gulations and to maintain and furth er improve the GA safety record with
a minimum of new regulations. As a result, the FAA has deter mined that updated
advisory guidance is necessary with respect to t he currency, proficiency, and
qualification needs of GA pilots. The guidance contained in this version of AC 61 -98
provides such info rmation and acco mplishes t he goals of the personal currency program,
flight re view, and IPC.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
1-3 1.7.3 Reducing GA Accidents . The FAA added important General Aviation Joint Steering
Committe e (GAJSC) findings and recommendations to AC 61 -98 pertaining
to GA accidents (see paragraph 2.1).
1. GA pilots should become aware of this information and apply it to their
personal currency program plans of action .
2. Flight instructors should apply this information to their training and evaluation
plans of action .
1.8 FAA Aviation English Language Standard (AELS) .
1.8.1 FAA Regulatory English Language Eligibility Requirements . AELS directly affects flight
safety. Regulations req uire pilots to meet and maintain English language skill
requirements for all grades of pilot certificates issued under part 61. When a flight
instructor conducts a flight evaluation and/or flight training event , the flight instructor
should identify any pi lot who does not meet English language skill requirements and take
appropriate action. Finally, all training, checking, or evaluation will be conducted in
English. AC 60-28 provides information and guidance regarding English language
standards required by part 61.
1.8.2 Flight Instructor Evaluation . The IPC and the flight review are both evaluations of
a pilot’s ability to conduct a safe flight. Safety -related issues concerning language
barriers to communications may arise if a pilot does not meet FAA English language skill
standards. A flight instruct or should continually evaluate the pilot’s English language
skills during any flight evaluation or training event that he or she conducts and endorse
the individual ’s training record or log book in English for the training and endorsement
provided .
1.8.3 Flight I nstructor Determination . A flight instructor conducting a flight review or IPC
should not endorse the evaluation as satisfactorily completed if he or she determines that
the pilot under review does not me et FAA English language skill standards. When a pilot
has not accomplished a flight review satisfactorily, the evaluating instructor should
endorse the pilot’s logbook to indicate only the training received (as is the case with any
unsuccessful flight review). There is no provis ion in the regulation for the failure of
a flight review; therefore , there should be no logbook endorsement reflecting a failure.
In the event the flight review is not successful, due to the flight instructor ’s doubt that the
pilot under review meets FAA English language skill requirements, the flight instructor
should provide a logbook entry for training received, advise the pilot of the flight
instructor ’s finding, and notify his or her responsible Flight Standards office for further
action. See paragraph 1.8.4 for additional flight instructor actions.
1.8.4 Responsible Flight Standards Office Evaluation . Although the FAA expects fl ight
instructors to be aware of and follow the guidelines provided in AC 60 -28, the FAA
does not expect flight instructor s to be responsible for a conclusive evaluation of an
airman’s ability to meet the FAA AELS . Only an FAA aviation safety inspector (ASI)
can determine if an applicant, student, or certificated pilot meets the FAA regulatory
English language eligibility requ irements. However, i f a flight instructor questions the
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
1-4 ability of the airman under training or evaluation to read, speak, write, and understand the
English language at a level that meets FAA English language standards, then that flight
instructor must refer the airm an to the responsible Flight Standards office for evaluation
by an FAA ASI. Thus, t he FAA ASI will make the determination. The flight instructor
should also provide the airman’s contact information to the responsible Flight Standards
office .
1.9 Personal Curr ency Program.
1.9.1 Currency Criteria . Pilots should design a currency program tailored to their individual
operating environments and needs , which should emphasize proficiency beyond the
minimum currency requirements . In most cases, pilots may inte grate currency criteria
with normal operations to reduce the need for separate currency flights. For example,
pilots could incorporate additional takeoffs and landings , instrument approach procedures
(IAP) , or specialized takeoffs and landings , such as sho rt or soft field , into a planned
flight. In most cases, pilots should consider the need for currency beyond that specified
by 14 CFR.
1.9.2 The FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam) . The FAA strongly encourages pilots to participate
in the FAAST eam’s Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS), which includes nu merous
forms of training media such as online progra ms and recomm ended topics for pilots
to review with flight instructor s. Additionally, the FAASTeam conducts safety seminars,
which are open to the public. You can find the FAASTeam website at
https://www.faasafety.gov/ .
1.9.3 Aviation Publications and Commercially Developed Materials . Pilots should also explore
the wide range of publ ications and other commercially develo ped materials available for
use in personal currency progra ms. To ensure s taying up to date in regu latory changes
and flying techniq ues, the FAA also encourages pilots to read aviation periodicals
on a regular basis.
1.9.4 Additional Sources for Developing a Per sonal Currency Program . For assistance
in developing a personal currency progra m, pilots may consult a wide variety of sources.
These sources includ e:
• Pilot e xaminers,
• Pilot sch ools,
• Individual flight instructor s,
• FAASTe am Program Managers, and
• FAASTe am representatives.
Note: For information on local sources, pilots should contact their FAASTeam
Program Manager at the responsible Flight Standards office . You can find your
responsible FAASTeam Program Manager in the FAASTeam Online Directory at
https://faasafety.gov/FAASTApp/directory/default.aspx . You can find your
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
1-5 responsible Flight Standards office at http://www.faa.gov/ about/office_org/
field_offices/fsdo/ . You can find FAASTeam activities, courses, seminars , and
webinars, plus other free FAA resources , at http://www.faasafety.gov/ .
1.10 Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application.
1.10.1 Revised Airman Application Form . The FAA frequently updates FAA Form 8710 -1,
Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application, to meet the needs of the airm an
certification process and the aviation community. Flight instructor s, pilots, and
stakeholders should note that the latest FAA Form 8710 -1 contains enhancements that
include a new field for a flight review and another for IPC.
1.10.2 Flight Review and IPC . When a pilot satisfactorily completes a flight review or IPC, the
applicant should provide, and the evaluating flight instructor should submit, a completed
FAA Form 8710 -1 to the Airmen Certification Branch (AF B-720). The FAA does not
require FAA Form 8710 -1 for a pilot’s flight review or IPC; however, the FAA strongly
encourages all applicants and flight instructor s to follow this recommendation. When
submitted, AFB -720 will add the application to the pilot’s FAA record. Pilots should
ensure that their data is current , because up -to-date records benefit everyone.
For example, a pilot’s total flight time and aeronautical experience determines insurance
premiums. If a pilot loses his or her logbook, an FAA record is on file and available.
Nevertheless, submitting FAA Form 8710 -1 for a flight review or IPC is optional.
1.10.3 Preferred Method . The preferred method for submitting an Airman Certificate and/or
Rating Application is through the Integrated Airman Certification and /or Rating
Application (IACRA) system. IACRA is the web-based certification/rating application
that guides the user through the FAA’s airman application process. IACRA validates
data. It also uses electronic signatures to protect the information’s integrity a nd
eliminates paper forms.
• You can find IACRA at https://iacra.faa.gov/IACRA .
• You can find FAA Form 8710 -1 at http://www.faa.gov/forms/ .
1.11 AC Feedback Form. For your conven ience, the AC Feedback Form is the last page
of this AC. Note any deficiencies found, clarifications needed, or suggested
improvements regarding the contents of this AC on the Feedback Form.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-1 CHAPTER 2. REDUCING GENERAL AVIA TION ACCIDENTS
2.1 General Aviation (GA) Accidents. The General Aviation Joint Steering Committee
(GAJSC) is the primary vehicle for governme nt–industry cooperation, communication,
and coordination on GA accident reduction. GAJSC findings r eveal common pilot errors,
while GAJSC recommendations provide mitigation strategies to reduce GA fatalities.
Pilots and flight instructors should apply GAJSC findings and recommendations to their
plans of action as they pertain to personal currency progra ms, pilot proficiency training,
flight reviews, and instrument proficiency checks (IPC). For these reasons, the FAA
encourages pilots and flight instructor s to keep informed on GAJSC findings and
recommendations. You can find additional inform ation about t he GAJSC online at
http://www.gajsc.org/ .
2.1.1 Loss of Control (LOC) . The GAJSC cites LOC as one of the six most critical and
common causes of GA accidents. Further, LOC was the number one cause
of GA fatalities from 2001 through 2010. LOC refers to aircraft accidents that result from
situations in which a pilot should have maintained (or should have regained) aircraft
control, but failed to do so. In some cases, training accidents occurred because the pilots
were not in agreement as to who should be manipulating the flight controls.
A recommended three -step process of exchange includes a verbal handoff from the pilot
flying, verbal acceptance by the pilot taking over, and a verbal and visual confirmatio n
that the exchange has taken place by the pilot relinquishing control. This procedure
should be briefed before flight , and include a method to relinquish and take control of the
aircraft when normal communications are not possible (e.g., tandem cockpit in terphone
failure or wind noise). Pilots and f light instructors are encouraged to practice and use
aircraft control handoff procedures on every instructional flight . In addition, flight
instructors need to maintain diligence while providing instruction. A f light instructor
should always be in a position to take over control of the aircraft when doubt exists as to
the safe outcome of any maneuver. The FAA reminds pilots and flight instructor s to
regularly evaluate (and elevate) procedures and skills to avoid, recognize, and recover
from emergencies such as LOC.
Note: Future updates to this AC may address other causes of GA accidents,
including aeronautical decision -making (ADM), weather, controlled flight into
terrain (CFIT), and system failure.
2.1.2 Pilot Proficiency . Studies have shown that LOC usually occurs when pilots lack
proficiency. Conditions exceeding personal skill limitations can present themselves
at any time and can occur unexpectedly . In this event, the pilot should be able to avoid
being startled, make app ropriate decisions in a timely manner, and be able to exercise
skills at a proficiency level he or she may not have maintained or attained since acquired
during initial training. This makes personal currency programs and proficiency training
essential . Personal currency programs serve to develop and maintain pilot proficiency by
promoting attributes such as aeronautical knowledge, aeronautical skill, and ADM. These
attributes collectively determine the degree of aeronautical ability a pilot possesses.
Highly proficient p ilots are better able to avoid or manag e an in -flight emergency in
a safe and efficient manner . Consequently, t he GAJSC recommends that pilots place
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-2 emphasis on their specific proficiency needs by including training that may exceed
regul atory minimum currency requirements.
2.1.3 Traffic Pattern Operations .
2.1.3.1 LOC accidents often occur while pilots are maneuvering at low altitude and
airspeed, such as in an airport traffic pattern. Pilots should adopt, and flight
instructor s should promote, training programs designed to reduce the risk of
GA accidents in traffic pattern operations. Flight instructor s should provide
training to mitigate the three areas of highest risk involving maneuvering an
airplane in an airport traffic pa ttern. The first area is the risk of a departure
stall; the second area is the risk of LOC if attempting to return to the field
after an engine failure on takeoff; and the third area is the risk of LOC on the
base to final turn.
2.1.3.2 Flight instructor s should e mphasize training that ensures that pilots of small
single -engine air planes depart in coordinated flight at the best -rate-of-climb
speed (V Y) for normal takeoffs, and maintain this speed to the altitude
necessary for a safe return to the airport in the eve nt of an emergency. Flight
instructor s should train pilots of single -engine airplanes not to return to the
field after an engine failure unless altitude and best glide requirements permit.
Accordingly, flight instructor s should provide training that emphasizes the
correct speeds at which light twin -piston aircraft depart the runway. Flight
instructors should emphasize that a departure at the best-angle -of-climb speed
(VX) is used for obstacle clearance and short -field takeoff procedures.
2.1.3.3 Flight instru ctors should also emphasize the risks and potential consequences
of climbing out at speeds less or greater than what is required for a particular
type of takeoff. Flight instructors should train pilots of single -engine airplanes
not to return to the field after an engine failure unless altitude and best glide
requirements permit a safe return. Therefore, flight instructors should not
routinely train pilots to make a 180 -degree turn from a simulated engine
failure while climbing. However, this training shoul d occur at a safe altitude.
A critical part of conducting this training is for the flight instructor to be fully
aware of the need for diligence, the need to perform this maneuver properly,
and to avoid any potential for an accelerated stall in the turn. I t is essential for
a pilot to know the altitude that will be lost in a 180 -degree turn, in the
specific make and model (M/M) flown, if and when a pilot considers turning
back to the departure airport a t best glide. During the before -takeoff check, the
expe cted loss of altitude in the turn, plus a sufficient safety factor, should be
related to the absolute altitude at which a turnback may be attempted.
In addition, the effect of existing winds on th e preferred direction of
a turnback should be briefed.
2.1.3.4 Fligh t instructor s should also teach pilots to reject an approach and initiate
a go-around when the pilot cannot maintain a stabilized approach. The GAJSC
recommends that pilots and flight instructor s emphasize stabilized approach
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-3 and landing proficiency and co nduct stabilized approaches as a standard
practice. Flight reviews and IPCs should emphasize evaluating a pilot’s ADM,
departure skills, and ability to establish and maintain a stabilized approach and
landing, while applying effective crosswind techniques to avoid the risk of
LOC when maneuvering in an airport traffic pattern. Effective scenario -based
training , emphasizing ADM, departures, and establishing and maintaining
a stabilized approach to a landing , reduces the risk of LOC in an airport traffic
pattern. Many of the principles discussed in this paragraph apply to
multiengine aircr aft, but do not apply to single -engine operations in the
multiengine airplane. Flight instructors should emphasize the cor rect speeds at
which light twin -piston aircraft are operated in the traffic pattern and provide
training i n response to an engine failure in a variety of situations.
2.1.4 Criteria for Stabilized Approaches Conducted in GA Airplanes . Under most
circumstances, the airplane should be stabilized by 1,000 feet above airport elevation
in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) and by 500 feet above airport elevation
during straight -in approaches in visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Pilots should
monitor at lea st seven major elements that define a stabilized approach in a GA airplane.
The FAA considers an approach to touchdown to be stabilized when the airplane meets
all of the following criteria, with only minor deviations :
2.1.4.1 Glide path . The ai rplane is on the cor rect flightpath. Typically, the glide path
is 3 degrees to the runway touchdown zone (TDZ) (obstructions permitting).
2.1.4.2 Heading. The airplane is tracking the extended centerline to the runway with
only minor heading/pitch changes necessary to correct for wind or turbulence
to maintain alignment. Bank angle should not exceed 15 degrees on final
approach .
2.1.4.3 Airspeed. The pilot maintains a constant target airspeed within +10/ -5 knots
indicated airspeed (KIAS), which is usually at, but no lower than, the
recommended landing speed specified in the pilot’s operating handbook
(POH)/ Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), approved placards/markings, or
1.3 times the stall speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane
is controllable in the landing configuration (VSO), if not specified .
Note: Most small airplanes maintain a speed well in excess
of 1.3 times V SO on an instrument approach (pilot ’s discretion).
An airplane with a VSO of 50 knots has a normal approach speed of
65 knots. However, this same airplane may maintain 90 knots
(1.8 VSO) while on the final segment of an instrument approach. Pilots
generally select an appropriate approach speed for the prevailing
weather, aircraft, traffic, and performance conditions, but not less than
1.3 VSO. However, aircraft are usually slowed to a normal landing
speed when on the final approach just prior to landing. Refer to the
FAA Instrument Flying Handbook ( FAA -H-8083 -15), Chapter 4,
Aerodynamic Factors, page 4 -9, paragraph titled Small Airplanes .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-4 2.1.4.4 Configuration. The airplane is in the correct landing configuration with flaps
as required, landing gear extended, and the airplane in trim.
2.1.4.5 Rate of Descent. Descent rate is a constant and generally no greater tha n
500 feet per minute (fpm). If a descent greater than 500 fpm is required due
to approach considerations, it should be reduced prior to 300 feet above
ground level (AGL) and well before the landing f lare and touchdown phase.
2.1.4.6 Power Setting. Power setting is appropriate for the airplane configuration and
is not below the minimum power for approach as defined by the POH/AFM.
2.1.4.7 Checklists/Briefings. All briefings and checklists (except the landing
checklist ) are completed prior to initiating the approach.
Note: For a typical GA piston airplane in a traffic pattern, if the
approach becomes unstabilized below 300 feet AGL, the pilot should
initiate an immediate go -around.
2.1.5 IMC . Another area where pilots have experien ced LOC is while maneuvering in IMC.
Vertigo or spatial disorientation has been a significant factor in many aircraft accident s.
The common result when a noninstrument -rated pilot inadvertently continues flight into
IMC is spatial disorientation of the pil ot and LOC. Pilots who are instrument rated, but
not instrument proficient, are also susceptible. Recovery from LOC in IMC can be nearly
impossible without skills and competency. Additionally, instrument -rated pilots
maneuvering in IMC who fail to prioriti ze pilot workload properly and use Crew
Resource Management (CRM) or Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM) may
become inattentive or distracted and lose situational awareness (SA) , which too often can
lead to LOC. The GAJSC determined that pilots and flight instructor s need to emphasize
effective preflight pl anning and pilot proficiency to reduce the risk of LOC in IMC.
Note: LOC is not limited to the examples provided above. Other examples
of areas where pilots have experienced LOC include environmentally induc ed
aircraft upsets, system malfunction/failure -induced upsets, and exceeding
personal skills.
2.2 Manual Flight After Automation Failure. Pilots and aircraft owners have taken
advantage of modern avionics and flight automation equipment. “Glass cockpits ” are
available for virtually every new aircraft, as well as for many legacy and experimental
aircraft. Global Positioning Systems (GPS), positioning on a moving map, real -time
weather, terrain/traffic awareness, and modern autopilots have made a significan t
presence in the GA fleet. Pilots also employ handheld equipment not installed in the
aircraft much more frequently than in the past. This equipment can make flight operations
safer and help avoid LOC situations; however, pilots should be proficient in al l
automation tools and know the system limitations. The FAA reminds flight instructor s
conducting flight reviews and IPCs to ensure that a pilot under evaluation is proficient
with the automated system and knows what to do if it fails.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-5 2.2.1 Pilot Knowledge . Pilots should learn their aircraft’s systems, limits, and recommended
procedures before a pilot can fly the aircraft safely. This is especially important for
technically advanced aircraft (TAA) equipped with the automated avionics described
in paragraph 2.2 or flight automation systems (e.g., flight management system (FMS)
or coupled autopilot). The FAA strongly recommends that a pilot receive a thorough
evaluation from a qualified instructor with experience in the autom ation equipped in the
specific aircraft M/M flown.
2.2.2 Reliance on Automation . Overreliance on automation or automated flight systems has
resulted in accidents. A 2010 National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) safety study
concluded that glass cockpit aircra ft (TAA) experience a lower total accident rate, but
a higher fatal accident rate, than the same type of aircraft equipped with conventional
analog instrumentation. ( Refer to http://www.ntsb.gov/safety/safety -studies/
Documents/SS1001.pdf .) The NTSB study also reported, “Even before electronic
displays became common, anecdotal reports from flight crews, as well as findings from
accidents and research, revealed potential problems if pilots relied too heavily
on automated systems or if they misunderstood automated system behavior” (page 6).
Automation can lull some pilots into complacency. Furthermore, automation bias
presented a new breed of accident by creating the potential to erode a complacent pilot’s
manual flight skills. Automation bias refers to the willingness of the pilot to trust and
utilize automated systems while feeling that th e automation is more capable than the
pilot. This perception may result in passive automation management (commonly referred
to as “set and go”). Eroded skills can degrade the pilot’s ability to recognize potential
system issues and avoid or recover from LO C. The FAA strongly recommends that pilots
who fly aircraft with automated flight systems manually control the aircraft at times
to maintain manual flying skills. Pilots should actively manage automation by making
use of all systems ; cross -referencing data provided by the various systems ; and
monitoring and managing flight progress such as waypoints or checkpoints. Active
automation management ensures enhanced SA while providing the opportunity for quick
identification of automation failure.
2.2.3 Proficiency in Manual Aircraft Control . Pilots should be proficient in manual aircraft
control and should be able to operate the aircraft without the use of the aircraft’s
automation. Advanced avionics and flight automation offer many levels of automation.
Pilots need to understand that no one level of automation is appropriate for all flight
situations. If a flight automation system failure occurs, in whole or in part, the pilot
should possess the knowledge to address the situation. This may include isolating the
defecti ve components and/or manually flying the aircraft. In any event, manual flight
may be necessary to ensure positive control of the aircraft while the pilot identifies
problems and determines an appropriate course of action. All flight reviews conducted
in aircraft equipped with automation should include training in manual aircraft control.
In this case, the flight instructor should simulate failures of critical components of
automation through safe and practical means. The instructor should never actually re nder
an automated system inoperative, such as turning off switches or disengaging circuit
breakers. For example, a flight instructor can simulate an automation failure simply by
disengaging an integrated autopilot on an approach. The FAA strongly recommend s that
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-6 pilots and flight instructor s strive for proficiency in manual aircraft control to mitigate the
risk of loss of aircraft control.
2.3 Runway Incursion Risks and Avoidance. Runway incursions, like other pilot
deviations (PD) , are usually due to pilot err or. GA pilots are responsible for the largest
percent of PDs in our National Airspace System (NAS). PDs occur in flight and on the
ground. Airborne deviations include occurrences that result when a pilot does not
maintain an assigned heading, altitude, or instrument procedure while conducting flight
operations under an air traffic control (ATC) clearance, or when a pilot penetrates
airspace requiring an ATC clearance without having received one. Ground deviations
include taxiing, taking off or landing witho ut clearance, not maintaining an assigned taxi
route, and failing to hold short of an assigned clearance limit.1 Although pilot airborne
and ground deviations are avoidabl e, GA PDs continue to be the largest cause of runway
incursions. Preventing runway in cursions is one of the FAA ’s top priorities.2 Flight
instructors should also provide training to GA pilots to mitigate wrong surface landing
incidents. Recently, the FAA Air Traffic Organization (ATO) has advised of an increase
in wrong surface landings in the NAS. For more information , please refer to Safety Alert
for Operators (SAFO ) 17010 , Incorrect Airport Surface Approaches and Landings.
To understand and mitigate the risk o f a runway incursion, GA pilots and flight
instructor s should become familiar with the following information.
2.3.1 Definition . The FAA formally defines a runway incursion as “any occurrence
at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicl e, or person on the
protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take off of aircraft.”3 The FAA
divides runway incursions into three incident (human error) types:
2.3.1.1 Pilot Deviation ( PD). A PD is an action by a pilot that violates FAA
regulations, such as taxiing an airplane on a runway or taxiway without
authorization from ATC.
2.3.1.2 Operational Incidents (OI) . An OI is an action by an air traffic controller
that results in either less than the required minimum separation between
two or more aircraft, or between an aircraft and obstacles ( e.g., vehicles
or people); or an aircraft landing or departing on a closed runway.
2.3.1.3 Vehicle or Pedestrian Deviations (V/PD) . A V/PD is a pedestrian or vehicle
entering any portion of the airport movement areas (runways or taxiways)
without authorization from ATC.
1 GAJSC Safety Enhancement Topic, Avoiding Pilot Deviations, September 2014:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2014/media/SE_Topic_09_2014.pdf .
2 FAA, Reducing Runway Incursions: Guidance for Airports : http://www.faa.gov/airports/airport_safety/
call_to_action/ .
3 FAA, Runway Safety: Runway Incursions: https://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/news/runway_incursions/ .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-7 2.3.2 Categories . There are four categories of runway incursions:
1. Categor y A is a serious incident in which the pilot barely avoided a collision.
2. Category B is an incident in which separation decreases and there
is a significant potential for collision, which may result in a time -critical
evasive response to avoid a collision.
3. Category C is an incident characterized by ample time and/or distance
to avoid a collision.
4. Category D is an incident that meets the definition of runway incursion ,
such as the incorrect presence of a single vehicle , person , or aircraft on the
protected ar ea of a surface desi gnated for the landing and take off of aircraft ,
but with no immediate safety consequences.
2.3.3 Background . PDs were responsible for 63 percent of runway incursions in fiscal year
(FY) 2012. GA pilots were responsible for more than 80 percent of the PDs. In addition,
OIs accounted for 20 percent of runway incursions and V/PDs accounted for 17 percent
that year.4 For these reasons, the FAA is encouraging GA pilots and flight instructor s to
become familiar with industry best practices and mitigation procedures to avoid runway
incursions.
2.3.4 Causal Factors of Runway Incursions . Detailed investigations of runway incursions over
the past decade have identified three major areas (pilot errors) con tributing to these
events:5
1. Failure to comply with ATC instructions .
2. Lack of airport familiarity .
3. Nonconformance with standard operating procedures .
2.3.5 Challenges . Pilot proficiency, preflight planning, taxi procedures, runway confusion,
SA, and the use of ai rcraft lights are all challenges that, if not properly managed, lead
to deviations. Adverse weather, technology limitation, and complex airport designs are
additional challenges that contribute to PDs such as runway incursions.
2.3.6 Runway Incursion Mitigation/Avoidance . As previously noted , runway incursions are
generally the result of pilot error. To reduce this risk, pilots should adopt effective
mitigation strategies to avoid runway incursions. Flight instructor s should offer training
that include s runway incursion avoidance strategies. Training and procedures developed
in compliance with FAA policies and industry best practices reduce pilot errors and
4 FAA Office of the Inspector General Audit Report, Management Limitations May Hinder FAA’s Ability to Fully
Implement and Assess the Effectiveness of its Runway Safety Initiatives, Report Number: AV -2014 -130
September 25, 2014, page 4:
https://www.oig.dot.gov/sites/default/files/FAA%20Runway%20Safety%20Program%20Audit%20Report%5E9 -25-
14.pdf .
5 FAA Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautic Knowledge 2016, Chapter 14, page 1 4-31,
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/pilot_handbook.pdf .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-8 runway incursions. To meet this goal, pilots can take (and flight instructor s should teach )
the following steps:
2.3.6.1 Step 1: Maintain Proficiency. Receiving continuing education and training
is an essential step that a pilot can take to ensure that he or she is proficient.
Each pilot is unique and no pilot is proficient in all situations. Therefore ,
GA pilots should self -assess their aeronautical ability prior to conducting
a flight as pilot in command (PIC). Poor training in any skill set increases the
potential for an undesirable outcome. Poor radio communication skills, for
example, have caused runway i ncursions. To reduce this risk, pilots should
meet English language skill standards, understand and use correct
pilot/controller terminology, and use proper voice cadence when
communicating by radio. Lack of familiarity with airport markings can also
lead to runway incursion s. Some GA pilots tend to ignore signage when the
pilot is familiar with an airport. Pilots who operate in the same environment
most of the time may find themselves at a new airport and lack familiarity
with signage. This places the pilo t in a vulnerable position. GA pilots who
do not have much experience or recency with ATC or controlled airport
operations should work with a flight instructor to develop proficiency. These
examples illustrate the need for continuing education and training .
Familiarization with airport markings, airport operations, and ATC/pilot
terminology are also important areas that a flight instructor should consider
when conducting an IPC or flight review. Recurrent training, including
a flight to a towered airport wi th an experienced flight instructor , is a good
way to gain proficiency with airport operations and to develop the required
skills to avoid runway incursions.
2.3.6.2 Step 2: Plan Each Flight. Planning is an essential step that GA pilots can
take to avoid pilot errors and runway incursions. Pilots should plan each flight
before it takes place, even when flying to a familiar airport. Preflight planning
enables the pilot to gain SA and make an in formed go /no-go decision. Flight
planning should not merely include planning the route of flight; it should also
include a review of pertinent airport diagrams. Taking time during the
preflight planning process to review airport diagrams is essential.
For example, airport diagrams often include “hot spots. ” The FAA defines
a hot spot as a location on an airport movement area with a history of potential
risk of collision or runway incursion. Many airports with a high incidence
of runway incursions have ident ified hot spots where incursions most
frequently occur. Pilots can avoid the common errors related to runway
incursions by being aware of each hot spot as it relates to the taxiways and
runways. Airport hot spots are only one of many considerations in pref light
planning. Circumstances change quickly. En route weather conditions
or airport movement area closures is vital information. To be prepared, pilots
need to review all information concerning the flight, including Notices
to Airmen (NOTAM). Pilot s shoul d always obtain a standard briefing and
review pertinent NOTAMs prior to each flight. Conducting preflight planning
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-9 prior to every flight places a pilot in a better position to avoid incidents,
accidents, and runway incursions.
2.3.6.3 Step 3: Use Set Procedures. GA pilots should develop and adhere to set
cockpit procedures based on regulatory requirements and industry best
practices. Taking the step to develop and routinely use set procedures
complement s mandatory actions and reduce s the risks of human errors and
runway incursion s. Pilots should also include the following items in their set
cockpit procedures:
2.3.6.3.1 Passenger Briefing . GA pilots should always brief passengers prior to a flight
operation. Determining the necessary components for developing or validating
an effective passenger briefing begins in the planning stage of a flight.
The passenger briefing should contain the pilot’s instruction and procedures
for minimizing distractions in the cockpit. It should also include all the
pertin ent elements prescribe d by 14 CFR part 91, § 91.107(a)(1 ) and ( 2).
Many proprietary checklists include the passenger briefing.
2.3.6.3.2 Checklist Usage . GA pilots should use an effective , aircraft -specific checklist
as a matter of routine throughout all phases of aircraft operations. Pilots
should complete all aircraft pretaxi checklist items prior to taxi.
2.3.6.3.3 Navigation and Communications ( NAV /COM ) Setup . Communications and
navigation aids should be set up prior to taxi. Setting up radios and
navigational aids on the roll are distractions ; this is the leading cause of
“heads down” in the cockpit. This in turn hinders the pilot’s ability to see and
avoid any conflicts while taxiing.
2.3.6.3.4 Copying Clearance s. Most pilots have, or should develop, a shorthand method
for copying a n instrument flight ru les (IFR) clearance. The same is true for
a taxi clearance. Pilots should develop a set method to copy a ny type of taxi
clearance. Pilots should write down and read back all clearances to ensure that
the pilot establishes and maintains effective communica tions. As with any
clearance, a readback for a taxi clearance is mandatory.
2.3.6.3.5 Sterile Cockpit . A sterile cockpit is another procedural step that pilots should
take to reduce the risk of a runway incursion. A sterile cockpit means avoiding
all conversations an d actions not related to flight during critical phases
of aircraft operations such as taxi, takeoff, and landings. A distraction -free
cockpit should always include proper taxi procedures and no extraneous
conversations or cell phone use .
2.3.6.3.6 Taxi Procedure . GA pilots should use proper taxi procedures to reduce the risk
of an incident or accident. Maintaining an appropriate taxi speed is a crucial
element of an effective taxi procedure.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-10 2.3.6.4 Step 4: Prevent Taxi Confusion. Pilots can take additional steps to reduce
the risk of confusion during ground operations. Taxi confusion most
commonly occurs when a pilot is taxiing at an unfamiliar airport.
Low-visibility conditions increase the potential for confusion. Pilots have th e
option to request progressive taxi instructions when taxiing at a controlled
airport. Progressive taxi instructions are an excellent mitigation strategy
to ensure compliance with taxi clearances. This procedure is especially useful
at unfamiliar controll ed airports . Receiving progressive taxi instructions
is an effective strategy to prevent runway incursions. Pilots should have
access to the airport diagram when taxiing. Pilots may use the same diagram
that they used during the preflight planning process. Airport diagrams are
designed to assist in the movement of ground traffic at locations with complex
runway/taxiway configurations. Runway confusion occurs when pilots
confuse the identity of a runway. This is another example of an error that
an effective set operating procedure can prevent. Setting the heading bug
to the assigned runway heading, when a runway assignment is given, provides
a method to ensure that the pilot identifies the correct runway. Familiarity
with airport markings comes into play here , too. Reading all available signs
and verifying them with the runway assignment should be part of a pilot’s set
procedure. The critical part is to include these actions into the set procedure
and use the procedure on every flight. A comprehensive and set taxi procedure
will help to prevent an unwanted event such as a runway incursion.
2.3.6.5 Step 5: Ensure Situational Awareness ( SA). Ensuring SA is another step
that begins with preflight planning. Some pilots only think of SA in terms
of flight operations. Refram ing SA to cover all phases of flight is one more
step in reducing pilot errors. While maintaining SA is important in all
circumstances, it is particularly important when operating at an airport without
an operating control tower. To achieve SA, pilots shou ld be fully aware
of their intended taxi route and be able to follow the planned route correctly.
To maintain SA, pilots should always adopt a heads -up attitude when taxiing.
This industry best practice is also a step to reduce the risk of an inadvertent
runway incursion.
2.3.6.6 Step 6: Manage Aircraft Lights. Use of aircraft lights is an additional
procedure that GA pilots often overlook. Exterior aircraft lights may be used
to make an aircraft operating on the airport surface more conspicuous. Aircraft
lights al low others to have some idea of the pilot ’s intentions. Proper use
of aircraft lights should be a defined element in every pilot ’s set procedures.
One example of how this might help prevent runway incursion is that airmen
assume that an aircraft ’s landing light will be on when it is ready to take off.
If ATC issues a “line up and wait” (LUAW) clearance and the pilot
mistakenly plans to take off, the tower may notice the landing lights on and
call for confirmation so that a mishap is avoided.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-11 2.3.7 The FAA Safety Team ( FAASTeam ). Because GA PDs comprise the greatest percent
of all runway incursions, the FAA has increased its outreach efforts through its Flight
Standards FAASTeam program. The FAASTeam program provides outreach to
GA pilots on topics concerning aviat ion safety. For example, the FAASTeam addresses
local runway safety issues by posting hot spot charts, runway safety bulletins, runway
safety event notices, and other materials on its website , https://www.faasafet y.gov/ .
Additionally, the FAASTeam also provides web-based training. Pilots and flight
instructor s should become familiar with all FAASTeam resources to learn more about
runway incursions.
2.3.8 FAA Recommendatio ns. GA runway incursions are too common. Sometimes they result
in tragedy. Pilots and flight instructor s need to 1) understand the root causes of runway
incursions, 2) be aware of industry best practices to mitigate runway incursions, and
3) integrate the steps describe d above into effective set procedures to avoid runway
incursions. In addition, GA pilots should apply this information to their personal currency
programs. Flight instructor s should apply runway incursion avoidance strategies in their
training and pilot eva luation plans of action . You can find additional runway incursion
information and mitigation resources at https://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/ .
2.4 Flight Instructor Responsibility and Safety C ulture. The only contact that many pilots
may have with an aviation authority is through their instructor s. Flight instructor s are
professionals who play a vital role in ensuring aviation safety. Consequently, flight
instructor s are the cornerstone of avia tion safety. They mentor pilot safety practices as
they mitigate aviation accidents by providing pilot flight training and conducting pilot
evaluations. In other words, flight instructor s bear a responsibility to produce and sustain
the safest pilots possi ble.
2.4.1 Mentoring Competency . A flight instructor ’s actions influence the GA safety culture.
The FAA expects all flight instructor s to adhere to the highest training standards and
safety practices. Flight instructor s should be fully qualified in every role they perform.
For example, and as discussed further in paragraph 4.2.5, the flight instructor should be
qualified in each specific aircraft M/M in which they provide instruction. For this reason,
flight instructor s should consider their personal qualifications prior to accepting any
instructional or pilot evaluation role. This is an important consideration for conducting
a flight review, IPC, or specialized fli ght training, such as transition training in a specific
TAA. If a flight instructor is not proficient in an aircraft or specialized field of
instruction, the flight instructor should always be honest and decline to provide flight
training or a pilot evalua tion in an unfamiliar aircraft or role. As an alternative, the flight
instructor should assist the pilot in finding an experienced flight instructor who
is qualified to fill the flight instructor role in the specialized aircraft or field of interest.
The F AA’s optional Best Practices for Mentoring in Flight Instruction provides
additional tips for aviation mentors. You can find this publication at
https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/media/mentoring_best_practices.pdf .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
2-12 2.4.2 FAA/Industry Safety Recommendations . Flight instructor s are required to be
knowledgeable and up -to-date on issues critical to aviation safety. Government/industry
safety reco mmendations help flight instructor s meet this responsibility. GAJSC findings
and recommendations, NTSB safety reports, and the Aircraft Owners and Pilots
Association’s (AOPA) Air Safety Institute’s Joseph T. Nall Report s all provide critical
safety informa tion. Flight instructor s should incorporate this information in to the training
they provide. Utilizing and dissemin ating this critical information when promoting
personal currency programs, providing effective flig ht reviews, and conducting IPCs
helps to b uild a positive safety culture that can reduce GA accidents.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
3-1 CHAPTER 3. RECENT FLIGHT EXPERI ENCE
3.1 Recent General Experience. Title 14 CFR Part 61, § 61.57(a) , General Experience ,
and (b), Night Takeoff and Landing Experience, specif y the minimum require ments for
recent flight exp erience, specifically takeoffs and landin gs, in each category and class
of aircraft in order to act as pilot in com mand (PIC) o f an air craft carrying passengers.
3.1.1 Requirements Specified in § 61.57(a) and (b) . Pilots should regard these requirements
as minimums that should be modified to address factors such as overall pilot experience,
different operating environments, complexity o f the facilities used, and variations
in makes and models (M/M) of aircraft within specific categories and classes.
For example, a pilot may meet recent flight experience in a given M/M of aircraft but
may have operated only in light or moderate wind condi tions at airports with long
runways. The pilot should consider acquiring additional takeoff and landing experience
in stronger wind conditions or at airports with short runways before acting as PIC
of an aircraft carrying passengers in similar conditions. Under some circumstances, the
change in the customary operating environment may be great enough that the pilot should
seek flight instruction before attempting solo operations.
3.1.2 Night Currency Requirements . Night currency requirements deserve additional
consideration. The night experience of most pilots represents only a small portion of their
total flight time. The impact of marginal weather conditions on night operations
is so significant that pilots should evaluate their own need for both increased profic iency
and additional planning when contemplating flights under marginal conditions at night.
3.1.3 Obtaining Currency for Each Make and Model ( M/M ). Special considerations apply
when pilots operate aircraft M/Ms they do not customarily fly. Analysis of accident data
has shown that accident rates increase for pilots with little or no time in aircraft type
flown. Section 61.31 specifies add itional requirements that apply to operating aircraft
(e.g., tailwheel, complex, high -performance, turbine, or large aircraft) that may require
a type rating, specific training endorsement, authorization, and/or additional experience
requirements for that aircraft or operation. For non -high-performance small aircraft, the
basic currency requirements of § 61.57(a) and (b) apply only to category and class.
For example, a pilot who meets the requirement s in a Cessna 152 would also meet the
requirement s in a Ce ssna 172. However, the FAA recommends that pilots attain currency
in each separate M/M before conducting passenger -carrying operations. This currency
should include familiarity with the pilot’s operating handbook (POH), the Airplane Flight
Manual (AFM), an d/or any other available information on that aircraft. The FAA
recommends that all pilots obtain a comprehensive checkout in each M/M aircraft from
an appropriately rated flight instructor . Airmen are encouraged to search for aircraft
“clubs” for information and familiarization on specific M/Ms . AC 90-109, Transit ion
to Unfamiliar Aircraft, provides additional information and guidance pertaining
to transition to experimental and/or unfamiliar airplanes.
Note: Considerations regarding basic currency apply not only to single -engine
land airplanes but to other categories and classes of aircraft, including multiengine
aircraft, seaplanes, gliders, helicopters, gyroplanes, and free balloons.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
3-2 3.2 Recent Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Experience. When conducted i n accordance
with § 61.57 (c) and as qualified and approved by the Admi nistrator , pilots may perform
the six required approaches , holding procedures and tasks , and intercepting and tracking
courses through the use of navigational electronic systems (all aircraft except gliders) in
an FAA -qualified full flight simulator (FFS) or flight training device (FTD).
Furthermore , this instrument experience must be accomplished in a program approved by
the Administrator (§ 61.4). An FAA -approved Aviation Training Device (ATD) may be
used (refer to AC 61-136, FAA Approval of Aviation Training Devices and Their Use for
Training and Experience ) to accomplish instrument currency as specified in the FAA
letter of authorization (LOA) provided for each ATD model .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
4-1 CHAPTER 4. FLIGHT REVIEW
4.1 Intent and Structure of the Flight Review.
4.1.1 Intent of Flight Review . The purpose of the flight review required by 14 CFR part 61,
§ 61.56 is to provide for a regular evaluation of pilot skills and aeronautical knowledge.
Consequently, a flight review is a routine evaluation of a pilot’s ability to conduct safe
flight. In effect , it is a proficiency -based exercise in which the airman is required to
demonstrate the safe exercise of the privileges of his or her pilot certificate. The flight
instructor should be aware that the flight review is not a test or checkride, but rather
a training event in which proficiency is evaluated. Section 61.56 states that the review
must consist of a minimum of 1 hour of ground training and a minimum of 1 hour of
flight training , except as provided for in § 61.56(b), (d), and (e). However, all flight
instructors should fully understand that § 61.56(a)(2) requires the instructor to conduct
“a review of those maneuvers and procedures that, at the discretion of the person giving
the review, are necessary for the pilot to demonstrate the safe exercise of the privileges of
the pilot certificate.” If the pilot does not demonstrate the proficiency to conduct safe
flight, then more training is required. For this reason, t he FAA reminds flight ins tructor s
that a flight review may require more than 1 hour of ground training and 1 hour of flight
training . Since satisfactory completion of a flight review is based on pilot proficiency, it
is up to the instructional service provider to determine what ty pe of instruction is required
and how much additional training time, if any, is required to ensure that the pilot has the
necessary knowledge and skills to conduct safe flight operations. While flight instructor s
are encouraged to manage the expecta tions o f the pilot under review and discuss the
outline of the flight review with the pilot, it is the flight instructor that ultimately
determines the total training time required for a flight review.
4.1.2 Structure of Flight Review . For the reasons previously discus sed, a flight instructor
should not develop a flight review plan of action based on regulatory minimums. Instead,
a flight instructor should develop a plan based on achieving a flight proficiency and
knowledge level that meets regulatory requirements. Section 61.56 states that a flight
review must include a review of the current general operating and flight rules of 14 CFR
part 91. It also states that a person conducting the review has the discretion to determine
the maneuvers and procedures necessary for the pilot under review to demonstrate “safe
exercise of the privileges of the pilot certificate.” With the increasing complexity of the
aviation operating environment, flight instructor s are encouraged to structure the flight
review and develop a plan of action that is specific to the needs of the pilot under review.
The FAA has provided the following recommended guidance in this s ection to help flight
instructor s develop a plan of action for an effective flight review.
Note: The Private Pilot Airman Certification Standards (ACS) (FAA -S-ACS -6)
and the Commercial Pilot ACS (FAA -S-ACS -7) have replaced the corresponding
practical test standa rds (PTS) for airplane applicants. Applicants in other
categories should continue to use the current version of the appropriate PTS.
Instructors should always check the FAA website’s Airman Testing page to
ensure use of the most current versions of the ACS /PTS at
https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/ .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
4-2 4.1.2.1 Accomplishing a Flight Review. Under § 61.56(c) no person may act as pilot
in command ( PIC) of an aircraft, except as provided in § 61.56(d ), (e),
and (g), unless within the preceding 24 calendar -months that person has
accomplished a satisfactory flight review in an aircraft for which that pilot
is appropriately rated. An authorized instructor or other person approved
by the Administrator mus t conduct the flight review.
4.1.2.2 Completing the FAA Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS) ( One or More
Phases). Under § 61.56(e), a person who has satisfactorily completed one
or more phases of the FAA -sponsored WINGS within the preceding
24 calendar -months does not need to accomplish the flight review
requirements of this section. AC 61-91, WINGS —Pilot Proficiency Program ,
describes how flight instructor s should encourage pilots to participate in
WINGS.
4.1.2.3 Completing Proficiency Checks and Ratings.
4.1.2.3.1 Pilots and flight instructor s should be aware that, under § 61.56(d), there
is no requirement for pilots who have completed certain p roficiency checks
and ratings within the preceding 24 calendar -months to accomplish a separate
flight review. These accomplishments include satisfactory completion of pilot
proficiency checks conducted by the FAA, an approved pilot check airman,
a Designat ed Pilot Examiner (DPE), or one of the U.S. Armed Force s for
a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege.
Note: Effective November 15, 2013, a change to § 61.56(d) permits
an airman who passes a practical test for issuance of a flight instructor
certific ate, a practical test for the addition of a rating to a flight
instructor certificate, a practical test for renewal of a flight instructor
certificate, or a practical test for the reinstatement of a flight instructor
certificate , to meet the 24 -calendar -month flight review requirements.
Refer to Federal Register (FR) Docket No. FAA -2013 -0780,
Amdt. No. 61 -131 at https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR -2013 -09-
16/pdf/2013 -22485.pdf .
4.1.2.3.2 However, the FAA recommends that pilots consider also accomplishing
a review under some of the following circumstances. For example, a pilot with
an Airplane Single -Engine Land (ASEL) rating may have recently obtained
a glider rating, but may still wish to consider obtaining a flight review
in a single -engine airplane if the appropriate 24 -calendar -month period has
nearly expired. When approached by pilots seeking advice on such matters,
flight instructor s should consider the factors described in the follow ing
paragraphs.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
4-3 4.2 Pre-Review Considerations. Before undertaking the review, the flight instructor should
interview the pilot to determine the nature of his or her flying and operating
requirements. Elements to consider should include, but not be limited to, the following
areas:
4.2.1 Type of Equipment Flown .
4.2.1.1 Section 61.56(c)(1) states that to act as a PIC, a pilot must acco mplish a flight
review in an aircraft for which that pilot is rated. A pilot might hold multiple
ratings. In such case s, the pilot may take a flight review in any one of the
aircraft for which he or she holds a rating or op erating pri vilege , and he or she
will have met the regul atory req uirement for all air craft for which he or she
holds a certificate and /or rating. For exa mple, a pilot who holds a private pilot
certificate with an ASEL rating and a commercial b alloon certificate may take
a flight review in eith er airc raft and will have met the requi rements of the rule
for both. However, a pilot may not take a flight review in an aircraft for whi ch
he or she does not hold a r ating or operating privilege. F or exa mple, that sa me
ASEL -rated pilot may not take a flight review in a Multiengine Land (MEL)
airplane if he or she does not hold an MEL airplane rating. A pilot who holds
only a sport pilot certificate may only take a flight review in a light -sport
aircraft for which he or she holds an operational privilege. For example,
a sport pilot who holds airpl ane privileges could not take t he flight review
in a Cessna 1 72, because that airplane is not a light -sport airplane and
he or she does not hold operating privileges for that airplane.
4.2.1.2 The reviewed maneuvers and procedures will vary depending on the category,
class, and make and model (M/M) of the aircraft used. For example, a review
in a light multiengine aircraft will be different from one conducted in a small,
two-seat tailwheel aircr aft that utilizes limited instrumentation. The flight
instructor may wish to recommend that the pilot complete the review in the
aircraft most commonly flown, or in a more complex M/M if he or she
regularly flies several aircraft. The flight instructor may also wish to
recommend that the pilot take a review in more than one category/class of
aircraft under certain circumstances. For example, a pilot with ASEL and
glider ratings may have flown only gliders in the last 2 years but is also
contemplating flying single -engine airplanes in the near future. If a pilot who
requests a review only in the glider approaches a flight instructor , the flight
instructor may wish to recommend an additional review by a qualified person
in a single -engine airplane before the p ilot acts as PIC of a single -engine
airplane.
4.2.2 Nature of Flight Operations . The flight instructor should consider the type of flying
usually done by the pilot before establishing a plan of action for conducting the review.
For example, a pilot conducting long -distance flights between busy terminal areas may
need a different review than a pilot who usually flies in the local area from the same
airport. The flight instructor should consider the need for an indepth review of certain
subjects or procedures if the type of flight operations is likely to change, or if other
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
4-4 extenuating circumstances exist. For example, a pilot who normally conducts only local
flight operations may plan to begin flying to a location with Class B Airspace . Another
pilot may only operate a two-seat aircraft without radio but will operate in close
proximity to Class B Airspace . In both cases, the flight instructor should include Class B
Airspace operating requirements and procedures in the flight review. This review sh ould
also include pertinent revisions to operational regulations to ensure that the pilot has full
knowledge of these changes.
4.2.3 Amount and Recency of Flight Experience . The flight instructor should review the pilot’s
logbook to determine total flight time, time in type, and recency of experience in order to
evaluate the need for particular maneuvers and procedures in the review. For example,
a pilot who has not flown in several years may require an extensive review of basic
maneuvers from the PTS or ACS appr opriate to that pilot’s certificate level. The same
pilot may also require a more extensive review of part 91, including changes in airspace
and other requirements. Another pilot who is transitioning to a newer, faster, or
technically advanced aircraft (TA A) should receive more emphasis on knowledge of
aircraft systems and performance, or in cross -country procedures appropriate to a faster
airplane. Regardless of flight experience, the flight instructor should ensure that the
review plan of action includes all areas in which he or she determines the pilot should
receive training in order to operate safely. In some cases, the flight instructor may wish to
recommend that the pilot accomplish a complete refresher program.
4.2.4 Agreement on the Conduct of the Review . After completing the above analysis, the flight
instructor should review these considerations with the pilot and reach an understanding
regarding how he or she will conduct the review. The flight instructor should also review
the criteria for satisfactory completion of the review with the pilot. The flight instructor
may wish to provide the pilot with reading materials or recommend publications for study
before actually undertaking the flight review. For example, the FAA Safety Team
(FAASTeam ) provides man y free online “Wings Courses for Pilots,” which includes
a free online fli ght review preparation course , ALC -25, Flight Review Prep Guide .
You can find this course at https://www.faasafety.gov/gslac/ALC/course_catalog.aspx .
4.2.5 Instructor Qualifications . Instructors should also consider their own experience and
qualifications in a given M/M aircraft prior to giving a review in that model. The flight
instructor conducting a flight review must hold a category, class, and (if appropriate) type
rating on his or her pilot certificate. Also, the instructor must have a category and class
rating on his or her flight instructor certificate or a sport instructor privilege in his or he r
logbook appropriate to the aircraft in which he or she conducts the review. To conduct
a flight review in a multiengine airplane, the instructor must hold an airplane multiengine
rating on his or her pilot and flight instructor certificate. For aircraft in which the flight
instructor is not current or with which he or she is not familiar, he or she should obtain
recent flight experience or sufficient knowledge of aircraft limitations, characteristics,
and performance before conducting the review. In any c ase, the flight instructor must
observe the rating limitations of § 61.195 .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
4-5 4.3 Planning and Recording the Review. In addition to co nsidering the information in this
chapter and Appendices D through F of this AC, a flight instructor may elect to use the
FAA’s online guidance , Conducting an Effective Flight Review , available at
https://www.faa.gov/pilots/training to prepare, conduct, and document the flight review.
After reaching an agreement on how the flight instructor will conduct the review, he o r
she should prepare a plan of action for completing the review. T he plan of action should
include a list of regulatory subjects that the flight instructor will cover, the maneuvers
and procedures that the pilot will need to accomplish, the anticipated seq uence in which
the segments will occur, and the location where the flight instructor will perform the
review. You can find a suggested flight review plan of action format in Appendix D.
Although not required by § 61.189 , the flight instructor may wish to retain this plan of
action (job aid) for an appropriate period as a record of the scope and content of the flight
review. Additionally, the flight instructor may wish to submit an FAA Form 8710 -1,
Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application , to AFB -720. When submitted, AFB -720
will add the application to the pilot’s record (see paragraph 1.10.2 ).
4.3.1 Review of Part 91 Operating and Flight Rules . The flight instructor should tailor the
review of general operating and flight rules to the needs of the pilot under review.
The objective is to ensure that the pilot can comply with all regulatory requirements and
operate safely in various types of airspace under an appropriate range of weather
conditions. As a result, the flight instructor should conduct a review that is broad enough
to meet this objective, yet provide a more comprehensive review in those areas in which
the pilot’s knowledge is weaker. In the latter instance, the flight instructor may wish to
employ a variety of references/sources, such as the Aeronautical Information Manual
(AIM), to ensure that the pilot’s knowledge meets current standards.
4.3.2 Pilot Deviations (PD) . The occurrence of incidents and PDs has emphasized the need
to ensure that all pilots receive adequate briefing on PD avoidance a wareness. PDs are
broadly categorized as airborne or ground. Airborne PDs include altitude and heading
deviations and airspace violations. Ground PDs include runway incursions and any other
unauthorized operation in the movement areas of an airport (see pa ragraph 2.3 for more
information). Pilots should be familiar with all types of airspace, ground operating
procedures, and best practices to avoid potential PDs. The flight review may be the only
regular proficienc y and recurrency training experienced by some pilots. Therefore, flight
instructor s should place appropriate emphasis on this part of the review.
4.3.3 Automation Competency . Occurrences of incidents and accidents due to a pilot’s lack
of proficiency with aircra ft automation have emphasized the need to ensure that all pilots
are fully competent with the automated systems equipped in the aircraft flown.
Automation competency is the pilot’s ability to understand and operate a given aircraft’s
automated systems. The flight instructor should consider the type of automation the pilot
regularly uses before establishing the plan of action for conducting his or her flight
review. When conducting the check in an aircraft with automation, the instructor should
evaluate the pilot’s automation competency. Pilots transitioning to TAA should receive
specialized transition training from a qualified flight instructor with experience with the
specific equipment used.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
4-6 4.3.4 Angle of Attack (AOA) Systems . The FAA , along with the General Aviation Joint
Steering Committee (GAJSC) , is promoting AOA systems as one of the many safety
initiatives aimed at reducing the General Aviation (GA) accident rate. AOA indicators
will specifically target loss of control (LOC) accidents. LOC is the number one root
cause of fatalities in GA. More than 25 percent of GA fatal accidents occur during the
maneuvering phase of flight. Of those accidents, half involve stall/spin scenarios.
Technology such as AOA indicators can have a tremendous impact on reversing this
trend and are increasingly affordable for GA airplanes. During the flight review, if the
airplane is equipped with an A OA indicator, the flight instructor should evaluate its use
and correct interpretation of cues gained by referencing the AOA indicator by the pilot
receiving the flight review. If the airplane is not equipped with an AOA indicator, the
flight instructor should emphasize the importance of this item and evaluate the pilot’s
general knowledge of aerodynamic principles relating to AOA.
4.3.5 Review of Maneuvers and Procedures .
4.3.5.1 The maneuvers and procedures covered during the review are those that,
in the opinion of th e flight instructor conducting the review, are necessary for
the pilot to perform to demonstrate that he or she can safely exercise the
privileges of his or her pilot certificate. Accordingly, the flight instructor
should evaluate the pilot’s skills and kn owledge to the extent necessary to
ensure that he or she can safely operate within regulatory requirements
throughout a wide range of conditions. The flight instructor should always
include abnormal and emergency procedures applicable to the aircraft flown
in the flight review. For a satisfactory flight review, the pilot should be able to
perform all maneuvers in accordance with the ACS or PTS, as applicable, for
the pilot certificate that he or she holds. Therefore, the FAA encourages the
use of ACS/PTS du ring flight reviews.
4.3.5.2 The flight instructor may wish to prepare a preliminary plan of action for the
flight review based on an interview or other assessment of the pilot’s
qualifications and skills. See Appendix D for suggested interview questions.
Appendix D provides a sample flight instructor flight review checklist.
The flight instructor should outline a sequence of maneuvers to the pilot
taking the review. For example, this may include a cross -country flight to
another airport with maneuvers accomplished while en route. It could also
include a period of simulated instrument flight time. The flight instruc tor
should request that the pilot conduct whatever preflight preparation is
necessary to complete the planned flight. This preparation should include all
items required in part 91, § 91.103 , such as checking weather, calculating
required runway lengths, calculating Weight and Balance (W&B), completing
a flight log, filing a flight plan, and conducting the preflight inspection.
4.3.5.3 Befo re beginning the flight portion of the review, the flight instructor should
discuss various operational areas with the pilot. This oral review should
include, but not be limited to, areas such as aircraft systems, speeds,
performance, meteorological and ot her hazards (e.g., wind shear and wake
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
4-7 turbulence), operations in controlled airspace, and abnormal and emergency
procedures. The emphasis during this discussion should be on practical
knowledge of recommended procedures and regulatory requirements.
4.3.5.4 Regard less of the pilot’s experience, the flight instructor should review at least
those maneuvers considered critical to safe flight, such as:
• Takeoffs ;
• Stabilized approaches to landings ;
• Slow flight ;
• Stall recognition, stalls, and stall recovery ;
• Spin recognit ion and avoidance ;
• Recovery from unusual attitudes ; and
• Operating the aircraft by sole reference to instruments under actual
or simulated conditions.
4.3.5.5 Based on his or her in -flight assessment of the pilot’s skills, the flight
instructor may wish to add other maneuvers from the PTS/ACS appropriate to
the pilot’s grade of certificate. Appendix D includes a recommended job aid
(flight review checklist) , includ ing a list of suggested maneuvers. The FAA
does not intend this list to be all -inclusive, nor does it limit a flight instructor ’s
discretion in selecting other appropriate maneuvers and procedures. To the
greatest possible extent, the flight instructor should organize and sequence the
selected maneuvers in a realistic scenario appropriate to the kind of flying
normally done by the pilot.
4.3.5.6 The role of the flight instructor during the review is to provide an evaluation.
However, the instr uctor is not li mited to t his role and may provide spe cific
instru ction to an air man on any areas the instructor notes as being w eak. This
additional instruction do es not pre clude the pil ot’s successful co mpletion of
the review as long as t he deficiencies are c orrected. If the a dditional
instruction does not correct t he deficiencies, and /or it beco mes apparent to the
instructor that additional flights will be necessary, the flight instructor should
discuss the situat ion with the pilot and proceed accordingly.
4.4 Postreview Considerations. Upon completion of the review, the flight instructor should
complete the summary and evaluation portion of the flight review checklist (if used) and
debrief the pilot. Whether or not the review was satisfactory, the flight instructor should
provide the pilot with a comprehensive analysis of his or her performance, including
suggestions for improving any weak areas. FAA -H-8083 -9, Aviation Instructor’s
Handbook, chapter 5, provides specific suggestions for conducting the postflight
evaluation discussion as a “collaborative critique.”
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
4-8 4.4.1 Unsatisfactory Completion of the Review . The FAA does not intend the flight review
to be a checkride. If the review is not satisfactory, the flight instructor should log the
flight as “dual instruction given” and not as a “failure.” If the pilot does not perform well
enough for the flight instructor to endorse him or her for satis factory completion of the
flight review, the instructor should use the applicable ACS or PTS as the objective
standard to discuss areas needing improvement, as well as areas where the pilot
performed well. In this case, the flight instructor should offer a practical course of
action —ground training, flight training, or both —to help the pilot under review to return
to proficiency standards. The flight instructor should then recommend additional training
in the areas of the review that were unsatisfactory. A pilot who does not receive an
endorsement for a satisfactory flight review may continue to exercise the privileges of his
or her certificate, provided that a period of 24 calendar -months has not elapsed since the
pilot completed at least one of the require ments that satisfies the flight review event as
specified in § 61.56. However, a pilot may not act as PIC of an aircraft if that pilot’s
flight review has elapsed.
4.4.2 Satisfactory Completion of the Review . When the applicant has successfully completed
the rev iew, the flight instructor should endorse the pilot’s logbook to certify that the pilot
has satisfactorily accomplished the flight review. The flight instructor should make the
endorsement for a satisfactory review in accordance with AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots
and Flight and Ground Instructors . The flight and ground time must also be logged in the
pilot’s log book in accordance with § 61.51(a)(1) .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
5-1 CHAPTER 5. INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHE CK
5.1 Structuring an Instrument Proficiency Check (IPC). Title 14 CFR part 61, § 61.57(d)
outline s the requirements for an IPC. This chapter provides guidance on the conduct of e
IPC. In addition, flight instructor s may wish to use the FAA ’s optional online guidanc e
document, available at https://www.faa.gov/pilots/training / (“Instrument Proficiency
Check (IPC) Guidance”) , to structure, conduct, and document the IPC. Appendix J
provides an optional IPC checklist as an instructor job aid resource for conducting
an IPC. FAA Instrument Rating Practical Test Standards (PTS) or Instrument Rating —
Airplane Airman Certification Standards ( ACS), as applicable, outline the required
maneuvers conducted in an IPC (see paragraph 5.3).
Note: The Instrument Rating Airplane ACS (FAA -S-ACS -8) has replaced
Instrument Rating —Airplane, Helicopter, and Powered Lift PTS
(FAA -S-8081 -4E) for airplane applicants. Helicopter and powered -lift applicants
should continue to use FAA -S-8081 -4E. Instructors should always check the FAA
website’s Airman Testing page to ensure use of the most current versions of the
ACS/PTS at https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/ .
5.1.1 Instructor Requ irements to Conduct an IPC . The flight instructor must hold an instrument
rating on his or her pilot certificate and flight instructor certificate that is appropriate to
the category and class of aircraft used for the IPC. For example, an IPC conducted
in a multiengine airplane requires a flight instructor who holds both multiengine and
instrument ratings on his or her pilot and flight instructor certificate. The basis for flight
instructor privileges and limitations is found in §§ 61.193 and 61.195 . The flight
instructor should also meet currency requirements for his or her pilot and flight instructor
certificate.
Note: In addition to having the appropriate instructor ratings, the flight instructor
should consider other factors relating to his or her ability to c onduct an IPC.
These include the factors discussed for the flight review , as well as the
instructor’s own instrument currency.
5.1.2 Conducting an IPC . A flight instructor may conduct all or part (as specified in
FAA -S-ACS -8 (Airplanes Only) or FAA -S-8081 -4, Instrument Rating Practical Test
Standards for Helicopter and Powered Lift) of the IPC in an FAA -approved full flight
simulator (FFS) , flight training device (FTD), or Aviation Training Device (ATD) as
appropriate . If the IPC is accomplished in an FFS or FTD qualified under 14 CFR
part 60, that IPC checking program must receive approval by the FAA Administrator
(§ 61.4). Guidance on what IPC instrument tasks can be accomplished in an FFS, FTD, or
ATD is located in the current instrument PTS or ACS, as appropriate.
Note: Advanced aviation training devices (AATD) and basic aviation training
devices (BATD) collectively make up the two categories of FAA -approved
ATDs. Only AATDs may be used for the IPC. The flight instructor should review
the ATD letter of authorization (LOA) for the specific credit allowances provided
for that training device model .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
5-2 5.1.3 Precheck Considerations . The flight instructor should structure an IPC in a manner
similar to that of the flight review, tailoring the check to the needs of the pilot.
5.1.3.1 The flight instructor and pilot sh ould discuss the op erating c onditions under
which t he flight instructor will conduct the check. If t he flight instructor
condu cts the check in an aircraft, the check may be und er visual flight rules
(VFR) or instrument flight rules (IFR) in si mulated instru ment conditions, or
it may be under IFR in actual instrument conditions. If the flight instructor
conducts the check under IFR, or while under VFR conditions simulating
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) with a view -limiting device, it is
the flight instructor ’s responsibility to constantly remain vigilant to other
aircraft throughout all phases of the flight.
5.1.3.2 The Pilot’s Instru ment Experience Summary in Appendix G is available
to help the flight instructor structure an appropriate ground review f or the IPC.
A table in FAA -S-8081 -4 lists the maneuvers required for successful
completion of the IPC.
5.1.3.3 As with the flight review, the flight instructor should d evelop a plan of action
that uses realistic scenarios to organize and sequence the requir ed tasks and
maneuvers. Appendix H contains a sa mple plan of action for conducting the
proficiency check. The flight instructor should also discuss crewme mber roles
and responsibilities with the pilot.
5.1.4 Agreement on the Conduct of the IPC . After completing the above analy sis, the flight
instructor should review these considerations with the pilot and reach an understanding
regarding how he or she will conduct the IPC. The flight instructor should also review the
criteria for satisfactory completion with the pilot under rev iew. The flight instructor may
wish to provide the pilot with reading materials or recommend publications for study
before actually undertaking the IPC. For example, the FAA Safety Team ( FAASTeam )
provides many free online “Wings Courses for Pilots,” which includes a free onlin e IPC
preparation course , ALC -38, Instrument Proficiency Check Review Guide . You can find
this course at https://www.faasafety.gov/gslac/ALC/course_catalog.aspx .
5.2 IPC Knowledge Portion.
5.2.1 Determining the Pilot’s IFR Knowledge . The flight instructor determines whether the
pilot has adequate knowledge and understanding of 14 CFR part 91, especially
Subpart B, Flight Rules; Subpart C, Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate
Requirements; and Subpart E, Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alterations.
Additionally, the flight instructor determines that th e pilot has adequate knowledge and
understanding of the following areas:
1. Instrument en route and approach chart interpretation, including Standard
Instrument Departures (SID), Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), Standard
Terminal Arrival Routes (STAR), an d Area Navigation (RNAV)/Global
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
5-3 Positioning System (GPS)/wide area augmentation system (WAAS)
procedures.
2. Obtaining and analyzing weather info rmation, including knowledge
of hazardous weather pheno mena, such as icing and convective activity.
3. Preflight planning, including aircraft performance, Notices to Airmen
(NOTAM) information (including temporary flight restrictions (TFR)), fuel
requirements, alternate requirements, and use of appropriate FAA publications
such as the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD ).
4. Aircraft syste ms related to IFR operat ions, including appropriate operating
methods, li mitations, and e mergency procedures due to equip ment failure.
5. Aircraft flight instru ments and navig ation eq uipment, including
characteristics, li mitations, operating techniques, and e mergency pr ocedures
due to malfunction or failure, such as lost communications and automation
failure procedures.
6. Deter mining the airwort hiness of the aircraft for instru ment flight, including
required inspections and docu ments.
7. Air traffi c control (ATC) procedures per tinent to flight under IFR, with
emphasis on ele ments of ATC clearances and pilot/controller responsibilities.
8. A general working knowledge of aerodynamic principles relating to angle
of attack ( AOA ) and the purpose, operation, and limitations of AOA
indicators (if installed).
5.2.2 Evaluation of the Pilot’s Instrument Flight Proficiency . Following the discussion of the
above subjects, the flight instructor should ask the pilot to prepare for the skill portion of
the IPC by completing the necessary flight planning, obtaining current weather data,
filing a flight plan, and conducting the preflight inspection. In order to fully evaluate the
pilot’s skills under normal operating conditions, the flight instructor may wish to have the
pilot conduct a short IFR cross -country flight with at least part of the flight conducted
“in the system” under IFR.
5.3 IPC Skill Portion. The maneuvers and procedures selected for the IPC must include
those listed in the Rating Task Table in FAA -S-ACS -8 or FAA -S-8081 -4, as applicable.
The flight instructor conducting the IPC has the discretion to require any other
maneuver(s) necessary to determine that the pilot can safely operate under IFR in a broad
range of conditions appropriate to the aircraft flow n and the ATC environment selected.
The flight instructor should emphasize proper adherence to ATC clearances. Regardless
of the maneuvers and procedures selected, the flight instructor should ensure that the pilot
demonstrates satisfactory basic attitude instrument flying skills. For checks conducted in
an airplane but not under actual instrument weather conditions, the flight instructor
should employ an appropriate view -limiting device to simulate instrument conditions.
As an aid to the flight instructor , Appendix J contains a sample flight instructor IPC
checklist for conducting the IPC.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
5-4 5.4 Post-IPC Considerations and Recordkeeping. Upon completion of the proficiency
check, the flight instructor may wish to co mplete the summary and evaluation portion of
the checklist and debrief the pilot on the results of the check. Regardless of the
determination, the flight instructor should provide the pilot with a comprehensive
analysis of his or her performance, including suggestions for improving any weak areas.
Chapter 5 of the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA -H-8083 -9) provides specific
suggestions for conducting the postflight evaluation discussion as a “collaborative
critique.”
5.4.1 Unsatisfactory Performance . As with the flight review, the flight instructor should not
endorse the pilot’s logbook to reflect an unsatisfacto ry IPC. Rather, the flight instructor
should log the session as “dual instruction given.”
5.4.2 Satisfactory Performance . The endorsement for a satisfactory proficiency check should
be in accordance with AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors .
You can find a suggested IPC plan of action format in A ppendix J. Although not required
by § 61.189 , the flight instructor may wish to retain this plan of action (job aid) for an
appropriate period as a record of the scope and content of the IPC . Additionally, the flight
instructor may wish to submit an FAA Form 8710 -1, Airman Certificate and/or Rating
Application , to AFB -720. When submitted, AFB -720 will add the application to the
pilot’s record (see paragraph 1.10.2 ).
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix A
A-1 APPENDIX A. RES OURCES
A.1 FAA Documents (current editions) .
1. Advisory Circulars (AC) : http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/
advisory_circulars/ :
• AC 60-28, FAA English Language Standard for an FAA Certificate Issued Under
14 CFR Parts 61, 63, 65, and 107 .
• AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors.
• AC 61-89, Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings.
• AC 61-91, WINGS —Pilot Proficiency Program.
• AC 61-136, FAA Approval of Aviation T raining Devices and Their Use for
Training and Experience.
• AC 90-109, Transition to Unfamiliar Aircraft (provides additional in formation and
guidance pertaining to transition to experimental or unfamiliar air craft).
• AC 91-73, Parts 91 and 135 Single Pilo t, Flight School Procedures During Taxi
Operations.
2. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM):
https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/media/aim_basic_chg_1 _dtd_3 -
29-18.pdf .
3. Airman Cert ification Standards (ACS): http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/
testing/acs/ .
4. Airman Testing: https: //www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/ .
5. Best Practices for Mentoring in Flight Instruction:
https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/media/mentoring_best_
practices.pdf .
6. Conducting an Effective Flight Review:
http://www.faa.gov/pilots/training/media/flight_review.pdf .
7. FAA/Industry Training Standards ( FITS ) Personal and Weather Risk
Assessment Guide: http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/fits/guidance .
8. FAA Safety Briefing , January/February 2018:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2018/media/JanFeb2018.pdf .
9. FAA Safety Briefing Archive:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/archive/ .
10. General Aviation (GA) Safety Enhancement (SE) Topic Fact Sheets:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/topic_archive/ .
11. Good N.I.G.H.T , FAA Safety Briefing , November/December 2015:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2015/media/NovDec2015.pdf .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix A
A-2 12. Handbooks and Manuals (FAA ): http://ww w.faa.gov/regulations_policies/
handbooks_manuals/ :
• Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA -H-8083 -9).
• Handbook(s) appropriate for the category of aircraft being operated (e.g., Airplane
Flying Handbook (FAA -H-8083 -3)).
13. Information for Operators (InFO) (FAA):
http://www.faa.gov/other_visit/ aviation_industry/airline_ope rators/airline_saf
ety/info/all_infos/ :
• InFO 14010, Installation, Training, and Use of Non -required/Supplemental
Angle -of-Attack (AOA) Based Systems for General Aviation (GA) Airplanes,
July 25, 2014.
• InFO 15012, Logging Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP) , September 8, 2015.
14. Instrument Proficiency Check (IPC) Guidance :
https://www.faa.gov/pilots/training/media/IPC_Guidance.pdf .
15. New Techno logies for Pilots, Planes, and ’ Ports, FAA Safety Briefing ,
May/June 2016: https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2016/media/
MayJun2016.pdf .
16. New Technology in Aviation, FAA Safety Briefing , January/February 2014:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2014/media/JanFeb2014.pdf .
17. Online resources for flight instructors , FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam):
http://www.faasafety.gov .
18. PAVEing the Way to Safety, FAA Safety Briefing , January/February 2017:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2017/media/JanFeb2017.pdf .
19. Personal Minimums Worksheet, FAA Safety Briefing , March/April 2015:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2015/media/Personal -
Minimums.pdf .
20. Practical Test Standards (PTS):
http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/test_standards/ .
21. Risk Management and System Safe ty Modules:
http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/fits/training/flight_instructor .
22. Teaching Technology: Instilling the Right Aptitudes and Attitudes for Safety,
FAA Safety Briefing , September/October 2017:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2017/media/SepOct2017.pdf .
23. Tips for Teaching Practical Risk Management:
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/media/
1.0-Practical -Risk-Management.pdf .
24. Weather Forces, Sources, and Resources, FAA Safety Briefing ,
March/April 2015:
https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2015/media/MarApr2015.pdf .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix A
A-3 A.2 Industry and Professional Association s.
1. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA): http://www.aopa.org .
• AOPA Tools for Certificated Flight Instructor s: https://www.aopa.org/training -and-
safety/cfis .
2. Aviation Weather Center : https://www.aviationweather.gov/adds/ .
3. Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA): http://eaa.org/ .
4. FlightService: https://www.1800wxb rief.com/Website/#!/ .
5. General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA):
http://www.gama.aero/ .
6. National Association of Flight Instructors (NAFI): http://www.nafinet.org/ .
7. Society of Aviation and Flight Educators (SAFE): http://www.safepilots.org .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix B
B-1 APPENDIX B. SAMPLE AIRPLANE PILO T’S PROFICIENCY PRACTI CE PLAN
Pilot’s Nam e: Date:
Flight Rules ( Visual Flight Rules ( VFR )) Flight Profile – Every 4 –6 Weeks:
Preflight (include the 3-P Risk Management Process (RMP : Perceive hazards, Process
risk level, and Perform risk management).) ( Refer to the 3 -P Risk Management Process
at https://www.faasafety.gov/files/gslac/courses/content/28/200/3P%20Risk%20Manage
ment%20Process.pdf .)
Normal taxi.
Takeoff.
Departure to practice area.
CHAPS (before each maneuver):
Clear the area.
Heading established and noted.
Altitude established (at least 3,000 feet above ground level (AGL)).
Position near a suitable emergency landing area.
Set power and aircraft configuration.
Steep turns (both directions), altitude within 100 feet and airspeed within 10 knots.
Power -off stalls (approach to landing) and recovery.
Power -on stalls (takeoff/departure) and recovery.
Ground reference maneuvers (600 feet to 1000 feet AGL).
Pattern practice:
Normal landing (full flaps).
Short -field takeoff and landing over a 50 -foot obstacle.
Soft-field takeoff and landing.
Slow flight .
Discretional maneuver .
Discretional maneuver .
Secure the aircraft.
Review your performance.
Schedule next proficiency flight.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix C
C-1 APPENDIX C. SAMPLE PILOT ’S PERSONAL AERONAUTIC AL GOALS
Pilot’s Name: Date:
Training Goals
______ Certificate Level (Private, Commercial, Airline Transport Pilot (ATP))
______ Ratings (Instrument, Multiengine Land (MEL), Airplane Single -Engine Sea (ASES),
Airplane Multiengine Sea (AMES), Rotorcraft, Glider, etc.)
______ Endorsements (high performance, complex, tailwheel, high altitude, etc.)
______ Phase in Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS)
______ Instructor Qualifications (flight instructor, instrument flight instructor , multiengine
flight instructor , advanced ground instructor (AGI), basic ground instructor (BGI) ,
instrument ground instruct or (IGI))
Other:
Proficiency Goals
Lower personal minimums to:
______ Ceiling
______ Visibility
______ Winds
______ Precision approach minimums
______ Non-precision approach minimums
Fly at least:
______ Times per month
______ Hours per month
______ Hours per year
______ Cross -country flights per year
______ Night hours per month
Make a cross -country trip to:
Other:
Aeronautical Training Plan of Action
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix D
D-1 APPENDIX D. SAM PLE FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR ’S FLIGHT REVIEW CHECKL IST
Step 1: Preflight Review Actions
Scheduling
Set expectations of pilot under review
Pilot’s aeronautical history
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
part 91 review assignment
Cross -country flight plan assignment
Step 2: Ground Discussion
FAA Aviation English Language Standard (AELS )
requirement
Regulatory review
Cross -country flight plan review
Risk management (RM) and personal minimums
Step 3: Conducting the Flight
Physical aircraft (basic skills)
Takeoffs and stabilized approaches to landings
Slow flight
Stalls and recovery/spin recognition and avoidance
Recovery from unusual attitudes
Simulated loss of power/engine
Operating the aircraft by sole reference to
instrume nts under actual or simulated conditions
Aeronautical decision -making (ADM)
Automation system failures
Step 4: Postflight Discussion
Replay, reflect, reconstruct, redirect
Questions
Step 5: Aeronautical Health Maintenance and
Improvement Plan
Personal minimums worksheet
Personal profic iency practice plan
Training plan (if desired)
Resources list
Sample Pilot’s Aeronautical History for Flight Review
Pilot:
Flight Instructor :
Address:
Phone(s):
Email:
Pilot Certificate(s):
______ Private
______ Commercial
______ Air Transport Pilot (ATP)
______ Flight instructor Ratings (not necessarily inclusive):
______ Instrument
______ Airplane Single -Engine Pilot (ASEL)
______ Multiengine Land (MEL)
______ Lighter than air (LTA)
______ Rotorcraft
______ (Other)
Experience (pilot):
______ Total time
______ Last 6 months
______ Average hours/month
______ Time since last flight review
______ Since last instrument proficiency
check (IPC)
Experience (aircraft):
Aircraft type(s) you fly __________________ ___
Aircraft used most often ___________ ______ ___
______ Total time
______ Last 6 months
______ Average hours/month
Experience (flight environment):
Since your last flight review, approximately how
many hours have you logged in:
______ Day visual flight rules (VFR)
______ Day instrument flight rules (IFR)
______ Instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC)
______ Night VFR
______ Night IFR
______ Mountainous/Overwater
______ Towered
______ Nontowered
Type of Flying (external factors):
What percentage of your flying is for:
______ Pleasure
______ Business
______ Local
______ Cross -country
Personal Skills Assessment:
Strengths as a pilot?
Areas for improvement?
Aviation goals?
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix E
E-1 APPENDIX E. REGULATORY REVIEW GU IDE
SIDE 1
PILOT
Experience: Recent Flight Experience (14 CFR part 61, § 61.57).
Responsibility:
Authority (14 CFR part 91 , § 91.3).
Flightcrew Members at Station (§ 91.105).
Preflight Action (§ 91.103).
Safety Belts (§ 91.107).
Air Traffic Control (ATC) Instructions (§ 91.123).
Cautions:
Careless or Reckless Operation (§ 91.13).
Dropping Objects (§ 91.15).
Alcohol or Drugs (§ 91.17).
Supplemental Oxygen (§ 91.211).
Fitness for Flight (Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM ) chapter 8, section 1).
AIRCRAFT
Airworthiness:
Basic (§ 91.7).
Flight Manual, Markings, and Placards (§ 91.9).
Certifications Required (§ 91.203).
Instrument and Equipment Requirements (§ 91.205):
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) (§ 91.207).
Position Lights (§ 91.209).
Inoperative Instruments and Equipment (§ 91.213).
Transponder Requirements (§ 91.215).
Maintenance:
Responsibility (§ 91.403).
Maintenance Required (§ 91.405).
Operation after Maintenance (§ 91.407).
Maintenance Records (§ 91.417).
Inspections:
Annual, Airworthiness Directives (AD), 100 Hours (§ 91.409).
Altimeter and Pitot Static System (§ 91.411).
Very High Frequency Omni -Directional Range (VOR) Check (§ 91.171).
Transponder (§ 91.413).
ELT (§ 91.207).
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix E
E-2 SIDE 2
Airports:
Markings (AIM chapter 2, section 3).
Operations (AIM chapter 4, section 3; §§ 91.125 and 91.126).
Traffic Patterns (§ 91.126).
Airspace:
Altimeter Settings (AIM chapter 7, section 2; § 91.121).
Minimum Safe Altitudes (§§ 91.119 and 91.177).
Cruising Altitudes (AIM chapter 3, section 1, paragraph 3 -1-5; §§ 91.159 and 91.179).
Speed Limits (§ 91.117).
Right -of-Way (§ 91.113).
Formation (§ 91.111).
Types of Airspace (AIM chapter 3):
Controlled Airspace (AIM chapter 3, section 2; §§ 91.129, 91.130, 91.131, and 91.135).
Class G Airspace (AIM chapter 3, section 3).
Special Use (AIM chapter 3, section 4; §§ 91.133, 91.137, 91.141, 91.143, and 91.145).
Emergency Air Traffic Rules (AIM chapter 5 , section 6; § 91.139).
Air Traffic Control and Procedures:
Services (AIM chapter 4, section 1).
Radio Communications (AIM chapter 4, section 2; Pilot/Controller Glossary).
Clearances (AIM chapter 4, section 4).
Procedures (AIM chapter 5).
Weather :
Meteorology (AIM chapter 7, section 1).
Wake Turbulence (AIM chapter 7, section 3).
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Personal Minimums Worksheet.
Risk Management (RM) (3 -P model).
Practical Test Standards (PTS)/Airman Certification Standards (ACS), as appropriate.
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix F
F-1 APPENDIX F. SAMPLE FLIGHT REVIEW CHECKLIST
SIDE 1
References
Selected portions of 14 CFR part 61, § 61.56
(a) A flight review consists of a minimum of 1 hour of flight
training and 1 hour of ground training. The review must
include:
(1) A review of the current general operating and flight
rules of part 91 of this chapter; and
(2) A review of those maneuvers and procedures that,
at the discretion of the person giving the review, are
necessary for the pilot to demonstrate the safe exercise
of the privileges of the pilot certificate.
(c) Except as provided in paragraphs (d), (e), and (g) of this
section, no person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft
unless, since the beginning of the 24th calendar month before
the month in which that pilot acts as pilot in command, that
person has —
(1) Accomplished a flight review given in an aircraft for
which that pilot is rated by an authorized instructor and
(2) A logbook endorsed from an authorized instructor who
gave the review certifying that the person has satisfactorily
completed the review.
(d) A person who has, within the period specified
in paragraph (c) of this section, passed any of the following
need not accomplish the fl ight review required by this section:
(1) A pilot proficiency check or practical test conducted
by an examiner, an approved pilot check airman,
or a U.S. Armed Force, for a pilot certificate, rating,
or operating privilege.
(2) A practical test conducted b y an examiner for the
issuance of a flight instructor certificate, an additional
rating on a flight instructor certificate, renewal of a flight
instructor certificate, or reinstatement of a flight instructor
certificate.
(e) A person who has, within the pe riod specified
in paragraph (c) of this section, satisfactorily accomplished
one or more phases of an FAA -sponsored pilot proficiency
award program need not accomplish the flight review required
by this section.
Advisory Circular ( AC) 61-65, Certification: Pilots and
Flight and Ground Instructors
Completion of a Flight Review: §§ 61.56(a) and (c).
I certify that [ First name, MI, Last name ], [pilot certificate ],
[certificate number ], has satisfactorily completed a flight
review of § 61.56(a) on [date].
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12 -31-19
NOTE: No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory
performance on a flight review is required. Flight Review Checklist
Step 1: Preparation
Pilot ’s Aeronautical History
Set Expectations for Pilot Under Review
14 CFR Part 91 Review Assignment
Cross -Country Flight Plan Assignment
Step 2: Ground Review
FAA Aviation English Language Standard
(AELS) Requirement
Regulatory Review
Cross -Country Flight Plan Review
Weather & Weather Decision Making
Risk Management and Personal Minimums
General Aviation ( GA) Security Issues
Step 3: Flight Activities
Physical Airplane (basic skills)
Mental Airplane Automaton and Aircraft
(systems knowledge)
Takeoffs and Stabilized Approaches
to Landings
Slow Flight
Stalls and Recovery/Spin
Recognition/Avoidance
Recovery from Unusual Attitudes
Simulated Loss of Power/Engine
Operating the Aircraft by Sole Reference
to Instruments Under Actual or Simulated
Conditions
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
Automation System
Automation System Failur es
Step 4: Postflight Discussion
Replay, Reflect, Reconstruction, Redirect
Questions
Step 5: Aeronautical Health Maintenance
and Improvement Plan
Personal Minimums Worksheet
Personal Proficiency Practice Plan
Training Plan (if desired)
For aviation safety information and online resources,
visit www.faasafety.gov .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix F
F-2 SIDE 2
Ground Review
PILOT:
Experience:
Recent Flight Experience ( § 61.57)
Responsibility:
Authority ( § 91.3)
Air Traffic Control ( ATC ) Instructions ( § 91.123)
Preflight Action ( § 91.103)
Safety Belts ( § 91.107)
Flight crew at Station ( § 91.105)
Cautions:
Careless or Reckless Operation ( § 91.13)
Dropping Objects ( § 91.15)
Alcohol or Drugs ( § 91.17)
Supplemental Oxygen ( § 91.211)
Fitness for Flight ( Aeronautical Information
Manual (AIM ) chapter 8, section 1)
AIRCRAFT:
Airworthiness:
Basic ( § 91.7)
Flight Manual, Markings, Placards ( § 91.9)
Certification Required ( § 91.203)
Instrument and Equipment Requirements ( § 91.205)
Emergency Locator Transmitter ( ELT) (§ 91.207)
Position Lights ( § 91.209)
Transponder Requirements ( § 91.215)
Inoperative Instruments and Equipment ( § 91.213)
Maintenance:
Responsibility ( § 91.403)
Maintenance Required ( § 91.405)
Maintenance Records ( § 91.417)
Operation After Maintenance ( § 91.407)
Inspections:
Annual, Airworthiness Directives, 100 -Hour ( § 91.409)
Altimeter and Pitot Static System ( § 91.411)
Very High Frequency Omni -Directional Range ( VOR ) Check
(§ 91.171)
Transponder ( § 91.413)
ELT ( § 91.207)
ENVIRONMENT:
Airports:
Markings (AIM chapter 2, section 3)
Operations (AIM chapter 4, section 3; §§ 91.125 and 91.126)
Traffic Patterns ( § 91.126)
Airspace:
Altimeter Settings ( § 91.121; AIM chapter 7, section 2)
Minimum Safe Altitudes ( §§ 91.119 and 91.177)
Cruising Altitudes ( §§ 91.159 and 91.179;
AIM paragraph 3-1-5)
Speed Limits ( § 91.117)
Right -of-Way ( § 91.113)
Formation ( § 91.111)
Types of Airspace (AIM chapter 3):
Controlled Airspace (AIM chapter 3, section 2; §§ 91.129,
91.130, 91.131 , and 91.135)
Class G Airspace (AIM chapter 3, section 3)
Special Use (AIM chapter 3, section 4; §§ 91.133, 91.137,
91.141, 91.143, and 91.145)
Emergency Air Traffic Rules ( § 91.139; AIM chapter 5,
section 6)
ATC and Procedures:
Services (AIM chapter 4, section 1)
Radio Communications (AIM chapter 4, section 2 and Pilot
Controller Glossary)
Clearances (AIM chapter 4, section 4)
Procedures (AIM chapter 5)
Weather:
Meteorology (AIM chapter 7, section 1)
Wake Turbulence (AIM chapter 7, section 3)
EXTERNAL PRESSURE:
Personal Minimums Worksheet
Risk Management (3 -P model )
Practical Test Standards ( PTS)/Airman Certification
Standards (ACS ) Suggested Fl ight Activities
Note: Structure the flight portion as an out -and-back visual
flight rules ( VFR ) cross -country ( XC), with one leg focused
on XC proce dures (including diversion and lost procedures)
and the other leg focused on airwork (“physical airplane”
skills). Suggested activities include:
AREA OF OPERATION (from Private Pilot PTS/ACS)
Preflight Preparation
Weather Information
Cross -Country Flight Planning
Performance and Limitations
Operation of Systems
Preflight Procedures
Preflight Inspections
Cockpit Management
Before Takeoff Check
Airport Operations
Radio Communications
Airport, Runway, Taxiway Signs, Markings, and Lighting
Takeoffs, Landings, and Go -Arounds
Normal and Crosswind Takeoff/Climb
Normal and Crosswind Approach/Landing
Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb
Soft-Field Approach and Landing
Short -Field Takeoff
Short -Field Approach
Go-Around Rejected Landing
Performance Maneuver
Steep Turns
Naviga tion
Pilotage and Dead Reckoning
Navigation Systems and Radar Services
Diversion
Lost Procedures
Slow Flight and Stalls
Maneuvering During Slow Flight
Power -Off Stalls
Power -On Stalls
Spin Awareness
Basic Instrument Maneuvers
Straight and Level Flight
Turns to Headings
Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes
Radio Communications/Nav igation Systems
Emergency Operations
Emergency Approach and Landing
Systems and Equipment Malfunctions
Automation Failure: Failure of Autopilot and Avionics
Postflight Procedu res
After Landing, Parking, Securing
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix G
G-1 APPENDIX G. SAMPLE PILOT ’S INSTRUMENT EXPERIEN CE SUMMARY
Pilot’s Name: Flight Instructor :
Address:
Phon e(s): Email:
Type of Pilot Certificate(s): Rating(s):
______ Private ______ Instrument
______ Commercial ______ Multiengine
______ Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) ______ Rotorcraft
______ Flight Instructor ______ Glider
______ Lighter -than-air (LTA)
Experience (pilot):
______ Total time
______ Last 6 months
______ Average hours/month
______ Time logged since last instrument proficiency check (IPC)
Experience (aircraft):
Aircraft type(s) you fly
Aircraft used most often
For this aircraft: Total time Last 6 months Average hours/month
Experience (flight environment): Approximately how many hours logged in:
______ Day visual flight rules (VFR)
______ Day instrument flight rules (IFR)
______ Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
______ Night VFR
______ Night IFR
______ Approaches
______ Approaches to minimums
______ Approaches in last 6 months
Type of Flying (external factors): What percentage of your flying is for:
______ Pleasure
______ Business
______ Local
______ Cross -country
Personal Skills Assessment:
Strengths as a pilot?
Areas for improvement?
Aviation goals?
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix H
H-1 APPENDIX H. SAMPLE INSTRUMENT TR AINING AND PROFICIEN CY PLAN
Pilot’s Name: Flight Instructor :
Date: Review Date:
Instrument Training Goals
______ Certificate Level (Private, Com mercial, Air line Trans port Pilot (ATP))
______ Ratings (Instrument, Multiengine Land (MEL), Airplane Single -Engine Sea (ASES),
Airplane Multiengine Sea (AMES))
______ Phase in Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS)
______ Instructor Qualifications (flight instructor, instrument flight instructor , multiengine flight
instructor, advanced ground instructor (AGI), basic ground instructor (BGI) , instrument
ground instruct or (IGI))
Other:
Instrument Proficiency Goals
Lower personal minimums to:
______ Ceiling
______ Visibility
______ Winds
______ Precision approach minimums
______ Nonprecision approach minimums
Fly instrument flight rules (IFR)/instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) at least:
______ Times per month
______ Hours per month
______ Hours per year
______ Cross -country flights per year
______ Night hours per month
Make an IFR/IMC cross -country trip to:
Other:
Aeronautical Training Plan of Action
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix J
J-1 APPENDIX J. SAMPLE FLIGHT INSTRU CTOR’S INSTRUMENT PROFICIE NCY
CHECK CHECKLIST
SIDE 1
References
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations ( 14 CFR )
Part 61, § 61.57(d) —Instrument Proficiency Check.
Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this section, a person
who has failed to meet the instrument experience
requirements of paragraph (c) for more than six calendar
months may reestablish instrument currency only
by completing an instrument proficiency check.
The instrument proficiency check must consist of the areas
of operation and instrument tasks required in the instrument
rating practical test standards.
(1) The instrument proficiency check must be –
(i) In an a ircraft that is appropriate to the aircraft
category;
(ii) For other than a glider, in a flight simulator or flight
training device that is representative of the aircraft
category; or
(iii) For a glider, in a single -engine airplane or a glider.
(2) The ins trument proficiency check must be given by —
(i) An examiner;
(ii) A person authorized by the U.S. Armed Forces
to conduct instrument flight tests, provided the person
being tested is a member of the U.S. Armed Forces;
(iii) A company check pilot who is aut horized
to conduct instrument flight tests under part 121, 125,
or 135 of this chapter or subpart K of part 91 of this
chapter, and provided that both the check pilot and the
pilot being tested are employees of that operator
or fractional ownership program manager, as applicable;
(iv) An authorized instructor; or
(v) A person approved by the Administrator to conduct
instrument practical tests.
Advisory Circular ( AC) 61-65, Certification: Pilots and
Flight and Ground Instructors
Completion of an Instrument Proficiency Check:
§ 61.57(d) .
I certify that [ First name, MI, Last name ], [pilot certificate ],
[certificate number ], has satisfactorily completed the
instrument proficiency check of § 61.57(d) in a (list make
and model of aircraft) on [date].
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12 -31-19
NOTE : No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory
performance on an instrument proficiency check is required. Checklist for IPC
Step 1: Preparation
Set Expectations for Pilot Under Review
Regulatory Review
Cross -Countr y Flight Plan Assignment
Step 2: Ground Review
FAA Aviation English Language Standard
(AELS ) Requirement
Preflight
Taxi, Takeoff, Departure
En Route
Arrival and Approach
Missed Approach
Step 3: Flight Activities
Aircraft Control by Reverence to Flight
Instruments
Systems and Procedures
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
Stabilized Approaches and Landing
Step 4: Postflight Discussion
Replay, Reflect, Reconstruction, Redirect
Questions
Step 5: Aeronautical Health Maintenance and
Improvement Plan
Personal Minimums Worksheet
Personal Proficiency Practice Plan
Training Plan (if desired)
For aviation safety information and online resources,
visit www.faasafety.gov .
4/30/18 AC 61 -98D
Appendix J
J-2 SIDE 2
Ground Review
PILOT:
Recency of Experience ( § 61.57)
Pilot -in-Command ( PIC) Responsibilities and
Authority ( 14 CFR part 91, § 91.3)
Preflight Actions ( § 91.103)
Medical Facts for Pilots ( Aeronautical
Information Manual ( AIM ) chapter 8)
AIRCRAFT:
Fuel Requirements ( § 91.167)
Equipment Check ( Very High Frequency
Omni -Directional Range ( VOR )) (§ 91.171)
Instrument Flight Rules ( IFR) Two-Way Radio
Communications Failure ( § 91.185)
Malfunction Reports ( § 91.187)
Required Instruments and Equipment
(§ 91.205)
Emergency Locator Transmitter ( ELT)
(§ 91.207)
Aircraft Lights ( § 91.209)
Inoperative Instruments and Equipment
(§ 91.213)
Altimeter and Pitot -Static System Tests
(§ 91.411)
Air Traffic Control ( ATC ) Transponder Tests
(§ 91.413)
ENVIRONMENT:
ATC Instructions ( § 91.123)
IFR Flight Plan ( § 91.169)
ATC Clearance and Flight Plan ( § 91.173)
Takeoff ( TO) and Landing ( LDG ) in IFR
(§ 91.175)
Minimum IFR Altitudes ( § 91.177)
IFR Cruising Altitudes ( § 91.179)
Course to be Flown ( § 91.181)
IFR Two -Way Communications ( § 91.183)
Navigation Aids (AIM chapter 1)
ATC (AIM chapter 4)
Air Traffic Procedures (AIM chapter 5)
EXTERNAL PRESSURE :
IFR Two -Way Radio Communications Failure
(§ 91.185)
Emergency Procedures (AIM chapter 6)
National Security and Interception Procedures
(AIM chapter 5, section 6) Suggested Flight Activities
Note: Structu re the flight portion as an
out-and-back IFR cross -country ( XC), with one leg
focused on XC procedures (including missed
approach and diversion procedure s) and the other
leg focused on airwork (aircraft control). Suggested
activities include:
AREA O F OPERATION
Preflight Preparation
Weather Information
Cross -Country Flight Planning
Preflight Procedures
Aircraft Systems Related to IFR
Operations
Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation
Equipment
Instrument Cockpit Check
ATC Clearances and Procedures
ATC Clearances
Compliance with Departure, En Route, and
Arrival Procedures and Clearances
Holding Procedures
Flight by Reference to Instruments
Basic Instrument Flight Maneuvers
Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes
Navigation Systems
Intercepting/Trackin g Navigational
Systems and Distance Measuring
Equipment ( DME ) Arcs
Instrument Approach Procedures
Nonprecision Approach (NPA)
Precision Approach (PA)
Missed Approach
Circling Approach
Landing from a Straight -in or Circling
Approach
Emergency Operations
Loss of Communications
One Engine Inoperative During Straight
and Level Flight and Turns (Multiengine
Airplane)
One Engine Inoperative —Instrument
Approach (Multiengine Airplane)
Loss of Primary Flight Instrument
Indicators
Automation Failure: Failure of Autop ilot
and Avionics
Postflight Procedures
Checking Instruments and Equipment
Advisory Circular Feedback Form
If you find an error in this AC, have recommendations for improving it, or have suggestions for
new items/subjects to be added, you may let us know by contacting the General Aviation and
Commercial Division (AFS-800) or the Flight Standards Directives Management Officer at
9-AWA-AFS-140-Directives@faa.gov.
Subject: AC 61-98D, Currency Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and
Instrument Proficiency Check
Date: _____________________
Please check all
appropriate line items:
An error (procedural or typographical) has been noted in paragraph ____________
on page _______ .
Recommend paragraph _____________ on page __________ be changed as follows:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
In a future change to this AC, please cover the following subject:
(Briefly describe what you want added.)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Other comments:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
I would like to discuss the above. Please contact me.
Submitted by: Date: ______________________
Fly GACA is an independent educational platform. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or operated by the General Authority of Civil Aviation (GACA) or the Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The official and authoritative source for all civil aviation regulations, publications, and aeronautical information is always GACA. Always verify against the latest official GACA publication at gaca.gov.sa.