AC 61-67C - Stall and Spin Awareness Training

Subject: STALL AND SP IN AWARENESS

TRAINING Date: 9/25/00

Initiated By: AFS-840 AC No: 61-67C

Change:

1. PURP OSE. This advisory circular (AC) ex plains th e stall and spi n awaren ess training required

under Title 14 of the Code of F ederal Reg ulations (14 CF R) part 61 and offers g uidance to flig ht

instructors who provide that training . In additi on, this AC informs pilots of the airworthiness

standards for the type certification of normal, utility , and acrobatic category airplanes prescribed in

14 CF R part 23, section 23.221, concerning spin ma neuvers, and it emphasiz es the importance of

observing restrictions that prohibit the in tentional spinning of certain airplanes.

2. CANCELLATION. AC 61-67B , Stall and Spin Aware ness Training , dated May 17, 1991, is

cancel ed.

3. R ELA TED READING MATER IAL.

a. Report No. F AA-RD-77-26, Gene ral Aviation Pilot Stall Aware ness Training Study . This

document may be purchased from the National T echnical I nformation Service (NTI S), U.S.

Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Roy al Road, Spring field, Virginia 22161. Telephone orders:

(800) 553-6847. NTI S identification number is ADA041310.

b. The current version of AC 61- 65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground I nstructors,

may be obtained at no cost from: Department of Tran sportation, Subsequent Distribution Office,

Ardmore East B usiness Center, 3341 Q 75th Ave., L andover, MD 20785.

c. The current version of the following documen ts may be purchased from the Superintendent

of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, W ashing ton, DC 20402:

(1) F AA-H-8083-1, Aircraft W eight and B alance Handbook.

(2) F AA-H-8083-3, Airplane F lying Handbook.

(3) F AA-H-8083-9, Aviation I nstructor’s Handbook.

(4) F AA-S-8081-3, Recreational Pilo t - Practical Test Standards for Airplane and Rotorcraft.

(5) F AA-S-8081-6, F light Instructor - Practical Test Standards for Airp lane (Sing le-Eng ine/

Multie ngine).

(6) F AA-S-8081-8, F light Instructor - Pr actical Test Standards for Glider.

AC 61- 67C 9/25/00

(7) F AA-S-8081-12, Commercial Pilot - Prac tical Test Standards for Airplane.

(8) F AA-S-8081-14, Private Pilot - Practi cal Test Standards for Airplane.

(9) F AA-S-8081-22 Private Pilot - Prac tical Test Standards for Glider.

(10) F AA-S-8081-23 Commercia l Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Glider.

4. B ACK GROUND.

a. In January 1980, the F ederal Aviation Ad ministration (F AA) announced its policy of

incorporating the use of certain distractions during the performance of flight test maneuvers. This

policy came about as a result of Report No. F AA-RD-77-26 which revealed that stall/spin related

accidents accounted for approx imately one-quarter of all fatal g eneral aviation accidents. National

Transportation Safety Board statistics indicate that most stall/s pin accidents result when a pilot is

distracted mome ntarily from the primary task of flying the aircraft.

b. Chang es to part 61, completed in 1991, included in creased stall and spin awareness training

for recreationa l, private, and comme rcial pilot c ertificate applic ants. The training is inte nded to

emphasiz e recog nition of situations that could lead to an inadvert ent stall and/or spin by using

realistic distractions such as those sug gested in Report No. F AA-RD-77-26 and incorporated into

the performance of flig ht test ma neuvers. Althoug h the training is intended to emphasiz e stall and

spin awareness and recovery techniques for all pilots, only flight instructor-airplane and flig ht

instructor-glider candi dates are requi red to de monstr ate instr uctiona l proficiency in spin e ntry, spins,

and spin recovery techniques as a requirement for certification. Since 1991, part 61 was ex tensively

updated in 1997. Additionally , since 1991, some sec tions of part 23 (Air worthiness Standards:

Normal, Utility , Acrobatic, and Commute r Category Airplanes) that apply to spin r equirements and

placards have chang ed. Thi s AC incorporat es those chang es.

5. COMME NTS INVIT ED. Comments reg arding this publication should be directed to:

Federal Avia tion Administr ation

General Aviation and Co mmercial Division, AF S-800

800 I ndependence Ave., SW .

Washing ton, DC 20591

Every comment will not necessar ily generate a direct acknowle dgment to the commenter.

Comments received will be consider ed in the development of upc oming AC revisions or other

related technical material.

6. INTERNET. AC 61-67C can be accessed on t he Internet at Uniform Resource L ocator address

http://www.faa.g ov/avr/afs/acs/ac-idx .htm.

/s/

L. Nicholas Lacey

Director, F light Standards Service

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9/25/00 AC 61- 67C

CONTENTS

CHAP TER 1. GR OUND TR AINING: S TALL AND S PIN AW ARENES S

Paragraph Pa ge

100. Stall/Spin Effects and Definitions .............................................................................. 1

101. Distractions ............................................................................................................. ....3

102. W ing Contamination Effects on Stall W arning , Stall Speed, and

Poststall Recovery..................................................................................................... 3

103. Stall Recog nition ........................................................................................................ 4

104. Ty pes of Stalls .......................................................................................................... ..4

105. Stall Recovery ........................................................................................................... .5

106. Secondary Stalls ......................................................................................................... 5

107. Spins .................................................................................................................... ....... 5

108. W eight and B alance .................................................................................................... 5

109. Primary Cause ............................................................................................................ 6

110. Ty pes of Spins ........................................................................................................... .6

111. Spin Recovery ............................................................................................................ 6

112. Spiral Mode Recovery ................................................................................................ 7

113. thru 199. Reserved ...................................................................................................... 7

CHAP TER 2. FL IGHT TR AINING: S TALLS

200. Stall Training ........................................................................................................... ...9

201. thru 299. Reserved .................................................................................................... 12

CHAP TER 3. FL IGHT TR AINING: S PINS

300. Spin Training ............................................................................................................ 13

301. Spin Training and Parachutes ................................................................................... 14

302. thru 399. Reserved .................................................................................................... 14

CHAP TER 4. AI RWORTHINESS STANDAR DS

400. Operating Limitations ............................................................................................... 15

401. P lacards ................................................................................................................. ...16

402. Pilot Awareness ........................................................................................................ 16

403. thru 499. Reserved .................................................................................................... 16

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9/25/00 AC 61- 67C

CHAP TER 1. G ROUND T RAINING : STALL AND S PIN AWARE NESS

100. STALL/SP IN EF FECTS AND DEF INITIONS. A sta ll is a loss of lift and inc rease in dr ag

that occurs when an aircraft is flown at an ang le of attack (AOA) g reater than the ang le for

maximum lif t. If recovery from a stall is not e ffected in a time ly and appropriate manner by

reducing the AOA, a secondary stall and/or a spin ma y result. All spins are preceded by a stall on at

least part of the wing . The ang le of the relativ e wind is de termine d primarily by the aircraft's

airspeed and attitude . Othe r factors are conside red, suc h as aircraft weight, center of gravity,

config uration, and the amount of accel eration used in a turn. The sp eed at which the critical ang le

of the relative wind is exceeded i s the stall speed. S tall speeds are l isted in the Airplane Fl ight

Manual (AF M) or the Pilot Opera ting Handbook (POH) and pertain to cer tain conditions or aircraft

config urations, e.g ., landing config uration. Other specific opera tional speeds are calculated based

upon the aircraft' s stall speed in the landing config uration. Airspeed values specified in the AF M or

POH may vary under different circ umstances. F actors such as weig ht, center of g ravity , altitude,

temperature, turbulence, and the presence of snow, ic e, or frost on the wing s will a ffect an aircraft's

stall speed. To thoroug hly understand the sta ll/spin phenomenon, some ba sic factors affecting

aircraft aerody namics and f light should be reviewed with par ticular emphasis on their relation to

stall speeds. (This AC is principa lly concerned with and discusses ai rplanes. However, much of the

information is a lso applic able to gliders.) The following terms are defined as they relate to

stalls/spins.

a. Angle of Attack. AOA is the ang le at which the chord line of the wing meets the relative

wind. The chord line is a straig ht line drawn th rough the profile of the wing connecting the

extremities of the leading edge and trailing edge. The AOA must be small enoug h to allow attached

airflow over and under the airfoil to produce lift. A chang e in AOA will affect the amount of lift

that is produced. Consequently , AOA is an element of lift. An ex cessive AOA will disrupt the flow

of air over the airfoil. I f the AOA is not reduced, a section of the airfoil will reach its critical AOA,

lose lift, and stall. Ex ceeding the critical AOA for a particular airfoil secti on will alway s result in a

stall of that section.

b. Airspeed. Airspeed is controlled primarily by the elevator or long itudinal control position

for a g iven config uration and pow er. Conversely , airspeed is controlled by power at a g iven

config uration and AOA. I f an airp lane's speed is too slow, the AOA required for level flight will be

so larg e that the air can no long er follow the upper curvature of the wing . The result is a separation

of airflow from the wing , loss of lift, a larg e incr ease in drag , and eventually a stall if the AOA is

not reduced. The stall is the resu lt of ex cessive AOA - not insufficien t airspeed. For ex ample, at a

60° banked turn in level coordinated flig ht, the load factor is 2 G' s and t he stall speed i ncreases

40 percent over the straig ht and level stall speed. A S TALL CAN OC CUR AT ANY AI RSPEED,

IN ANY ATTI TUDE, AT ANY P OWER SETTI NG.

c. Configur ation. Flaps, landing gear, and other config uring devi ces can affect an ai rplane's

stall spe ed. Ex tension of flaps and/or landing gear in flight will inc rease drag. Flap extension will

generally increase the lifting ability of the wing s, thus r educing the airplane's stall spe ed. The effect

of flaps on an ai rplane's stall speed can be seen by markings on the airplane's airspeed indicator,

where the lowe r airspeed limit of the white arc (powe r-off stall spe ed with g ear and flaps in the

landing configuration) is le ss tha n the lowe r airspeed limit of the green arc (powe r-off stall spe ed in

the clean config uration).

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AC 61- 67C 9/25/00

d. V SO. VSO means the stall spe ed or the minimum ste ady flight spe ed in the landing

config uration.

e. V S1. VS1 means t he stall speed or t he minimum steady flight speed obt ained i n a speci fied

config uration.

f. VA. VA is the desig n maneuvering speed. Do not use full or abrupt control movements at or

above this speed. I t is possible to ex ceed the airplane structural limits at or above V A.

g. Load F actor. Load factor is the ratio of the lifting force produced by the wing s to the actual

weig ht of the airplane and its contents. L oad factors are usually expressed in terms of " G." The

aircraft' s stall speed increases in proportion to the s quare root of the load factor. F or example, an

airplane that has a normal unaccelerated stall sp eed of 45 knots can be stalled at 90 knots when

subje cted to a load factor of 4 G' s. The possibility of inadvertently stalling the airplane by

increasing the load factor (i.e., by putting the airplane in a steep turn or spiral) is muc h greater than

in norm al cruise flight. A st all entered from straight and l evel flight or from an unaccel erated

straig ht climb will not produce additiona l load factors. I n a constant rate turn, increased load factors

will c ause an airplane's stall spe ed to inc rease as the angle of bank inc reases. Excessive ly steep

banks should be avoided because th e airplane will stall at a much higher speed. I f the aircraft

exceeds m aneuveri ng speed, st ructural dam age to the aircraft may resul t before i t stalls. If the nose

falls during a steep turn, the pilot mig ht attempt to raise it to the level flight attitude without

shallowing the bank. This situation tig htens the turn and can lead to a diving spiral. A feeling of

weightlessness will r esult if a stall recovery is pe rformed by abruptly pushing the elevator control

forward, which will reduce the up load on the wing s. Recoveries from stalls and spins involve a

tradeoff between loss of altitude (and an increase in airspeed) and an increase in loa d factor in the

pullup. However, recovery from the dive following spin recovery generally causes hig her airspeeds

and consequently higher load f actors than stall recoveries due to the muc h lowe r position of the

nose. Sig nificant load factor increases are so metimes induced during pullup after recovery from a

stall or spin. I t should be noted that structural damag e can result from the hig h load factors that

could be imposed on the aircraft by intentional stalls practiced above the airplane' s desig n

maneuvering speed.

h. Center of Gravity (CG ). The C G location has a direct e ffect on the effective lift and AOA

of the wing , the amount and direction of force on the tail, and the deg ree of stabiliz er deflection

needed to supply the proper tail force for equilibri um. The CG position, therefore, has a sig nificant

effect on stability and stall/spin rec overy . As the CG is moved aft, the amount of elevator deflection

needed to stall the airplane at a g iven load factor will be reduced. An increased AOA will be

achieved with le ss elevator control force. This c ould ma ke the entry into ina dvertent stalls easier,

and during the subsequent recovery , it would be easier to g enerate higher load factors due to the

reduced el evator cont rol forces. I n an ai rplane w ith an ex tremely aft CG, very light back el evator

control forces may lead to ina dvertent stall entries and if a spin is e ntered, the balance of forces on

the airplane may result in a flat spin. Recovery from a flat spin is often impossible. A forward CG

location will often cause the sta lling AOA to be reached at a hig her airspeed. I ncreased back

elevator control force is g enerally required with a forward CG location.

i. Weight. Althoug h the distribution of weig ht has the most direct effect on stability , increased

gross weig ht can also have an effect on an aircra ft's flight characteristics, regardless of the CG

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9/25/00 AC 61- 67C

position. As the weig ht of the airplane is increase d, the stall speed increases. The increased weig ht

requires a hig her AOA to produce add itional lift to support the weig ht.

j. Al titude and Temperatu re. Altitude has little or no e ffect on a n airplane's indic ated stall

speed. Thinne r air at higher altitude s will r esult in de creased aircraft performance and a higher true

airspeed for a given indic ated airspeed. Hig her than standard temperatures will a lso contribute to

increased t rue ai rspeed for a g iven i ndicated ai rspeed. However, the hig her true airspeed has no

effect on indicated approach or st all speeds. The m anufact urer's recom mended i ndicated ai rspeeds

should therefore be maintained during the landing approach, reg ardless of the elevation or the

density altitude at the airport of landing .

k. Snow , Ice, or F rost on the Wings. Even a sm all accum ulation of snow, i ce, or frost on an

aircraft 's surface can cause an i ncrease i n that aircraft 's stall speed. S uch accum ulation chang es the

shape of the wing , disrupting the smooth flow of air over the surface and, consequently , increasing

drag and decreasing lift. F light should not be atte mpted when snow, ice, or frost have accumulated

on the aircraft surfaces.

l. Turbulence. Turbul ence can cause an ai rcraft to stall at a significantly higher airspeed t han

in stable conditions. A vertical g ust or windsh ear can cause a sudden chang e in the relative wind,

and result in an abrupt increase in AOA. Althoug h a gust may not be maintained long enoug h for a

stall to develop, the aircraft ma y stall while the pilot is attemp ting to control the flig htpath,

particularly during an approach in gusty conditions. W hen fly ing in moderate to se vere turbulence

or strong crosswinds, a hig her than normal approach speed should be ma intained. I n cruise flig ht in

moderate or severe turbulence, an airspeed well above the indicated stall speed and below

maneuvering speed should be used. It should be noted that maneuve ring speed is lower at a lower

weig ht.

101. DISTRACTIONS. Stalls resulting from impr oper airspeed management are most like ly to

occur when the pilot is distracted by one or mo re other tasks, such as l ocating a checkl ist or

attempting a restart after an engine failure; flying a traffic pattern on a windy day; reading a chart or

making fuel and/or distance calcula tions; or attempting to retrieve items from the floor, back seat, or

glove compartment. Pilots at all sk ill levels should be aware of the incr eased risk of entering into an

inadvertent stall or spin while performing tasks that are seconda ry to controlling the aircraft.

102. WING CONTAMINATION EF FECTS ON STALL WARNING , STALL SP EED, AND

POSTSTALL RECOVE RY. Stall spe eds and sta ll characteristics are usua lly determine d with

uncontamina ted airfoils. F or airplanes that are certified for flight in ic ing conditions, ic e shapes

may have al so been consi dered for t heir effect s on aircraft. However, not all possible icing

conditions and config urations can be tested. F urther, any contamina tion or alteration of the leading

edge caused by factors such as mud, insect resi due, or ice can sig nificantly alter the aerody namic

characteristics of the wing , but it is icing that is of primary concern.

a. In som e icing condi tions t here are adverse chang es to the stall speed, st all charact eristics,

perform ance, and handl ing charact eristics of t he airplane. These adverse chang es are pot entially

hazardous for several reasons. F irst, aerody namic stall may occur with little or none of the usual

cues i n advance of t he stall or at the occurrence of stall. These cues i nclude ai rfram e or cont rol

surface buffet , reduced cont rol effect iveness, and activation of t he stall warni ng horn, st ick shaker,

and stick pusher. Nex t, because of hig h drag on unprotected surfaces and residual ice on protected

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AC 61- 67C 9/25/00

surfaces, there may be insufficient power or thrust to increase speed while holding constant altitude

to reduce the AOA. Finally , poststall recovery of a contaminated airplane may be complicated by

gross chang es in control effectiveness, airpla ne response characteristic s, and abnormal control

forces. As a result of these factors, large losse s in a ltitude can occur during recovery.

b. According ly, in these conditions, a prompt cont rol input to decrease p itch attitude to recover

lateral control, with a ggressive powe r applic ation e nsures the most r apid recovery with minimum

altitude loss. The AOA must be reduced immediately as the wing , or part of the wing is already

stalled and no ma rgin remains to a llow holding altitude / attitude as powe r is applie d. The pilot

should note the AOA (or airspeed) at upset and not approach that AOA (airspeed) during the

recovery or another upset may occur. This AOA may be well below the normal stall AOA (below

shaker AOA) and the airspeed may be well above nor mal stall airspeed. Stall speed increases as

high as 50 knots have been obser ved in post upset data review.

c. Further complications involve us e of the autopilot. The autopilot may apply control inputs

that will ma sk de tection of some of these tactile cues by the pilot or attempt to c ontrol the airplane

in the stall. Sudden autopilot self-disconnect with control surfaces trimme d into ex treme positions

or with c ontrols trimme d into unc oordinated flight will c omplic ate poststa ll recovery and ma y lead

to a spin or spiral.

103. STALL RECOG NITION. There are several way s to recog nize that a stall is impending

before it actually occurs. Whe n one or more of these indic ators is note d, initia tion of a recovery

should be instinctive (unless a full stall is being practiced intentiona lly from an altitude that allows

recovery at least 1,500 feet a bove g round level (AGL ) for sing le-engine airplanes and 3,000 feet

AGL for multie ngine airplanes). One indic ation of a stall is a mushy feeling in the flight controls

and l ess cont rol effect as the aircraft 's speed i s reduced. This reduction in control effectiveness is

attributed in part to reduced airflow over the flig ht control su rfaces. I n fixed pitch propeller

airplanes, a loss of revolutions per minute (RPM ) may be evi dent when approachi ng a stall in

power-on conditions. F or both airplanes and g liders, a reduction in the sound of air flowing along

the fuselage is usua lly evident. Just before the stall occurs, buffeting , uncontrollable pitching , or

vibrations ma y begin. Ma ny aircraft are equippe d with sta ll wa rning devices that will a lert the pilot

4 to 8 knots prior to the onset of a stall. F inally , kinesthesia (the sensing of chang es in direction or

speed of motion) , whe n properly learned and de veloped, will wa rn the pilot of a decrease in spe ed or

the beg inning of a mushing of the aircraft. The se prelimina ry indic ations se rve as a warning to the

pilot to increase airspeed by adding power, loweri ng the nose, and/or decreasing the ang le of bank.

104. TYP ES OF STALLS. Stalls can be practiced both with a nd without power. Stalls should be

practiced to familiariz e the student with the aircra ft's particular stall ch aracteristics without putting

the aircraft into a potentially dang erous condition. In multieng ine airplanes, sing le-eng ine stalls

must be avoided. Descrip tions of some different types of stalls follows:

a. Power-off stalls (also known as approach-to-la nding stalls) are practi ced to simulate normal

approach-to-landing conditions and config uration. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred in these

powe r-off situa tions, suc h as crossed control turns from ba se leg to final approach (resulting in a

skidding or slipping turn); attempting to recove r from a hig h sink rate on final approach by using

only an increased pitch attitude ; and impr oper airspeed control on f inal approach or in othe r

segments of the traffic pattern.

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b. Power-on stalls (also known as departure stalls) are practi ced to simulate takeoff and

climbout conditions and c onfig uration. Many stall/spin accident s have occurred during these phases

of flig ht, particularly during go-arounds. A causal factor in such accidents has been the pilot' s

failure to maintain positive contro l due to a nose-hig h trim setting or premature flap retraction.

Failure to maintain positive control during short field takeoffs has also been a causal accident factor.

c. Accel erated stalls can occur at higher-than-norm al airspeeds due t o abrupt and/ or ex cessi ve

control applications. These stalls may occur in steep turns, pullups, or other abrupt chang es in

flightpath. Accel erated stalls usual ly are m ore severe t han unaccel erated stalls and are oft en

unex pected because t hey occur at higher-than-norm al airspeeds.

105. STALL RECOVERY. The key factor in recovering from a stall is r egaining positive control

of the aircraft by reducing the AOA. At the firs t indication of a stall, the aircraft AOA must be

decreased to allow the wing s to r egain lif t. Eve ry aircraft in uprig ht flig ht may require a different

amount of forward pressure or relax ation of elevator back pressure to regain lift. I t should be noted

that too much forward pressure can hinder recove ry by imposing a neg ative load on the wing . The

next step in recovering from a stall is to smoot hly apply maximum a llowa ble powe r (if applic able)

to inc rease the airspeed and to minimize the loss of altitude . Certain hig h performance airplanes

may requi re onl y an increase i n thrust and relax ation of the back pressure on the y oke to effect

recovery . As airspeed increases and the recovery is completed, power should be adjusted to return

the airplane to the desired flig ht condition. Straig ht and level flig ht should be established with full

coordinated use of the controls. The airspeed indicator or tachometer, if inst alled, should never be

allowed to reach their hig h speed red lin es at any time during a practice stall.

106. SECONDARY STALLS. If recovery from a stall is not made properly , a secondary stall or a

spin may result. A secondary stall is caused by attempting to hasten th e completion of a stall

recovery before t he aircraft has reg ained suffi cient flying speed. W hen this stall occurs, appropriate

forward pressure or the relax ation of back elevator pressure should ag ain be performed just as in a

norm al stall recovery . When suffi cient airspeed has been reg ained, the aircraft can t hen be ret urned

to straig ht and level flig ht.

107. SP INS. A spin in a small airplane or glider is a controlled (recovera ble) or uncontrolled

(possibly unrecoverable) ma neuver in which the airplane or g lider descends in a helical path while

flying at an AOA g reater than the critical AOA. Spin s result from ag gravated stalls in either a slip

or a skid. I f a stall does not occur, a spin cannot occur. I n a stall, one wing will often drop before

the othe r and the nose will y aw in the direction of the low wing .

108. WEIG HT AND BALANCE. Minor weig ht or balance chang es can affect an ai rcraft 's spin

characteristics. For example, the addition of a suitc ase in the aft baggage compartment will a ffect

the weight and ba lance of the aircraft. An a ircraft that may be difficult to spin inte ntiona lly in the

utility category (restricted aft CG a nd reduced weight) could ha ve less resistance to spin e ntry in the

normal category (less restricted aft CG a nd inc reased weight) due to its a bility to generate a higher

AOA and increased load factor. F urthermore, an aircraft that is approved for spins in the utility

categ ory, but loaded in the normal categ ory, may not be recoverable from a sp in tha t is allowe d to

progress bey ond one turn or 3- second spin, whichever is long er (refer to section 23.221(a)).

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109. P RIMARY CAUSE. The primary cause of an inadverten t spin is ex ceeding the critical AOA

while apply ing excessive or insufficient rudder a nd, to a lesser ex tent, aileron. I nsufficient or

excessive control inputs to correct for Power F actor (PF ), or asy mmetric propeller loading , could

aggravate the precipitation of a spin. At a high AOA the downward moving blade, which is

normally on the rig ht side of the pr opeller arc, has a hig her AOA and th erefore hig her thrust than the

upward moving blade on the left. This results in a tendency for the airplane to y aw around the

vertical ax is to the left. I f insufficient or ex cessive rudder correction is applied to counteract PF ,

uncoordinated flig ht may result. A cl assic situation where P F could play an important role in a

stall/spin accident is during a go-around or short fiel d takeoff where the airplane is at a hig h pitch

attitude , high powe r setting, and low a irspeed. In an uncoordinated ma neuver, the pitot/sta tic

instruments, e specially the altime ter and airspeed indic ator, are unreliable due to the uneven

distribution of air pressure over the fuselag e. The pilot may not be aware that a critical AOA is

approaching until the stall wa rning device activates. If a stall recovery is not pr omptly initia ted, the

airplane is more likely to enter an inadvertent spin. F or example, stall/s pin accidents have occurred

during a turn from base to final because the pilot attempted to rudder the ai rplane around (skid) so

as not to overshoot the runway nor use ex cessive ba nk ang le in the traffic pattern. The spin that

occurs from cross controlling an aircraft usually results in rotation in the direction of the rudder

being applied, reg ardless of which wing tip is raised. I n a skidding turn, where both aileron and

rudder are applied in the same di rection, rotation will be in the di rection the controls are applied.

However, in a slipping turn, wher e opposite aileron is held ag ainst th e rudder, the resultant spin will

usually occur in the direction opposite the aileron that is being applied.

110. TYP ES OF SPINS.

a. An inc ipient spin is tha t portion of a spin f rom the time the airplane stalls and rotation sta rts,

until the spin be comes fully developed. Incipient spins tha t are not a llowe d to de velop into a steady

state spin are commonly used as an introduction to spin training and recovery techniques.

b. A fully developed, steady state spin occurs when the aircraft angular rotation rat e, airspeed,

and ve rtical speed are stabilized from tur n-to-turn in a flightpath tha t is close to ve rtical.

c. A flat spin is c haracterized by a near level pitc h and roll attitude with the spin a xis near the

CG of the airplane. Recovery from a flat spin may be ex tremely difficult and, in some cases,

impossible.

111. SP IN RECOVERY. Before fly ing any aircraft, in whic h spins are to be conducted, the pilot

should be familiar with the operatin g characteristics and standard operating procedures, including

spin recovery techniques, specified in the approved AF M or POH. The first step in recovering from

an upright spin is to c lose the throttle comple tely to elimina te powe r and minimize the loss of

altitude. I f the particular airc raft spin recovery techniques ar e not known, the nex t step is to

neutraliz e the ailerons, de termine the direction of the turn, a nd apply full opposite rudder. W hen the

rotation slows, briskly move the elevator control forward to a pprox imately the neutral position.

Some aircraft requi re merely a rel axation of back pressure; others require full forward el evator

control pressure. F orward moveme nt of the elevator control will decrease the AOA. Once the stall

is broken, the spinning will stop. Neutraliz e the rudde r when the spinning stops to avoid entering a

spin in the opposite direction. W hen the rudder is neutraliz ed, g radually apply enoug h aft elevator

pressure to return to le vel flight. Too much or abrupt aft elevator pressure and/or application of

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rudder and ailerons during the recovery can result in a secondary stall and possibly another spin. I f

the spin is be ing performed in an airplane, the engine will some times stop de veloping powe r due to

centrifug al force acting on the fuel in the airplane' s tanks causing fuel interruption. I t is, therefore,

recommended to assume that power is not available when practicin g spin recovery . As a roug h

estimate, an altitude loss of approx imately 500 feet per each 3-sec ond turn can be ex pected in most

small aircraft in whic h spins a re authorized. Gr eater losses can be ex pected at higher densi ty

altitude s.

112. SP IRAL MODE RECOVERY. The spiral mode is an autorotation mode simila r to a spin.

The center of rotation is c lose to the centerline of the airplane but the airplane is not stalled. Many

airplanes and gliders will not spin a t forward CG loc ations but will spir al. Ma ny airplanes will e nter

a spin but the spin will be come more vertical and de generate into a spiral. It is impor tant to note

that whe n the spin tr ansitions into the spiral the airspeed will inc rease as the nose goes down to ne ar

vertical. The side forces on the airplane build very rapidly and recove ry must be effect ed

immediately before ex ceeding the stru ctural limits of the airplane. Re lease the back pressure on the

stick (y oke), neutraliz e the rudder and recover from the steep dive. As in the spin recovery , avoid

abrupt or ex cessive elevator inputs th at could lead to a secondary stall.

113. - 199. RESERVED.

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CHAP TER 2. F LIGHT TRAINING : STALLS

200. STALL TRAINING . Flight instr uctor-airplane and flight instr uctor-glider applic ants must be

able to g ive stall training . The flig ht instructor should emphasiz e that tec hniques and procedures for

each aircraft may differ and that p ilots should be aware of the flig ht characteristics of each aircraft

flown. B ecause of the possible catastrophic consequences, sing le-engine stalls should not be

demonstr ated or practiced in multie ngine airplanes. Air planes with nor mally aspirated engines will

lose power as altitude increases because of the reduced density of the air entering the induction

system of the engines. This loss of powe r will r esult in a VMC lower t han the stall speed at higher

altitude s. (VMC is the minimum control speed with the cr itical eng ine inoperative.) Also, some

airplanes have such an effective rudder that even at sea level V MC is lowe r than stall spe ed. For

these airplanes, demonstration of loss of directional control may be safely conducted by limiting

rudder travel to simulate max imum rudder available rudder. Limiting rudder travel should be

accomplished well above the power-off stall speed (approx imately 20 knots). This will avoid the

hazards of stalling one wing with the maximum a llowa ble powe r applie d to the engine on the othe r

wing . The flig ht training required by part 61 does not e ntail the actual practicing of spins f or othe r

than flight instr uctor-airplane and flight instr uctor-glider applicants, but emphasiz es stall and spin

avoidance. The most effective training method contained in Report N o. FAA-RD-77-26 is the

simula tion of scenarios tha t can lead to ina dvertent stalls by creating distr actions while the stude nt is

practicing certain ma neuvers. Sta ll demonstr ations and practice, includi ng maneuvering during

slow flig ht and other maneuvers w ith distractions that can lead to inadvertent stalls, should be

conducted at a sufficient altitude to enable r ecovery above 1,500 feet AGL in sing le-eng ine

airplanes and 3,000 feet AGL in multie ngine airplanes. The following training elements are based

on Report No. F AA-RD-77-26:

a. Stall Avoidance P ractice at S low Airspeeds.

(1) Assig n a heading and an altitude . Ha ve the stude nt reduce powe r and slow to a n

airspeed just above the stall speed, using trim as necessary .

(2) Have the stude nt ma intain he ading and altitude with the stall wa rning device activated.

(3) Demonstrate the effect of elevator trim (use neutral a nd full noseup setting s) and rudder

trim, if available.

(4) Note the left turning tendency and rudder effectiveness fo r lateral/directi onal control.

(5) Emphasiz e how rig ht rudder pressure is necessary to center the ball indicator and

maintain he ading.

(6) Release the rudder and advise th e student to observe the left y aw.

(7) Adverse y aw demonstration. W hile at a lo w airspeed, have the student enter left and

right turns without using rudder pedals.

(8) Have the stude nt practice turns, climbs, a nd de scents at low a irspeeds.

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(9) Demonstrate the proper flap extension and retraction procedur es while in le vel flight to

avoid a st all at low airspeeds. Not e the chang e in stall speeds wi th flaps ex tended and ret racted.

(10) Realistic distractions at low airspeeds. Give the student a task to perform while fly ing

at a low airspeed. I nstruct the student to divide his/her attenti on between the task and fly ing the

aircraft to ma intain control and avoid a stall. The followi ng distractions can be used:

(a) Drop a pencil. Ask the student to pick it up.

(b) Ask the student to determine a h eading to an ai rport using a chart .

(c) Ask the student to reset the cl ock to Unive rsal Coordinated Time.

(d) Ask the stude nt to g et some thing from the back seat.

(e) Ask the student to read the out side ai r temperature.

(f) Ask the student to call the Flig ht Service S tation (FS S) for weather information.

(g) Ask the student to compute true airspeed with a flig ht computer.

(h) Ask the student to identify terrain or objects on the g round.

(i) Ask the student to identify a field suitable for a forced landing .

(j) Have the student climb 200 feet and ma intain altitude, then descend 200 feet and

maintain altitude .

(k) Have the student reverse cour se aft er a seri es of S -turns.

(11) Flight at low a irspeeds with the airspeed indic ator covered. Use various f lap settings

and distractions.

b. Power-O n (Dep arture) S tall.

(1) At a safe altitude , have the stude nt attempt c oordinated powe r-on (departure) stalls

straig ht ahead and in turns. Emphasiz e how these stalls could occur during takeoff.

(2) Ask the stude nt to de monstr ate a powe r-on (departure) stall and distr act him/he r just

before t he stall occurs. Ex plain any effect s the distraction may have had on the stall or recovery .

c. Engine Failure in a Clim b Followed by a G liding Tur n. This de monstr ation will show the

stude nt how muc h altitude the airplane loses following a powe r failure after takeoff and dur ing a

turn back to the runwa y and why returning to the airport after losing an eng ine is not a

recommended procedure. This can be performed us ing either a medium or steep bank in the turn,

but emphasis should be g iven to stall avoidance.

(1) Set up be st rate of climb ( VY). Directly below y ou there should be a straig ht line

landmark (i.e., road or power line) parallel to y our flig htpath.

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(2) Reduce powe r smoothly to idle as the airplane passes through a cardinal altitude .

(3) L ower the nose to maintain the best g lide speed and make a 260° turn at the best g lide

speed. I t should be emphasiz ed that this turn s hould be into the wind (if there is a crosswind).

(4) Re-intercept the final y our outbound course (over the landmark y ou chose) inbound with

an 80° turn in the opposite direction.

(5) Point out the altitude loss a nd emphasize how r apidly airspeed decreases following a

powe r failure in a climb a ttitude .

NOTE: Depending on w inds, length of runw ay, and altitude the 260/80° turns m ay

need to be m odified (250/70° or 270/90° ) to m eet the existing situation.

d. Cr oss Cont rolled Stalls in G liding Tur ns. Perform stalls in g liding turns to simula te turns

from base t o final. Perform the stalls from a properly coordinated turn, a slipping turn, and a

skidding turn. Ex plain the difference between s lipping and skidding turns. Ex plain the ball

indicator posi tion in each t urn and t he aircraft behavi or in each of t he stalls.

e. Power-Off ( Approach-To-Landing) Stalls.

(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, g ear ex tended, power-off stall with the correct

recovery and cleanup procedures . Note the loss of altitude.

(2) Have the student repeat this procedure and distract the student during the stall and

recovery and note the effect of th e distraction. Show how errors in flap retraction procedure can

cause a secondary stall.

f. St alls D uring G o-Arounds.

(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, g ear ex tended, powe r-off st all, then recover and

attempt to c limb with f laps extended. If a higher than normal climb pitc h attitude is he ld, a

secondary stall will occur. (I n some airplanes, a stall will occur if a norma l climb pitch attitude is

held.)

(2) Have the student perform a full-flap, g ear ex tended, powe r-off st all, then recover and

retract the flaps rapidly as a hig her than normal climb p itch attitude is held. A secondary stall or

settling with a loss of altitude may result.

g. Elevator Trim Stall.

(1) Have the student place the airplane in a landing approach conf iguration, in a trimmed

descent .

(2) After the descent is established, initiate a go-around by adding full power, holding only

light elevator and rig ht rudder pressure.

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(3) Allow the nose to pitch up and torque to swer ve the airplane left. At the first indic ation

of a stall, recover to a normal climbing pitch attitude .

(4) Empha size the impor tance of correct attitude control, applic ation of control pressures,

and proper trim during go-arounds.

201. - 299. RESERVED.

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CHAP TER 3. F LIGHT TRAINING : SPINS

300. SP IN TRAINING . Spin training is required for flig ht instructor-airplane and flig ht

instructor-g lider applicants only . Upon comple tion of the training , the applicant' s log book or

training record should be endorsed by the flig ht instructor who provided the training . A sample

endorsement of spin training for f light instructor applicants is av ailable in the current edition of

AC 61-65.

a. Spin training must be accom plished i n an ai rcraft that is approved for spi ns. Before

practicing intentional spins, the AF M or POH shoul d be consulted for the pr oper entry and recovery

techniques.

b. The training should beg in by practicing both power-on and power-off sta lls to familiarize the

applicant with the aircraft 's stall charact eristics. Spin avoi dance, i ncipient spins, act ual spin entry,

spin, and spin recovery techniques should be practiced from an altitude above 3,500 feet AGL .

c. Spin avoidance training should consist of st alls and maneuvering during slow flig ht using

realistic distr actions suc h as those liste d in c hapter 2. Performance is consid ered unsa tisfactory if it

becomes necessary for the instructor to take contro l of the aircraft to avoi d a fully developed spin.

d. Incipient spins should be practiced to train th e instructor applicant to recover from a student' s

poorly performed stall or unusual a ttitude that could lead to a spi n. Config ure the aircraft for a

power-on or power-off stall, and con tinue to apply back elevator pre ssure. As the stall occurs, apply

right or left rudder and allow the nose to y aw towa rd the stalled wing . Release the spin inducing

controls and recover as the spin begins by apply ing opposite rudder and forward elevator pressure.

The instructor should discuss cont rol application in the recovery .

e. Spin entry , spin, and spin recovery should be demonstrated by the inst ructor and repeated in

both directions by the applicant.

(1) Appl y the ent ry procedure for a power-off st all. As t he airplane approaches a st all,

smoothly apply full rudder in the di rection of desired spin rotati on and continue to apply back

elevator to the limit of travel. The ailerons should be neutral.

(2) Allow the spin to develop, and be fully recovered no later than one full turn. Observe the

airspeed i ndicator duri ng the spin and subsequent recovery to ensure t hat it does not reach t he red

line (VNE).

(3) F ollow the recovery procedures recommende d by the manufacturer in the AF M or POH.

In most aircraft , spin recovery techniques consist of retarding pow er (if in a powered ai rcraft ),

apply ing opposite rudder to slow the rotation, neutraliz ing the aile rons, apply ing positive forward

elevator movement to break the st all, neutraliz ing the rudder as the spinning stops, and returning to

level flight.

f. During spin training if a spin is not fully deve loped, the aircraft may inste ad go into a spiral.

A spi ral may be recog nized by a rapi dly increasi ng airspeed aft er the attempted spi n entry. (In an

actual spin, the airspeed normally stabilizes below sta ll spe ed.) The pilot must r ecognize a spiral

and initiate immediate r ecovery to prevent ex ceeding structural limits of the airplane.

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AC 61- 67C 9/25/00

301. SP IN TRAINING AND P ARACHUTES. Part 91, section 91.307(c), prohibits the pilot of a

civil aircraft from executing any intentional maneuver t hat exceeds 60° of bank rel ative to the

horiz on, or ex ceeds 30° noseup or nosedown attitude relative to the horiz on, unless an approved

parachute is worn by each occupant (other th an a crewmember). S ection 91.307(d) states, in

pertinent part, that section 91.307(c) does not apply to flig ht tests for a pilot certificate or rating ; or

spins and other flig ht maneuvers required by the reg ulations for any cert ificate or rat ing when g iven

by a cert ified flight instructor (C FI) or an ai rline transport pilot (ATP ) instructing in accordance

with section 61.167.

a. Section 61.183(i) requires an applicant for a flig ht instructor certificate or rating to receive

flight training in sta ll awareness, spin e ntry, spins, and spin recovery procedures. The applicant

must also possess and dem onstrate instructional profi ciency in these areas t o recei ve the cert ificate

or rating .

b. Because spi n entry, spins, and spi n recovery are requi red for a fl ight instructor cert ificate or

rating, a person recei ving instruction from a CFI (or an ATP instructing in accordance wi th

section 61.167) need not wear an approved parachute while instruc tion is being provided in these

maneuvers. This provision applie s regardless of the certificate or rating for whic h the person is

recei ving training and al so if the person i s recei ving instruction that is not being provi ded for t he

purpose of obtaining any additional cer tificate or rating. The instr uctor providing the training is also

not required to wear an appr oved parachute while providing this flig ht training .

c. Additionally , it should be noted that any pilot or required crewme mber may perform a

maneuver that ex ceeds the limits prescribed in section 91.307(c) without wearing an approved

parachute, provided there are no ot her occupants in the aircraft or the other occupants are wearing

approved parachutes.

302. - 399. RESERVED.

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CHAP TER 4. AIRWORT HINESS STANDARDS

400. OP ERATING LIMITATIONS. Operating limita tions a re impose d for the safety of pilots

and their passeng ers. Operations contrary to these restrictions ar e a serious compromise of safety .

It is, therefore, most important that all pilots and flig ht and g round instructors, and pilot ex aminers

apply the following information on spinning to pilot training and flig ht operations.

a. Norm al Category. Norm al category airplanes are not approved for the performance of

acrobatic maneuvers, including spins, and are pl acarded ag ainst intentional spins. However, to

provide a marg in of safety when recovery from a stall is de layed, norm al category airplanes are

tested during certification and must be able to recover from a one turn spin or a 3-second spin,

whichever takes long er, in not more than one additional turn with the controls used in the manner

normally used for recovery or demonstrate the ai rplane’s resistance to spins. I n addition for

airplanes demonstrating compliance with one turn or 3-second requirements:

(1) For both the flaps retracted and flaps extended conditions, the applic able airspeed limit

and positive limit maneuvering load f actor must not be ex ceeded;

(2) No control forces or characteristic enc ountered during the spin of the recovery may

adversely affect prompt recovery ;

(3) I t must be impossible to obtain uncontrollabl e spins with any use of the flig ht or eng ine

power controls either at the entry or during the spin; a nd

(4) F or the flaps ex tended condition, the flaps may be retracted during recovery but not

before t he rotation has ceased.

NOTE: Since ai rplanes certi ficated in the normal category h ave n ot been tested

for more th an a on e turn or 3-secon d spin, their performance ch aracteri stics

beyond the se limits ar e unknow n. This is the reason the y are plac arded against

intentional spins.

b. Acrobatic Category. An acrobat ic category airplane m ust meet the spin requirements for

norm al category aircraft and t he following additional requirements:

(1) The airplane must recover from any point in a spin, up to and including six turns, or any

greater number of turns for which certification is requested, in not more than one and one-half

additional turns after initia tion of the first control action for rec overy . However, bey ond three turns,

the spin may be discontinued if spiral charact eristics appear.

(2) The applicable airspeed limits and limit mane uvering load factor must not be ex ceeded.

For the flaps ex tended config uration for which approval is requested, the flaps must not be retracted

during recovery .

(3) I t must be impossible to obtain uncontrollabl e spins with any use of the flig ht or eng ine

power controls either at the entry or during the spin.

Par 400 Page 15

AC 61-67C 9/25/00

Par 400 Page 16(4) There must be no characteristics during the spin (such as excessive rates of rotation or

extreme oscillatory motion) that might prevent a successful recovery due to disorientation or

incapacitation of the pilot.

NOTE: Unless a greater number of turns are requested for certification

acrobatic category airplanes have not been tested for more than six turns. The

recovery characteristics for additional turns are unknown.

c. Utility Category. A utility category airplane must meet the spinning requirements for both

normal and acrobatic category airp lanes and the applicable em ergency exit requirements of

section 23.807 if the aircraft is approved for spins.

401. PLACARDS. Under section 23.1567, all airpla nes type certificated unde r part 23 must have a

flight maneuver placard containing the following information:

a. For normal category airplanes, there must be a placard in front of and in clear view of the

pilot stating: "No acrobatic maneuve rs, including spins, approved."

b. For utility category airplanes that meet the spin requirements, there must be a placard in front

of and in clear view of the pilot stating: "Acrobatic maneuvers are limited to the following (list

approved maneuvers and the recommended entry speed for each).

c. For utility category airplanes that do not meet the spin requirements for acrobatic category

airplanes, there must be an additional placard in clear view of the pilot stating: "Spins Prohibited."

d. For acrobatic category airplanes, there must be a placard in clear view of the pilot listing the

approved acrobatic maneuvers and the recommended entry airspeed for each. If inverted flight

maneuvers are not approved, the placard must include a notation to this effect.

e. For acrobatic category airplanes and utility category airplanes approved for spinning, there

must be a placard in clear view of the pilot listing the control actions for the recovery from spinning maneuvers; and stating that recovery must be initiated when spiral characteristics appear, or after

not more than six turns or not more than any great er number of turns for which the airplane has been

certificated.

402. PILOT AWARENESS. The pilot of an airplane placarde d against intentional spins should

assume that the airplane may become uncontrollable in a spin. In addition, stall warning devices

should not be deactivated for pilot certification flig ht tests in airplanes for which they are required

equipment.

403. - 499. RESERVED.