AC 120-51E - Crew Resource Management Training

Subject: CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

TRAINING Date: 1/22/04

Initiated By: AFS-210 AC No: 120-51E

Change:

1. PURPOSE. This Advisory Circular (AC) presents guidelines for developing, im plem enting,

reinforcing, and assessing crew resource m anagem ent (CRM) training for flight crewm embers and

other personnel essential to flight safety. CRM training is designed to becom e an integral part of

training and operations. These guidelines were originally intended f or Title 14 of the Code of

Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 121 certificate holders who are required by regulation to provide

CRM training for pilots and flight attendants, a nd dispatch resource m anagem ent (DRM) training for

aircraft dispatchers. Fractional ownership pr ogram managers, required by 14 CFR part 91, subpart

K to provide CRM training to pilots and flight attendants, and those 14 CFR part 135 operators

electing to train in accordance with part 121 requirem ents, should also use these guidelines.

Certificate holders and individuals operating under other operating rules, such as parts 91 (apart

from

subpart K), 125, and part 135 operators not electing to train in accordance with part 121, and others,

should find these guidelines useful in addressing hum an perform ance issues. This AC presents one

way, but not necessarily the only way, that CRM tr aining m ay be addressed. CRM training focuses

on situation awareness, com munication skills, team work, task allocation, and decisionm aking within

a com prehensive fram ework of standard operating procedures (SOP).

2. CANCELLATION. AC 120-51D, Crew Resource Mana gement Training, dated 2/8/01, is

cancelled.

3. PRINCIPAL CHANGES. Operators of fractional ownership program s under part 91, subpart K,

are now required to provide CRM training to pilots and flight attendants, and are m entioned in the

PURPOSE paragraph, above. Under paragraph 12 of this AC, the subparagraph on Briefings has been

expanded to address safety and security concerns, including evacuation and hijack. A new

subparagraph under paragraph 16, entitled Crew Monitoring and Cross-Checking, em phasizes the

critical role of the pilot-not-f lying (PNF) as a monitor . Monitoring is always essential, and

particularly so during approach and landing when c ontrolled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents are

most com mon. Accordingly, previous references to PNF have been changed to pilot m onitoring (PM),

in accordance with governm ent and industry preference. In appendix 3, attem pted hijack has been

included as the m ost serious level of passenger interference requiring effective crew response, and has

been included as an appropriate CRM training topic. Minor editorial changes have also been m ade in

AC 120-51E 1/22/04

this revision. Text that has been changed from AC 120-51D is m arked with a vertical bar in the left

margin.

4. RELATED REGULATIONS (Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations). Part 91,

section 91.1073; Part 121, subpart N and O, pa rt 135, subparts E and H; sections 121.400-405,

121.409-422, 121.424, 121.427, 121.432-433, 121.434, 121.440-443, 135.243-245, 135.293-295

135.299-301, 135.321-331 and 135.335-351; Special Federa l Aviation Regulation (SFAR) No.

5. DEFINITIONS. The hum an factors safety challenge and the CRM training response m ay be

defined as follows:

a. Human Factors. The m ultidisciplinary f ield of hum an factors is devoted to optim izing hum an

perform ance and reducing hum an error. It incorporat es the m ethods and principles of the behavioral

and social sciences, engineering, and physiology. It is the applied science that studies people working

together in concert with m achines. It em braces variables that influence individual perform ance and

variables that influence team or crew perform ance. It is recognized that inadequate system design or

inadequate operator training can contribute to individual hum an error that leads to system perform ance

degradation. Further, it is recognized that inadequate design and m anagem ent of crew tasks can

contribute to group errors that lead to system perform ance degradation.

b. CRM Training. The application of team managem ent concepts in the flight deck

environm ent was initially known as cockpit resource m anagem ent. As CRM training evolved to

include flight attendants, m aintenance personnel and others, the phrase “Crew Resource

Managem ent” was adopted.

(1) As used in this AC, CRM refers to the effective use of all available resources:

human resources, hardware, and inform ation. Other groups routinely working with the cockpit

crew, who are involved in decisions required to operate a flight safely, are also essential

participants in an effective CRM process. These groups include but are not lim ited to:

(a) Aircraft dispatchers.

(b) Flight attendants.

(c) Maintenance personnel.

(d) Air traffic controllers.

(2) CRM training is one way of addressing the challenge of optim izing the

human/m achine interface and accom panying interpersonal activities. These activities include

team building and m aintenance, inform ation transfer, problem solving, decisionm aking,

maintaining situation awareness, and dealing with autom ated system s. CRM training is

comprised of three com ponents: initial indoctrination/awareness, recurrent practice and

feedback, and continual reinforcem ent.

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1/22/04 AC 120-51E

6. RELATED READING MATERIAL.

a. AC 120-35B, Line Operational Sim ulations: Line-Oriented Flight Training, Special Purpose

Operational Training, Line Operational Evaluation.

b. AC 120-48, Com munication and Coordination Be tween Flight Crewm embers and Flight

Attendants.

c. AC 120-54, Advanced Qualification Program .

d. AC 120-71, Standard Operating Proce dures for Flightdeck Crewm embers

e. AC 121-32, Dispatch Resource Managem ent Training.

NOTE: Many ACs may be dow nloaded free of charge from the follow ing

FAA public Web site:

www.f aa.gov

Click on Regulations & Policies

Click on Advisory Circulars

Free ACs may be obtained by mail from:

U.S. Department of Transportation

Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23

Ardmore East Business Center

3341 Q 75th Ave.

Landover, MD 20785

f. Guidelines for Situation Awareness Trai ning, NAW CTSD/FAA/UCF Partnership for Aviation

Team Training. This docum ent m ay be viewed, downloaded, or printed at the following W eb site:

http://www.faa.gov/avr/afs/train.htm .

g. Controlled Flight into Terrain Educati on and Training Aid, Flight Safety Foundation,

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and the FAA. This docum ent m ay be viewed,

downloaded, or printed at the following W eb site: http://www.faa.gov/avr/afs/train.htm .

h. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annex 13 on Hum an Factors. This

docum ent m ay be obtained from ICAO Docum ent Sales Unit, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 514-954-

i. For detailed inform ation on the recom mendations m ade in this AC, the reader is encouraged to

review Crew Resource Managem ent: An Introductory Handbook published by the Federal Aviation

Adm inistration (FAA) (Docum ent No. DOT/FAA/RD -92/26). Additional background m aterial can

be found in Cockpit Resource Managem ent Trai ning: Proceedings of a NASA/MAC W orkshop,

1987. The National Aeronautics and Space Adm inistration (NASA) Conference Proceedings (CP)

number is 2455. The National Plan for Aviation Hum an Factors defines research issues related to

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AC 120-51E 1/22/04

crew coordination and training. Copies of the preceding publications m ay be purchased from the

National Technical Inform ation Service, U.S. Departm ent of Com merce,

5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161. The telephone num bers for National Technical

Inform ation Service are: (800) 553-6847 (553- NTIS), and (703) 605-6000; fax: (703) 605-6900.

j. Descriptions of relevant research findings, methodological issues, and organizational experience

can be found in Helm reich, R.L., and W ilhelm , J.A., (1991) “Outcom es of CRM Training,”

International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1, 287-300; in Helm reich, R.L., and Foushee, H.C.,

“Why Crew Resource Managem ent: Em pirical and Th eoretical Bases of Hum an Factors Training in

Aviation”; in Orasanu, J., “Decisionm aking in the Cockpit”; and in Gregorich, S.E., and W ilhelm ,

J.A., “Crew Resource Managem ent Training Assessm ent.” Each of the preceding appears as a chapter

in E.L. W iener, B.G. Kanki, and R.L. Helm reich (Eds.), (1993), Cockpit Resource Managem ent,

Academ ic Press, Orlando, FL. For m ore detail on certain evolving concepts of CRM:

(1) Error m anagem ent, see: Hum an Error , J.T. Reason. New York: Cam bridge

University Press, 1990. Also, Managem ent the Risks of Organizational Accidents , J.T. Reason,

Brookfield, VT, Ashgate Publishing, 1997.

(2) Advanced crew resource m anagem ent (ACRM), see: “Developing Advanced Crew

Resource Managem ent (ACRM) Training: A Trai ning Manual,” Seam ster, Boehm -Davis, Holt,

Schultz, 8-1-98. http://www.hf.faa.gov/products/dacrm t/dacrm t.html.

(3) Culture issues, see: “Culture, Error, and Crew Resource Managem ent,” book chapter

from Applying Resource Managem ent in Organizations: A Guide for Professionals , in press.

(Helm reich, W ilhelm , Klinect, and Merritt)

(http://www.psy.utexas.edu/psy/helm reich/nasaut.htm ).

(4) Situation awareness, see: “Cockpit Distractions and Interruptions,” Dism ukes, Young,

Sumwalt, Decem ber, 1998. http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/directline_issues/dl10_distract.htm .

7. BACKGROUND. Investigations into the causes of air carrier accidents have shown that hum an

error is a contributing factor in 60 to 80 percent of all air carrier incidents and accidents. Long-term

NASA research has dem onstrated that these events share com mon characteristics. Many problem s

encountered by flightcrews have very little to do with the technical aspects of operating in a

multi-person cockpit. Instead, problem s are associated with poor group decisionm aking, ineffective

communication, inadequate leadership, and poor task or resource m anagem ent. Pilot training

program s historically focused alm ost exclusivel y on the technical aspects of flying and on an

individual pilot’s perform ance; they did not effectiv ely address crew m anagem ent issues that are also

fundam ental to safe flight.

a. The National Transportation Safety Board (N TSB), the FAA, and m any other parties have

identified SOPs as a persistent elem ent in these problem s, which som etimes have led to accidents.

SOPs define the shared m ental m odel upon which good crew perform ance depends. Too often, well-

established SOPs have been unconsciously ignored by pilots and others; in other cases, they have been

consciously ignored. In still other cases, SOPs have been inadequately developed by the operator for

use by its pilots, f light attendants, or aircraf t dispatchers, or a signif icant SOP has been om itted

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1/22/04 AC 120-51E

altogether from an operator’s training program . The Com mercial Aviation Saf ety Team (CAST), a

coalition of industry and governm ent organizations, including the FAA, chartered by the W hite House

in 1997, has undertaken to reduce the air carrier accident rate by 80 percent by the year 2007.

Initiatives to im prove SOPs and adherence to those SOPs are am ong the top-priority safety initiatives

now being im plem ented by CAST.

b. Industry and governm ent have com e to the consensus that training program s should place

emphasis on the factors that influence crew coordina tion and the m anagem ent of crew resources. The

need for additional training in com munication between cockpit crewm embers and flight attendants has

been specifically identified.

c. Coordinated efforts by representatives from the aviation com munity have produced valuable

recom mendations for CRM training. This collaborative process has occurred under the auspices of the

Aviation Rulem aking Advisory Com mittee (ARAC). ARAC com prises representatives from a broad

array of aviation organizations, including pilots’ and flight attendants’ associations, aircraft

manufacturers, governm ent offices, and others. ARAC is chaired by the Director of the FAA’s Office

of Rulem aking and is subdivided into working groups . One of those working groups is the Training

and Qualifications W orking Group. This AC is one product that has com e from that working group

and represents the sum of m any parts. W hile com pliance with this AC is not m andatory, the

recom mendations it contains provide a useful re ference for understanding and applying the critical

elem ents of CRM training.

d. Continuing NASA and FAA m easurem ents of the im pact of CRM training show that after

initial indoctrination, significant im provem ent in attitudes occurs regarding crew coordination and

flight deck m anagem ent. In program s that also provide recurrent training and practice in CRM

concepts, significant changes have been recorded in flightcrew perform ance during line-oriented flight

training (LOFT) and during actual flight. CRM-train ed crews operate m ore effectively as team s and

cope m ore effectively with nonroutine situations.

e. Research also shows that when there is no effective reinforcem ent of CRM concepts by way of

recurrent training, im provem ents in attitudes observed after initial indoctrination tend to disappear,

and individuals’ attitudes tend to revert to f ormer levels.

8. THE MISSION OF CRM TRAINING. CRM training has been conceived to prevent aviation

accidents by im proving crew perform ance through better crew coordination.

9. BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRM. CRM training is based on an awareness that a high degree of

technical proficiency is essential for safe and e fficient operations. Dem onstrated m astery of CRM

concepts cannot overcom e a lack of proficienc y. Sim ilarly, high technical proficiency cannot

guarantee safe operations in the absence of effective crew coordination.

a. Experience has shown that lasting behavior changes in any environm ent cannot be achieved in

a short tim e, even if the training is well designed. Trainees need awareness, practice and feedback,

and continuing reinforcem ent: in brief, tim e to learn attitudes and behaviors that will endure. To be

effective, CRM concepts m ust be perm anently integrated into all aspects of training and operations.

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AC 120-51E 1/22/04

b. While there are various useful m ethods in use in CRM training today, certain essentials are

universal:

(1) CRM training is m ost effective within a training program centered on clear,

comprehensive SOPs.

(2) CRM training should focus on the functioning of crewm embers as team s, not as a

collection of technically com petent individuals.

(3) CRM training should instruct crewm embers how to behave in ways that foster crew

effectiveness.

(4) CRM training should provide opportunities for crewm embers to practice the skills

necessary to be effective team leaders and team members.

(5) CRM training exercises should include all crewm embers functioning in the sam e roles

(e.g., captain, first officer, and/or flight engineer, flight attendants) that they norm ally perform in

flight.

(6) CRM training should include effective team behaviors during norm al, routine operations.

c. Good training for routine operations can have a strong positive effect on how well individuals

function during tim es of high workload or high st ress. During em ergency situations, it is highly

unlikely (and probably undesirable) that any crewm ember would take the tim e to reflect upon his or

her CRM training in order to choose the appropriate behavior. But practice of desirable behaviors

during tim es of low stress increases the likelihood that em ergencies will be handled effectively.

d. Effective CRM has the following characteristics:

(1) CRM is a com prehensive system of applying hum an factors concepts to im prove crew

perform ance.

(2) CRM em braces all operational personnel.

(3) CRM can be blended into all form s of aircrew training.

(4) CRM concentrates on crewm embers’ attitudes and behaviors and their im pact on saf ety.

(5) CRM uses the crew as the unit of training.

(6) CRM is training that requires the active participation of all crewm embers. It provides an

opportunity for individuals and crews to exam ine thei r own behavior, and to m ake decisions on how to

improve cockpit team work.

(a) LOFT sessions provide an extrem ely ef fective m eans of practicing CRM skills and

receiving reinforcem ent (see section 121.409 and part 121, appendix H).

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(b) Audiovisual (taped) feedback during debr iefing of LOFT and other training is an

excellent way f or flight crewm embers to assess their skills as individuals and as team members. Bulk

erasure of taped sessions is suggested to encourage candor am ong participants while assuring their

privacy.

(c) In cases where sim ulators are not available, crewm embers can participate in group

problem -solving activities designed to exercise CRM skills. Through taped feedback during

debriefing, they can then assess the positive and negative behaviors of all crewm embers.

(d) Crewm embers m ay also participate in role-playing exercises. Such exercises perm it

practice in developing strategies for dealing with events or event sets, and enable analysis of behaviors

shown while dealing with them . Again, taping the role-playing exercises is useful for assessm ent and

feedback during debriefing. Crewm embers’ abilities can be clearly observed in such areas as

adherence to SOPs, decisionm aking, team work, and leadership.

(e) Attitude and/or personality m easures can also be used to provide f eedback to

participants, allowing them to assess their own strengths and weaknesses.

(7) Success of CRM training depends upon check airm en, instructors, and supervisors who are

highly qualified in the operator’s SOPs and specially trained in CRM.

10. FUNDAMENTALS OF CRM TRAINING IMPLEMENTATION. Research program s and

airline operational experience suggest that the greatest benefits are achieved by adhering to the

following practices:

a. Assess the Status of the Organiz ation Before Implementation. It is im portant to know how

widely CRM concepts are understood and practiced before designing specific training. Surveys of

crewm embers, m anagem ent, training, and standards personnel, observation of crews in line

observations, and analysis of incident/accident reports can provide essential data for program

designers.

b. Get Commitment from All Managers, Starting w ith Senior Managers. CRM program s are

received m uch m ore positively by operations personnel when senior m anagers, flight operations

managers, and flight standards officers conspi cuously support CRM concepts and provide the

necessary resources for training. Flight operations m anuals and training m anuals should em brace

CRM concepts by providing crews with necessary policy and procedures guidance centered on clear,

comprehensive SOPs. A central CRM concept is com munication. It is essential that every level of

managem ent support a safety culture in which com munication is prom oted by encouraging appropriate

questioning. It should be m ade perfectly clear in pilots’ m anuals, and in every phase of pilot training,

that appropriate questioning is encouraged and that there will be no negative repercussions f or

appropriate questioning of one pilot’s decision or action by another pilot.

c. Customiz e the Training to Reflect the Nature and Needs of the Organiz ation. Using

knowledge of the state of the organization, priorities should be established for topics to be covered,

including special issues, such as the effects of mergers or the introduction of advanced technology

aircraft. Other special issues m ight include topics specific to the particular type of operation, such as

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AC 120-51E 1/22/04

the specific characteristics that exist in com muter operations, in long-haul international operations or

night operations. This approach increases the relevance of training for crewm embers.

d. Define the Scope of the Program and an Implementation Plan. Institute special CRM

training for key personnel, including check airm en, superv isors, and instructors. It is highly beneficial

to provide training for these groups before beginni ng training for crewm embers. CRM training m ay be

expanded to com bine pilots, flight attendants, and ai rcraft dispatchers. It m ay also be expanded to

include m aintenance personnel and other com pany team members, as appropriate. It is also helpful to

develop a long-term strategy for program implem entation.

e. Communicate the Nature and Scope of the Program Before Startup. Training departm ents

should provide crews, m anagers, training, and standa rds personnel with a preview of what the training

will involve together with plans for initial and continuing training. These steps can prevent

misunderstandings about the focus of the training or any aspect of its im plem entation.

f. Institute Quality Control Procedures. It has proved helpful to m onitor the delivery of

training and to determ ine areas where training can be strengthened. Monitoring can be initiated by

providing special training to program instructors (of ten called f acilitators) in using surveys to collect

system atic feedback from participants in the training.

11. COMPONENTS OF CRM TRAINING. The topics outlined below have been identif ied as

critical com ponents of effective CRM training. Th ey do not represent a fixed sequence of phases,

each with a beginning and an end. Ideally, each com ponent is continually renewed at every stage of

training.

a. Initial Indoctrination/Aw areness.

(1) Indoctrination/awareness typically consists of classroom presentations and focuses on

communications and decisionm aking, interpersonal relations, crew coordination, leadership, and

adherence to SOPs, am ong others. In this com ponent of CRM training, the concepts are developed,

defined, and related to the safety of line operations. This com ponent also provides a com mon

conceptual fram ework and a com mon vocabulary for identifying crew coordination problem s.

(2) Indoctrination/awareness can be accom plished by a com bination of training m ethods.

Lectures, audiovisual presentations, discussion groups, role-playing exercises, com puter-based

instruction, and videotaped exam ples of good and poor team behavior are com monly used m ethods.

(3) Initiating indoctrination/awareness training requires the developm ent of a curriculum that

addresses CRM skills that have been dem onstrated to inf luence crew perf ormance. To be m ost

effective, the curriculum should define the concepts involved and relate them directly to operational

issues that crews encounter. Many organizations have found it useful to survey crewm embers.

Survey data have helped identif y em bedded attitudes regarding crew coordination and cockpit

managem ent. The data have also helped to identify operational problem s and to prioritize training

issues.

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(4) Effective indoctrination/awareness training increases understanding of CRM concepts.

That understanding, in turn, often influences indi vidual attitudes favorably regarding hum an factors

issues. Often the training also suggests m ore effective com munication practices.

(5) It is im portant to recognize that classroom instruction alone does not fundam entally alter

crewm ember attitudes over the long term . The indoctrination/awareness training should be regarded

as a necessary first step towards effective crew perform ance training.

b. Recurrent Practice and Feedback.

(1) CRM training m ust be included as a regular part of the recurrent training requirem ent.

Recurrent CRM training should include classroom or briefing room refresher training to review and

amplify CRM com ponents, followed by practice and feedback exercises, such as LOFT, preferably

with taped f eedback; or a suitable substitute, such as role-playing in a f light training device and taped

feedback. It is recom mended that these recurrent CRM exercises take place with a full crew, each

member operating in his or her norm al crew position. A com plete crew should always be scheduled,

and every attem pt should be m ade to m aintain crew integrity. Recurrent training LOFT, which

includes CRM, should be conducted with current line crews, and preferably not with instructors or

check airm en as stand-ins.

(2) Recurrent training with perform ance feedb ack allows participants to practice newly

improved CRM skills and to receive feedback on their effectiveness. Feedback has its greatest im pact

when it com es from self-critique and f rom peers, together with guidance f rom a facilitator with special

training in assessm ent and debriefing techniques.

(3) The m ost effective feedback refers to the coordination concepts identified in Indoctrination/

Awareness training or in recurrent training. Effective feedback relates to specific behaviors. Practice

and feedback are best accom plished through the use of sim ulators or training devices and videotape.

Taped f eedback, with the guidance of a facilitator, is particularly ef fective because it allows

participants to view them selves from a third-person perspective. This view is especially com pelling in

that strengths and weaknesses are captured on tape a nd vividly displayed. Stop action, replay, and slow

motion are som e of the playback features ava ilable during debriefing. Behavioral patterns and

individual work styles are easily seen, and a ppropriate adjustm ents are often self-evident.

c. Continuing Reinforcement.

(1) No m atter how effective each curriculum segm ent is (the classroom , the role-playing

exercises, the LOFT, or the feedback), one-tim e exposures are sim ply not sufficient. The attitudes and

norm s that contribute to ineffective crew coordination m ay have developed over a crewm ember’s

lifetim e. It is unrealistic to expect a short training program to reverse years of habits. To be

maximally effective, CRM should be em bedded in every stage of training, and CRM concepts should

be stressed in line operations as well.

(2) CRM should becom e an inseparable part of the organization’s culture.

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(3) There is a com mon tendency to think of CRM as training only for captains. This notion

misses the essence of the CRM training m ission: the prevention of crew-related accidents. CRM

training works best in the context of the entire cr ew. Training exercises are m ost effective if all

crewm embers work together and learn together. In the past, m uch of the flightcrew training has

been segm ented by crew position. This segm entation has been effective for m eeting certain training

needs such as seat dependent technical trai ning and upgrade training, but segm entation is not

appropriate for m ost CRM training.

(4) Reinforcem ent can be accom plished in m any areas. Training such as joint cabin and

cockpit crew training in security can deal with m any human factors issues. Joint training with aircraft

dispatchers, m aintenance personnel, and gate agents can also reinforce CRM concepts, and is

recom mended.

12. SUGGESTED CURRICULUM TOPICS. The topics outlined below have been included in

many current CRM program s. Specific content of trai ning and organization of topics should reflect an

organization’s unique culture and specif ic needs. Appendix 1 of fers a set of behavioral m arkers f itting

subtopics within each topic cluster. Som etimes overlapping, these m arkers m ay be helpful in

curriculum developm ent and in LOFT design. A ppendix 3 gives additional CRM training topics.

a. Communications Processes and Decision Behavior. This topic includes internal and external

influences on interpersonal com munications. External factors include com munication barriers such as

rank, age, gender, and organizational culture, including the identification of inadequate SOPs.

Internal f actors include speaking skills, listening skills and decisionm aking skills, conf lict resolution

techniques, and the use of appropriate assertiveness and advocacy. The im portance of clear and

unam biguous com munication m ust be stressed in all training activities involving pilots, flight

attendants, and aircraft dispatchers. The greater one’s concern in flight-related m atters, the greater is

the need for clear com munication. More specific subtopics include the following:

(1) Briefings. Training in addressing both operational and interpersonal issues, and training

in establishing and m aintaining open com munications. A captain’s briefings should reaffirm

established SOPs and should address the m ost threatening safety and security situations.

(a) Safety. A captain’s briefing should address em ergencies that m ight require an airplane

evacuation (e.g., cabin fire or engine fire) and should highlight the functions of flightcrew and flight

attendants during an evacuation. A captain’s briefi ng should stress to flight attendants the im portance

of identifying able-bodied passengers and briefing them , in turn. Passengers in exit rows are

particularly im portant resources, and flight atte ndants should brief them on what to do during an

evacuation.

(b) Security. A captain’s briefing should address general security topics, especially

hijack, and any known or suspected specific threat pe rtaining to the flight. Flight attendants should

identify able-bodied passengers, including exit row seat occupants, and m ay enroll them as resources

who m ight be called upon to help contain a disruption caused by a passenger(s).

(2) Inquiry/Advocacy/Assertion. Training in the potential benefits of crewm embers

advocating the course of action that they feel is best, even though it m ay involve conflict with others.

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(3) Crew Self-Critique (Decisions and Actions). Illustrating the value of review, feedback,

and critique focusing on the process and the peopl e involved. One of the best techniques for

reinf orcing ef fective hum an factors practices is caref ul debrief ing of activities, highlighting the

processes that were followed. Additionally, it is essential that each crewm ember be able to recognize

good and bad com munications, and effective and ineffective team behavior.

(4) Conflict Resolution. Dem onstrating effective techniques of resolving disagreem ents

among crewm embers in interpreting inform ation or in proposing courses of action. Dem onstrating

effective techniques for m aintaining open com munication while dealing with conflict.

(5) Communications and Decisionmaking. Dem onstrating effective techniques of seeking

and evaluating inform ation. Showing the influence of biases and other cognitive factors on decision

quality. There are benefits in providing crews with operational m odels of this group decision

process. Crews m ay refer to these m odels to m ake good choices in situations when inform ation is

incom plete or contradictory.

b. Team Building and Maintenance. This topic includes interpersonal relationships and

practices. Effective leadership/followership and interpersonal relationships are key concepts to be

stressed. Curricula can also include recognizing and dealing with diverse personalities and operating

styles. Subtopics include:

(1) Leadership/Follow ership/Concern for Task. Showing the benefits of the practice of

effective leadership through coordinating activities and m aintaining proper balance between

respecting authority and practicing assertiveness. Staying centered on the goals of safe and efficient

operations.

(2) Interpersonal Relationships/Group Climate. Dem onstrating the usefulness of showing

sensitivity to other crewm embers’ personalities and styles. Em phasizing the value of maintaining a

friendly, relaxed, and supportive yet task-oriented tone in the cockpit and aircraft cabin. The

importance of recognizing sym ptoms of fatigue and stress, and taking appropriate action.

(3) Workload Management and Situation Aw areness. Stressing the im portance of

maintaining awareness of the operational environm ent and anticipating contingencies. Instruction

may address practices (e.g., vigilance, planning and time managem ent, prioritizing tasks, and avoiding

distractions) that result in higher levels of situation awareness. The following operational practices

may be included:

(a) Preparation/Planning/Vigilance. Issues include m ethods to im prove m onitoring and

accom plishing required tasks, asking for and responding to new inform ation, and preparing in advance

for required activities.

(b) Workload Distribution/Distraction Avoidance. Issues involve proper allocation of

tasks to individuals, avoidance of work overloads in self and in others, prioritization of tasks during

periods of high workload, and preventing nonessen tial factors from distracting attention from

adherence to SOPs, particularly those relating to critical tasks.

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(4) Individual Factors/Stress Reduction. Training in this area m ay include describing and

demonstrating individual characteristics that can infl uence crew effectiveness. Research has shown

that m any crewm embers are unf amiliar with the negative ef fects of stress and f atigue on individual

cognitive f unctions and team performance. Training m ay include a review of scientif ic evidence on

fatigue and stress and their effects on perform ance. The content m ay include specific effects of

fatigue and stress in potential em ergency situations. The effects of personal and interpersonal

problem s and the increased im portance of effective interpersonal com munications under stressful

conditions m ay also be addressed. Training m ay also include f amiliarization with various

counterm easures for coping with stressors. Additional curriculum topics m ay include exam ination of

personality and m otivation characteristics, self-asse ssment of personal style, and identifying cognitive

factors that influence perception and decisionm aking.

13. SPECIALIZ ED TRAINING IN CRM CONCEPTS. As CRM program s have m atured, som e

organizations have found it beneficial to develop a nd im plem ent additional courses dealing with issues

specific to their operations.

a. After all current crewm embers have com pleted the Initial Indoctrination/Awareness com ponent

of CRM training, arrangem ents are needed to provide newly hired crewm embers with the sam e

material. A num ber of organizations have m odified their CRM initial courses f or inclusion as part of

the initial training and qualif ication f or new hire crewm embers.

b. Training for upgrading to captain provides an opportunity for specialized training that deals

with the hum an factors aspects of com mand. Such training can be incorporated in the upgrade

process.

c. Training involving com munications and the us e of autom ation can be developed for crews

operating aircraft with advanced technology cockpits, or for crews transitioning into them .

14. ASSESSMENT OF CRM TRAINING. It is vital that each training program be assessed to

determ ine if CRM training is achieving its goals. Each organization should have a system atic

assessm ent process. Assessm ent should track the effect s of the training program so that critical topics

for recurrent training m ay be identified and continuous im provem ents m ay be m ade in all other

respects. Assessm ent of the training program should include observation and feedback by program

administrators and self-reports by participants using standard survey m ethods.

a. The em phasis in this assessm ent process should be on crew perform ance. The essential areas of

CRM-related assessm ent include com munications, decisionm aking, team building and m aintenance,

workload m anagem ent, and situation awareness, always in balance with traditional technical

proficiency. An additional function of such assessm ent is to determ ine the im pact of CRM training

and organization-wide trends in crew perform ance.

b. For optim al assessm ent, data on crewm embers’ attitudes and behavior should be collected

before CRM indoctrination and again at interval s after the last com ponent of CRM training, to

determ ine both initial and enduring effects of the program . The goal should be to obtain an accurate

picture of the organization’s significant corporate personality traits before form al adoption of CRM

training, and to continue to m onitor those traits after im plem entation.

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1/22/04 AC 120-51E

c. Reinforcem ent and feedback are essential to effective CRM training. Crewm embers m ust

receive continual reinforcem ent to sustain CRM concepts. Effective reinforcem ent depends upon

usable feedback to crewm embers on their CRM practices and on their technical perform ance.

d. Usable feedback requires consistent assessm ent. Crewm embers and those involved in training

and evaluation should be able to recognize effectiv e and ineffective CRM behaviors. CRM concepts

should be critiqued during briefing/debriefing phases of all training and checking events.

e. To sum marize, the assessm ent process should:

(1) Measure and track the organization’s corporate culture as it is ref lected in attitudes and

norm s.

(2) Identify topics needing em phasis within the CRM program .

(3) Ensure that all check airm en, supervisors, and instructors are well prepared and

standardized.

15. THE CRITICAL ROLE OF CHECK AIRMEN AND INSTRUCTORS.

a. The success of any CRM training ultim ately depends on the skills of the people who adm inister

the training and m easure its effects. CRM instructor s, check pilots, supervisors, and course designers

must be skilled in all areas related to the practice and assessm ent of CRM. These skills com prise an

additional level to those associated with traditional flight instruction and checking.

b. Gaining proficiency and confidence in CRM instruction, observation, and m easurem ent requires

special training for instructors, supervisors, and check pilots in m any CRM training processes. Am ong

those processes are role-playing sim ulations, system atic crew-centered observation, adm inistering

LOFT, and providing usable feedback to crews.

c. Instructors, supervisors, and check pilots also require special training in order to calibrate and

standardize their own skills.

d. Instructors, supervisors, and check airm en should use every available opportunity to em phasize

the im portance of crew coordination skills. The best results occur when the crews exam ine their own

behavior with the assistance of a trained instructor who can point out positive and negative CRM

perform ance. W henever highly effective exam ples of crew coordination are observed, it is vital that

these positive behaviors be discussed and reinf orced. Debrief ing and critiquing skills are im portant

tools for instructors, supervisors, and check pilots. (Behavioral m arkers of effective LOFT debriefings

are shown in appendix 2.)

e. Feedback from instructors, supervisors, and check airm en is m ost effective when it refers to the

concepts that are covered in the initial indoctrination/awareness training. The best feedback refers to

instances of specific behavior, rather than behavior in general.

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16. EVOLVING CONCEPTS OF CRM.

a. Crew Monitoring and Cross-Checking. Several studies of crew perform ance, incidents, and

accidents have identified inadequate flightcrew m onitoring and cross-checking as a problem for

aviation safety. Therefore, to ensure the highest levels of safety, each flight crewm ember must

carefully m onitor the aircraft’s flight path and sy stem s and actively cross-check the actions of other

crewm embers. Effective m onitoring and cross-checking can be the last line of defense that prevents an

accident because detecting an error or unsafe situation m ay break the chain of events leading to an

accident. This m onitoring function is always esse ntial, and particularly so during approach and

landing when controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents are m ost com mon. (For m ore inform ation

on SOPs that prom ote effective m onitoring, see AC 120-71, as revised, appendix 19.)

b. Joint CRM Training. More carriers are discovering the value of expanding CRM training to

reach various em ployee groups beyond flightcrew and flight attendants. Dissim ilar groups are being

brought together in CRM training and in other activities. The objective is to im prove the effectiveness

and safety of the entire operations team as a working system .

(1) The attacks of Septem ber 11, 2001, have caused m any restrictions on flightdeck access.

Among those affected are air traffic controllers, for whom revised access procedures are being studied.

Pilots m ay observe operations in air traffic facilities under certain conditions, and are encouraged to

do so. Using real air traffic controllers during LOFT sessions has also proven beneficial to pilots and

participating controllers.

(2) Aircraft dispatchers have functioned jointly with flight captains for years. They have been

allowed, indeed required to observe cockpit operations from the cockpit jum pseat as part of their

initial and recurrent qualification under part 121. Som e carriers have included day trips to their

aircraft dispatchers’ offices to provide the pilot insi ght into the other side of the joint function schem e.

Those trips have com monly been part of the special training offered to first-tim e captains. Now, real-

life aircraft dispatchers are increasingly being used in LOFT sessions. The training experience gained

by

the pilot and the dispatcher during LOFT is considered the logical extension of earlier training

methods, providing interactivity where CRM (and DRM) principles are applied and discussed.

(3) Under certain conditions, m aintenance personnel have had access to the cockpit jum pseat

in air carrier operations under part 121; but that access has com e under scrutiny because of security

concerns following the attacks of 9/11. Training of fi rst-tim e captains has often included day trips to a

carrier’s operations control center where a pilot and a m aintenance supervisor can m eet face to face

and discuss issues of m utual interest in a thrum ming, real-life setting. Som e carriers have included

maintenance personnel in LOFT sessions. Dedicated CRM training courses for m aintenance

personnel have been operating since 1991.

(4) Even broader cross-pollination of CRM concepts has been considered, using other groups

such as passenger service agents, m id- and upper-level m anagers, and special crisis team s like hijack

and bom b-threat team s.

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(5) Flight attendants are probably the m ost obvious of the groups other than pilots who m ay

profit from CRM training. Joint CRM training for p ilots and flight attendants is not required by FAA

regulations, but it is encouraged and has been practiced effectively at som e air carriers for years. One

fruitful activity in joint training has been that each group learns of the other group’s training in shared

issues. The joint training has revealed inconsistencies between training for one group and training on

the sam e topic for another group. Exam ples of shared issues include delays, the use of personal

electronic devices in the cabin, evacuation and ditching, and hijack response. W hen inconsistencies

are identif ied between the contents of pilots’ m anuals and flight attendants’ m anuals, for instance, or

between widely-held ideas or attitudes in those two populations, those inconsistencies are brought out

into the open and often resolved. Other specific topics for joint training include:

(a) Pre-flight briefings;

(b) Post incident/accident procedures;

(c) Sterile cockpit procedures;

(d) Notification procedures (pre-takeoff and pre-landing);

(e) Procedures for turbulence and other weather;

(f) Security procedures;

(g) Passenger-handling procedures;

(h) In-flight m edical problem s;

(i) Smoke/fire procedures;

(j) Passenger-related regulations such as those relating to sm oking (section 121.571), exit

row seating (section 121.585), and carry-on baggage (section 121.589); and

(k) Authority of the pilot in com mand.

(6) CRM principles are m ade m ore relevant for pilots, flight attendants, and other groups by

treating those principles in a fam iliar job-related context. Furtherm ore, each group should benefit

from concurrent training in CRM that is com plemented by usable knowledge of the other’s job.

(7) Com munication and coordination problem s between cockpit crewm embers and flight

attendants continue to challenge air carriers and the FAA. Other m easures with positive CRM training

value for flightcrews are being considered, such as:

(a) Including flight attendants as participants during LOFT;

(b) Scheduling m onth-long pairings of pilots and flight attendants; and

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AC 120-51E 1/22/04

(c) Providing experienced flight crewm embers to teach new-hire flight attendant

orientation classes.

c. Error Management. It is now understood that pilot errors cannot be entirely elim inated. It is

important, theref ore, that pilots develop appropriate error m anagem ent skills and procedures. It is

certainly desirable to prevent as m any errors as possible, but since they cannot all be prevented,

detection and recovery from errors should be addre ssed in training. Evaluation of pilots should also

consider error m anagem ent (error prevention, detection, and recovery). Evaluation should recognize

that since not all errors can be prevented, it is im portant that errors be m anaged properly.

d. Advanced CRM. CRM perform ance requirem ents or procedures are being integrated into the

SOPs of certain air carriers. Specific callouts, checks, and guidance have been included in norm al

checklists, the quick-reference handbook (QRH), abnorm al/emergency procedures, m anuals, and job

aids. This integration captures CRM principles into explicit procedures used by flightcrews.

e. Culture issues. While individuals and even team s of individuals m ay perform well

under m any conditions, they are subject to the influence of at least three cultures – the

professional cultures of the individuals them selves, the cultures of their organizations, and the

national cultures surrounding the individuals and their organizations. If not recognized and

addressed, factors related to culture m ay degrade crew perform ance. Hence, effective CRM

training m ust address culture issues, as appropriate in each training population.

17. SUMMARY. Effective CRM begins in initial training; it is strengthened by recurrent practice

and feedback; and it is sustained by continuing reinforcem ent that is part of the corporate culture and

embedded in every stage of training.

/s/ Jam es J. Ballough

Director, Flight Standards Service

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Appendix 1

APPENDIX 1. CREW PERFORMANCE MARKER CLUSTERS

Italicized Markers apply to Advanced Technology Flight Decks. These behavioral m arkers are

provided to assist organizations in program and curriculum developm ent and to serve as guidelines for

feedback. They are not presented as a checklist for evaluating individual crewm embers.

1. COMMUNICATIONS PROCESSES AND DECISION BEHAVIOR CLUSTER.

a. Briefings. An effective briefing is interesting and thorough. It addresses coordination,

planning, and problem s. Although briefings are prim arily a captain’s responsibility, other

crewm embers m ay add significantly to planning and should be encouraged to do so.

Behavioral Markers.

(1) The captain’s briefing establishes an environm ent for open/interactive com munications

(e.g., the captain calls for questions or com ments, answers questions directly, listens with patience,

does not interrupt or “talk over,” does not rush through the briefing, and m akes eye contact as

appropriate).

(2) The briefing is interactive and em phasizes the im portance of questions, critique, and the

offering of inform ation.

(3) The briefing establishes a “team concept” (e.g., the captain uses “we” language,

encourages all to participate and to help with the f light).

(4) The captain’s briefing covers pertinent safety and security issues.

(5) The briefing identifies potential problem s such as weather, delays, and abnorm al system

operations.

(6) The briefing provides guidelines for crew actions centered on standard operating

procedures (SOP); division of labor and crew workload is addressed.

(7) The briefing includes the cabin crew as part of the team .

(8) The briefing sets expectations for handling deviations from SOPs.

(9) The briefing establishes guidelines for the operation of autom ated system s (e.g., when

system s will be disabled; which program ming actions m ust be verbalized and acknowledged).

(10) The briefing specifies duties and responsibilities with regard to autom ated system s, for

the pilot flying (PF) and the pilot m onitoring (PM).

b. Inquiry/Advocacy/Assertion. These behaviors relate to crewm embers prom oting the course

of action that they feel is best, even when it involves conflict with others.

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Appendix 1

Behavioral Markers.

(1) Crewm embers speak up and state their inf ormation with appropriate persistence until there

is som e clear resolution.

(2) “Challenge and response” environm ent is developed.

(3) Questions are encouraged and are answered openly and nondefensively.

(4) Crewm embers are encouraged to question the actions and decisions of others.

(5) Crewm embers seek help from others when necessary.

(6) Crewm embers question status and program ming of autom ated system s to confirm situation

awareness.

c. Crew Self-Critique Regarding Decisions and Actions. These behaviors relate to the

effectiveness of a group and/or an individual crew member in critique and debriefing. Areas covered

should include the product, the process, and the people involved. Critique m ay occur during an

activity, and/or af ter com pleting it.

Behavioral Markers.

(1) Critique occurs at appropriate tim es, which m ay be tim es of low or high workload.

(2) Critique deals with positive as well as negative aspects of crew perf ormance.

(3) Critique involves the whole crew interactively.

(4) Critique m akes a positive learning experience. Feedback is specif ic, objective, usable, and

constructively given.

(5) Critique is accepted objectively and nondefensively.

d. Communications/Decisions. These behaviors relate to free and open com munication. They

reflect the extent to which crewm embers provide necessary inform ation at the appropriate tim e (e.g.,

initiating checklists and alerting others to developing problem s). Active participation in the

decisionm aking process is encouraged. Decisi ons are clearly com municated and acknowledged.

Questioning of actions and decisions is considered routine.

Behavioral Markers.

(1) Operational decisions are clearly stated to other crewm embers.

(2) Crewm embers acknowledge their understanding of decisions.

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Appendix 1

(3) “Bottom lines” for safety are established and com municated.

(4) The “big picture” and the gam e plan are shared within the team , including flight attendants

and others as appropriate.

(5) Crewm embers are encouraged to state their own ideas, opinions, and

recom mendations.

(6) Efforts are m ade to provide an atm osphere that invites open and free com munications.

(7) Initial entries and changed entries to autom ated system s are verbalized and acknowledged.

2. TEAM BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE CLUSTER.

a. Leadership Follow ership/Concern for Tasks. These behaviors relate to appropriate

leadership and followership. They reflect the extent to which the crew is concerned with the effective

accom plishm ent of tasks.

Behavioral Markers.

(1) All available resources are used to accom plish the job at hand.

(2) Flight deck activities are coordinated to establish an acceptable balance between respect

for authority and the appropriate practice of assertiveness.

(3) Actions are decisive when the situation requires.

(4) A desire to achieve the m ost effective operation possible is clearly dem onstrated.

(5) The need to adhere to SOPs is recognized.

(6) Group clim ate appropriate to the operational situation is continually m onitored and

adjusted (e.g., social conversation m ay occur during low workload, but not high).

(7) Effects of stress and fatigue on perform ance are recognized.

(8) Tim e available for the task is well m anaged.

(9) Dem ands on resources posed by operation of autom ated system s are recognized and

managed.

(10) When program ming dem ands could reduce situation awareness or create work overloads,

levels of autom ation are reduced appropriately.

b. Interpersonal Relationships/Group Climate. These behaviors relate to the quality of

interpersonal relationships and the pervasive clim ate of the flight deck.

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Appendix 1

Behavioral Markers.

(1) Crewm embers rem ain calm under stressful conditions.

(2) Crewm embers show sensitivity and ability to adapt to the personalities of others.

(3) Crewm embers recognize sym ptoms of psychological stress and fatigue in self and in others

(e.g., recognizes when he/she is experiencing “tunnel vision” and seeks help from the team ; or notes

when a crewm ember is not com municating and draws him /her back into the team ).

(4) “Tone” in the cockpit is friendly, relaxed, and supportive.

(5) During tim es of low com munication, crewm embers check in with others to see how they

are doing.

3. WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT AND SI TUATION AWARENESS CLUSTER.

a. Preparation/Planning/Vigilance. These behaviors relate to crews anticipating contingencies

and the various actions that m ay be required. Excellent crews are always “ahead of the curve” and

generally seem relaxed. They devote appropriate attention to required tasks and respond without

undue delay to new developm ents. (They m ay engage in casual social conversation during periods of

low workload and not necessarily dim inish their vigilance.)

Behavioral Markers.

(1) Dem onstrating and expressing situation awareness (e.g., the “m odel” of what is happening

is shared within the crew).

(2) Active m onitoring of all instrum ents and com munications and sharing relevant inform ation

with the rest of the crew.

(3) Monitoring weather and traffic and sharing relevant inform ation with the rest of the

crew.

(4) Avoiding “tunnel vision” caused by stress (e.g., stating or asking for the “big picture”).

(5) Being aware of factors such as stress that can degrade vigilance, and watching for

perform ance degradation in other crewm embers.

(6) Staying “ahead of the curve” in preparing for planned situations or contingencies, so

that situation awareness and adherence to SOPs is assured.

(7) Ensuring that cockpit and cabin crewm embers are aware of plans.

(8) Including all appropriate crewm embers in the planning process.

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Appendix 1

(9) Allowing enough tim e before m aneuvers for program ming of the flight m anagem ent

computer.

(10) Ensuring that all crewm embers are aware of initial entries and changed entries in the

flight m anagem ent system .

b. Workload Distributed/Distractions Avoided. These behaviors relate to tim e and workload

managem ent. They ref lect how well the crew m anages to prioritize tasks, share the workload, and

avoid being distracted f rom essential activities.

Behavioral Markers.

(1) Crewm embers speak up when they recognize work overloads in them selves or in others.

(2) Tasks are distributed in ways that m aximize efficiency.

(3) Workload distribution is clearly com municated and acknowledged.

(4) Nonoperational factors such as social interac tion are not allowed to interfere with duties.

(5) Task priorities are clearly com municated.

(6) Secondary operational tasks (e.g., dealing with passenger needs and com munications with

the com pany) are prioritized so as to allow sufficient resources for prim ary flight duties.

(7) Potential distractions posed by autom ated system s are anticipated, and appropriate

preventive action is taken, including reducing or disengaging autom ated features as appropriate.

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Appendix 2

APPENDIX 2. LOFT DEBRIEFING PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

The effective line-oriented flight training (LOFT) facilitator leads the flightcrew through a self-

critique of their own behavior and of their crew perform ance during the sim ulation. The debriefing

and crew analysis include both technical and crew resource m anagem ent (CRM) discussion topics.

Positive points of crew perf ormance are discussed as well as those needing im provem ent. At the

conclusion of the session, key learning points are sum marized covering all participants, including the

instructor. A strong sense of training accom plishm ent and learning is taken away from the session.

The f ollowing perf ormance m arkers m ay be used to evaluate the LOFT f acilitator’s perf ormance in the

debrief/critique phase of LOFT.

a. Actively states the debriefing and critique agenda and solicits topics from the crew on item s

that they would like to cover; sets tim e lim its.

b. Asks the crew for their appraisal of the m ission overall.

c. States his/her own perceptions of the LOFT while guarding against m aking the crew defensive.

Com ments are as objective as possible and focus on perform ance.

d. Shows appropriate incidents using videotap e of the LOFT session, including exam ples of

technical and CRM perf ormance, and selects tape segm ents f or discussion illustrating behaviors that

feature the crew perform ance m arkers.

e. Effectively blends technical and CRM feedback in the debriefing; does not preach to the crew,

but does not om it item s worthy of crew discussion.

f. Is patient, and is constructive in probing into key areas where im provem ent is needed.

g. Ensures that all crewm embers participate in the discussion, and effectively draws out quiet or

hostile crewm embers.

h. Provides a clear sum mary of key learning points.

i. Asks the crew for specific feedback on his/her perform ance.

j. Is effective in both technical and CRM debriefing.

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Appendix 3

APPENDIX 3. APPROPRIATE CRM TRAINING TOPICS

1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION.

a. Findings com ing from accident investigations have consistently pointed to the fact that hum an

errors contribute to m ost aviation accidents.

b. Research findings suggest that crew resource m anagem ent (CRM) training can result in

significant im provem ents in flightcrew perform ance. CRM training is seen as an effective approach to

reducing hum an errors and increasing aviation safety.

c. Aviation safety inform ation is readily available on the Internet. Many W eb sites contain

valuable source m aterials and reference m aterials that m ay be helpful in developing CRM training.

Web sites com monly link to other W eb sites containing related m aterial. Aviation-related W eb sites

maintained by U.S. Governm ent agencies include the following:

(1) National Aeronautics and Space Adm inistration (NASA), http://www.nasa.gov .

(2) National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), http://www.ntsb.gov .

(3) Federal Aviation Adm inistration (FAA), http://www.faa.gov .

2. TRAINING TOPICS, PRINCIPLES, AND TECHNIQUES. It is recom mended that CRM

training include the curriculum topics described in pa ragraph 12 of the Advisory Circular (AC) and the

following topics, principles, and techniques:

a. Theory and practice in using com munication, decisionm aking, and team building techniques

and skills.

b. Theory and practice in using proper supervision techniques (i.e., captains working with first

officers).

c. Theory and practice in selecting and using interventions needed to correct flying errors m ade by

either pilot, especially during critical phases of f light. These interventions m ay include, but not be

limited to, com munication, assertion, decisionm aking, risk assessm ent, and situation awareness skills.

d. During Line Operational Sim ulation traini ng, inform ation, and practice of nonflying pilot

functions (i.e., m onitoring and challenging pilot functions, and m onitoring and challenging errors

made by other crewm embers for flight engineers, f irst of ficers, and captains). Training will alert

flightcrews of hazards caused by tactical decision errors, which are actually errors of om ission.

Practice in m onitoring, challenging, and m itigating errors, especially during taxi operations, should be

included. These skills are im portant to m inimize procedural errors that m ay occur as a result of

inadequately perform ed checklists.

e. Training for check airm en in m ethods that can be used to enhance the m onitoring and

challenging functions of both captains and first officer s. The check airm en training should include the

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Appendix 3

message that appropriate questioning am ong pilots is a desirable CRM behavior and part of the

corporate saf ety culture; f urther, that such questioning is encouraged, and that there will be no

negative repercussions for appropriate questioning of one pilot’s decision or action by another pilot.

f. Training for new first officers in perform ing the role of the pilot m onitoring (PM) to establish a

positive attitude toward m onitoring and challenging errors m ade by the pilot f lying (PF). Training

should stress that appropriate questioning is encourag ed as a desirable CRM behavior, and that there

will be no negative repercussions f or appropriate questioning of one pilot’s decision or action by

another pilot.

g. Training for captains in giving and receiving ch allenges of errors. Training should stress that

appropriate questioning is encouraged as a desirable CRM behavior, and that there will be no negative

repercussions for appropriate questioning of one pilot’s decision or action by another pilot.

h. Factual inform ation about the detrim ental eff ects of fatigue and strategies for avoiding and

countering its effects.

i. Training for crewm embers that identifies conditions in which additional vigilance is required,

such as holding in icing or near convective activity. Training should em phasize the need for

maximum situation awareness and the appropriateness of sterile cockpit discipline, regardless of

altitude. Scenario-based flight sim ulator training in ground taxi operations should em phasize

flightcrew vigilance in avoiding runway incursions.

j. Training that identifies appropriate levels of autom ation to prom ote situation awareness and

effective m anagem ent of workload.

k. Use of autopilot in inflight icing. All f lightcrew m embers should clearly understand their

aircraft’s susceptibility to inflight icing and should m onitor inflight ice accretion by all m eans

available. One effective m eans of m onitoring ice accretion m ight be to disconnect the autopilot at

intervals, if doing so is consistent with the approved procedures contained in the airplane flight

manual.

l. Training for crewm embers in appropriate responses when passengers intim idate, abuse, or

interfere with crewm ember perform ance of safety duties. Training should address crew coordination

and actions, which m ight defuse the situation. See AC 120-65, Interference with Crewm embers in the

Perform ance of their Duties, dated October 18, 1996. Training should include specific com munication

topics, such as conflict resolution, with particular attention to the m ost serious passenger interference,

attem pted hijack.

m. Line-oriented flight training (LOFT) or special purpose operational training (SPOT) for

cockpit crewm embers, which addresses appropriate responses to the effects of pitot-static system

anom alies, such as a blocked pitot tube. Em phasis should be on situation awareness,

inquiry/advocacy/ assertion, and crew coordinati on, when flight instrum ents act abnorm ally.

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Appendix 3

n. LOFT or SPOT for cockpit crewm embers that cont ain a controlled flight into terrain scenario.

Emphasis should be on prevention through effectiv e com munication and decision behavior. The

importance of im mediate, decisive, and correct re sponse to a ground proxim ity warning should also be

addressed.

o. Training for pilots in recognizing cues that indicate lack or loss of situation awareness in

them selves and in others, and training in counterm easures to restore that awareness. Training should

emphasize the im portance of recognizing each pilot’s relative experience level, experience in specific

duty positions, preparation level, planning level, norm al com munication style and level, overload

state, and fatigue state. Pilots should assess these characteristics actively and continuously, in their

fellow crewm embers and in them selves. Training should also em phasize the im portance that im proper

procedures, adverse weather, and abnorm al or m alfunctioning equipm ent m ay have in reducing

situation awareness. “Guidelines for Situati on Awareness Training” contains expanded guidance on

cues and counterm easures, and m ay by viewed or downloaded from the FAA W eb site at:

http://faa.gov/avr/afs/train.htm .

p. Training in com munication of tim e managem ent inform ation am ong flightcrew and cabin

crewm embers during an em ergency. Training should stre ss that the senior or lead flight attendant can

effectively brief other flight attendants and passengers and prepare the cabin only if the tim e available

in the em ergency is clearly com municated by the flightcrew. Other inform ation elem ents that are vital

in effective tim e managem ent are the nature of the em ergency and any special instructions relating to

the planned course of action.

3. APPROPRIATE TRAINING INTERVENTIONS.

a. The m ost effective CRM training involves active participation of all crewm embers. LOFT

sessions give each crewm ember opportunities to practice CRM skills through interactions with other

crewm embers. If the training is videotaped, fee dback based on crewm embers’ actual behavior, during

the LOFT, provides valuable docum entation for the LOFT debrief.

b. CRM training can be presented using a com bination of the following training interventions:

(1) Operator in-house courses.

(2) Training center courses.

(3) SPOT.

(4) LOFT sessions.

(5) Com puter-based training courses.

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